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Vehicle System Dynamics: International

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Air suspension characterisation and

effectiveness of a variable area orifice
a b c a
A. Alonso , J. G. Giménez , J. Nieto & J. Vinolas
a
CEIT and TECNUN , University of Navarra , Paseo M. Lardizabal,
15. 20018, San Sebastián, Spain
b
Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles , S.A. and TECNUN
(University of Navarra) , Iturrioz, 26 20200, Beasain, Spain
c
CEIT , Paseo M. Lardizabal, 15. 20018, San Sebastián, Spain
Published online: 26 Nov 2010.

To cite this article: A. Alonso , J. G. Giménez , J. Nieto & J. Vinolas (2010) Air
suspension characterisation and effectiveness of a variable area orifice, Vehicle System
Dynamics: International Journal of Vehicle Mechanics and Mobility, 48:S1, 271-286, DOI:
10.1080/00423111003731258

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00423111003731258

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 Vehicle System Dynamics
Vol. 48, Supplement, 2010, 271–286

Air suspension characterisation and effectiveness of a variable

area orifice
Downloaded by [Swinburne University of Technology] at 05:28 26 August 2014

A. Alonsoa *, J.G. Giménezb , J. Nietoc and J. Vinolasa

a CEIT and TECNUN, University of Navarra, Paseo M. Lardizabal, 15. 20018, San Sebastián, Spain;
b Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles, S.A. and TECNUN (University of Navarra), Iturrioz, 26
20200 Beasain, Spain; c CEIT, Paseo M. Lardizabal, 15. 20018, San Sebastián, Spain

(Received 9 October 2009; final version received 24 February 2010 )

The air spring is one of the components that most affects vehicle comfort. This element usually makes
up the main part of the secondary suspension, which introduces both stiffness and damping between
the bogie and the car body. Therefore, a deep understanding of this element is necessary in order
to study the comfort of a vehicle, the influence of different parameters and the ways to improve it.
In this work, the effect of the air spring system on comfort is studied. To accomplish this, a typical
pneumatic suspension composition is briefly studied as a first step. Then, the test bench developed to
characterise air springs is described, presenting experimental results. Correlation of the results with
some theoretical models is also addressed. Afterwards, the effect of the air spring system on comfort
is analysed, and finally, improvements from introducing a variable area orifice in the pipe that joints
the air spring and the surge reservoir are discussed.

Keywords: air spring; comfort; pneumatic suspension

1. Introduction

In secondary suspension systems of high-speed trains, inter-cities, and commuters, the classical
helicoidal spring has nearly been completely replaced by air springs. The typical components
of a pneumatic suspension are: air spring, auxiliary air chamber, pipe, and emergency spring
(Figures 1 and 2 show two photographs in which all these components can be seen). Several
advantages can be exploited when air springs are used; first, the suspension height can be con-
trolled by the air spring internal pressure; second, some damping is introduced if an auxiliary
air chamber is connected to the air spring. In addition, the typical force/displacement curve of
an air spring provides a natural frequency of the suspension nearly independent of the sprung
mass, and unlike helicoidal springs, the air spring filters out high-frequency vibrations, thus
reducing the vibration transmission from the bogie to the carbody. Being such a frequently
used component, all the available multibody software codes provide the means to model the
dynamic vertical stiffness of an air spring. Different levels of complexity are available starting

*Corresponding author. Email: aalonso@ceit.es

ISSN 0042-3114 print/ISSN 1744-5159 online

© 2010 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/00423111003731258
http://www.informaworld.com
 272 A. Alonso et al.

Air spring

Emergency
spring
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Figure 1. Air spring and emergency spring.

Auxiliary air
chamber

Pipe

Figure 2. Auxiliary air chamber and pipe.

from the simplest form, which would be just a spring. A significant research effort has been
made to propose specific and more precise models of this component. Among others the fol-
lowing works can be underlined: the Nishimura model [1,2], the vampire model [3], the Berg
model [4], and the Docquier et al. model [5,6]. In spite of all these works, further research is
needed to represent the air spring behaviour accurately [7].
The aim of this work is, on the one hand, the verification, by testing a specific air spring, of
the validity and limitations of different classical models. On the other hand, concerning comfort
aspects, the paper proposes a new idea to improve the behaviour of air spring suspensions.
A specific test bench, described below, was designed and built in order to study in depth the
dynamics of an air spring. In the following sections, some test results are provided which
show in a summarised way the typical behaviour of a pneumatic suspension system and the
effect of the connection between air spring and auxiliary chamber. It was also considered
interesting to include a comparison of test results of a typical air spring secondary suspension
with theoretical results obtained by using classical models.
As this element usually makes up the main part of the secondary suspension, which intro-
duces both stiffness and damping between the bogie and the car body, the last sections of the
paper concentrate on the role of the air spring in comfort and particularly how the modelling
of this component affects the results. A final section is devoted to present the idea of a variable
orifice valve inside the pipe that connects the air spring and the auxiliary chamber.

2. Test bench description

The Air Spring Test Bench (ASTB) has been developed by CAF and CEIT to study the dynamic
behaviour of air springs used in railway vehicle secondary suspension. Figure 3 shows the
general principles of the ASTB, which displays the measured forces and displacements. It
includes two hydraulic and one mechanical actuator, which provide lateral (y), vertical (z),
and rotation (ϕ) forces, which act upon the air spring. The two hydraulic actuators enable
independent static deformations as well as vertical and lateral dynamic deformations.
 Vehicle System Dynamics 273
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Figure 3. ASTB schematic, forces, and displacements.

The vertical guides allow for vertical displacement of the upper plate, while lateral defor-
mation is achieved through displacement of the lower plate on guides in a lateral direction. In
this way, the lower part of the air spring is forced to move with this plate.
The ASTB has three load cells, one for the vertical force (Fz ), another one for the lateral
force (Fy ), and the third one to measure the air spring rotation moment (Fϕ ). The test bench
also includes two displacement sensors (LVDT) in vertical and lateral directions.
In Figure 4, the testing arrangement of the assembly (air spring, emergency spring, pipe,
and auxiliary air chamber) used in a secondary suspension can be seen.
In order to perform the experiments, the following elements have been used (except when
something else is specified).
• Air spring: ContiTech model 671N/2.100, volume = 52 · 10−3 m3 , effective area =
0.238 m2 .
• The auxiliary chamber is cylindrical with a volume of 74 · 10−3 m3 .

Emergency
spring

Air spring Auxiliary

air chamber

Pipe

Figure 4. Air spring, emergency spring, pipe, and auxiliary air chamber assembled on the ASTB.
 274 A. Alonso et al.

• Pipe inner diameter 38 mm, pipe length = 1 m.

• Preload: 95 kN (which corresponds to a static pressure of 4 bar).

3. Lateral behaviour of the neumatic suspension

In order to characterise laterally the behaviour of a pneumatic suspension, a sinusoidal lateral

displacement has been imposed to the lower plate of the ASTB.
First, the influence of the deformation amplitude in the lateral stiffness has been analysed
(all the results presented in this chapter are obtained at very low frequencies: 0.1 Hz). Figure 5
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shows one example of the obtained results. In this figure, the lateral force