Author: B.

Zandbergen Date: 10 June 2020

TU-Delft/LR/SSE

Velocity increment needed

A quick rough order of magnitude (ROM) estimate of the velocity increment needed to obtain a
circular orbit at a specific altitude about some planet can be obtained by taking the square root of
the square of the circular velocity at that altitude about the planet + the square of the velocity
needed to bring a rocket from the surface of the planet to the designated orbital altitude (like
throwing a ball vertically up). We write:

∆𝑣𝑣 = �(𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 )2 + (𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 )2

Here:

∆𝑣𝑣: is the required velocity increment

𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 : is the circular velocity at the desired orbital altitude

𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 : is velocity in radial (vertical) direction of rocket at start of flight needed to attain the required
altitude. It is assumed that this velocity is the result of an impulsive burn of a very short
duration. Following the burn the mass of the vehicle is considered to remain constant and
kinetic energy is transferred to potential energy.

𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 : is contribution of planet’s rotation to launch velocity. For instance, on Earth when launching
in Eastern direction at the equator, this contribution is 0.465 km/s. When launching in Western
direction this contribution is -0.465 km/s and when launching due North (or South), this contribution
is zero.

Notice that the total motion is split up into two, being 1) attaining circular velocity 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 and 2) the
upward motion to attain altitude for which an initial velocity 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 is required. Both velocities are
considered perpendicular vectors and that ∆𝑣𝑣 is determined using Pythagoras rule.

Circular velocity at altitude h can be determined by setting centripetal acceleration equal to

gravitational acceleration g at the specified orbital altitude:

2
�𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 �
𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = �𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = �𝑔𝑔𝑜𝑜
�𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + ℎ�

With R is radius of orbit taken from planet centre, Rplanet is radius of planet and go is gravitational
acceleration at planet surface level.

To determine the required initial speed of the rocket at start of flight, consider the rocket to be a
ball. If you throw it with a certain initial speed vertically upward, how high will it get? Now consider
what the initial speed must be in case you need to reach the orbital altitude h.

To solve for the above problem, you have to consider that kinetic energy of the rocket (at start of
flight) is converted to potential energy. Now since we are considering an impulsive shot, the rocket
mass remains constant during flight. Working out the equations gives (assuming gravity is constant
and equal to gravity at altitude):
Author: B. Zandbergen Date: 10 June 2020
TU-Delft/LR/SSE

2
�𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 �
𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = �2𝑔𝑔ℎ = �2𝑔𝑔𝑜𝑜 ℎ 2
�𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 + ℎ�

So the required velocity increment for a launch from a planet’s surface to a circular orbit about that
planet can be determined provided we know the gravitational acceleration at planet surface level,
the radius of the planet and the orbital altitude about the planet. It is noted though that the value
that follows for the radial velocity from above relation is a bit optimistic as it is based on the
minimum gravitational acceleration during the ascent flight.

For instance for a launch from Earth surface to a circular orbit at 300 km altitude using go = 9.81 m/s2
and Rplanet = 6378.1 km, we find:

2
�𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 � (6378,100)2
𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = �𝑔𝑔𝑜𝑜 = �9.81 = 7730.4 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
�𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + ℎ� (6378,100 + 300,000)

2
�𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 � (6378,100)2
𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = �2𝑔𝑔𝑜𝑜 ℎ 2 = �2(9.81)(300,000) = 2317.1 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
�𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + ℎ� (6378,100 + 300,000)2

And finally (taking 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 0 m/s):

∆𝑣𝑣 = �(𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 )2 + (𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 )2 = �(7730.4)2 + (2317.1)2 = 8070.2 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠

In reality, the above ∆𝑣𝑣 is to be corrected for losses due to gravity, drag and steering. These losses
are generally lumped together into a delta-v penalty term, typically of magnitude 1300-1700 m/s
depending on launch vehicle and trajectory design. Some specific data taken from [Humble] are given
in next table.

Vehicle Gravity loss (m/s) Drag loss (m/s)

Ariane V 1576 135

Atlas I 1395 110

Delta 7925 1150 136

Shuttle 1222 107

Saturn V 1534 40

Titan IV/Centaur 1442 156

To get an idea of where in flight the losses are incurred, let us consider the flight profile of a typical
launcher. A generic flight profile of the Ariane V launch vehicle is shown in next figure. It shows that
initially the rocket goes almost vertically up to an altitude of about 70 km after which the vehicle
Author: B. Zandbergen Date: 10 June 2020
TU-Delft/LR/SSE

starts a steering manoeuvre to allow attaining a circular orbit about Earth. In reality, steering starts
earlier, but still first phase is mostly used to leave as quickly as possible the denser layers of Earth’s
atmosphere. This obviously is to limit drag loss. Given the density of the atmosphere, it is reasonable
to state that drag loss is mostly incurred during the first phase of the ascent. Like drag loss, it can be
argued that also gravitational loss is predominantly incurred during the first phase of the ascent. The
reason is that during the first phase of the ascent, the vehicle is going vertically up (for vertical flight
gravitational loss is given by the integral of the gravitational acceleration times the burn time). In the
later flight phases, when the vehicle motion is steered in a direction perpendicular to gravitational
acceleration, gravity loss will be reduced.

Next table gives the gravity and drag loss in relation to burn time and burnout altitude of the first
phase of the rocket flight. Also a column is added that provides estimated gravity loss based on
vertical flight assumption.

Vehicle Gravity loss Burn time 1st Gravity loss in Drag loss Burn out
(m/s) rocket vertical flight (m/s) altitude 1st
(m/s) rocket

Ariane V 1576 140 1373 135 67 km

Atlas I 1395 155 1521 110 Not available

Delta 7925 1150 63.6 + 63.6* 1248 136 Not available

Shuttle 1222 124 1216 107 45 km

Saturn V 1534 165 1619 40 61 km

Titan IV/Centaur 1442 120 1177 156 Not available

* 9 Solid boosters, of which 6 burn first followed by remaining 3

Author: B. Zandbergen Date: 10 June 2020
TU-Delft/LR/SSE

Clearly this table confirms that during the first phase of the flight the rocket travels through the
denser layers of the atmosphere and that hence drag losses are mostly incurred in this phase. As
such, during the later phases little drag loss is incurred, but steering losses may be higher, see flight
profile. When considering gravity loss, we can see that for vertical flight, the gravity loss for Ariane 5
is 9.81 m/s2 x 140 s is about 1373 m/s. The loss is of course an overestimation as the flight during this
phase is not truly vertical. Comparing also the results for the other vehicles, it turns out that the
gravity loss estimate based on vertical flight assumption is reasonable. In conclusion, most gravity
and drag loss is incurred during the first launch phase.

Next figure gives flight profile of the Vega rocket.

Figure shows that at burn-out of first stage (P80), the rocket is at an altitude of 56 km and is flying
with a velocity of 1776 km/s. Velocity at start is 463 m/s (rotational velocity of Earth assuming a
launch in easterly direction in equatorial plane). Assuming the first phase of the ascent is in a vertical
direction, it follows that the first stage increases the speed of the rocket with 1715 m/s.
Using the rocket equation, we can also determine what the ideal velocity increment is that is
delivered by the first stage propulsion system. From Wikipedia, we obtain a vehicle mass at lift off of
137 ton (137,000 kg). First stage propellant mass is 88 ton (88,000 kg) which is expelled in vacuum at
a velocity of 2747 m/s and at 2266 m/s at sea level. Empty mass of the rocket at burn out of the first
stage is 49 ton (49,000 kg). It follows for the ideal velocity increment delivered a value in the range
2330 m/s at sea level and 2824 m/s in vacuum. Taking the mid-range 1 value as indicative for the

1
It can be shown that taking the mid-range value leads to an underestimation of launcher performance. This,
however, is left for later studies.
Author: B. Zandbergen Date: 10 June 2020
TU-Delft/LR/SSE

performance of the Vega first stage, we obtain an ideal velocity increment of 2577 m/s. The
difference with the actual velocity increase (1715 m/s) is associated with drag and gravitational
losses, which leads to a total loss of 862 m/s compared to a gravitational loss of 9.81 m/s2 x 107 s =
1050 m/s assuming vertical flight given a total motor burn time of 107 s (first stage burn out occurs
about 9 seconds before stage separation. A more detailed calculation, see

http://smallsats.org/2013/01/29/rocket-dynamics-vega-rocket-sub-orbital-ascent-profile1st-stage-
p80/,

reports drag loss of 50 m/s and gravity loss of 1040 m/s.

References
1. Humble, R.W., Henry, G.N., Larson, W.J., Space Propulsion Analysis and Design, ISBN-10:
0077230299, McGraw-Hill Education – Europe, January 1995.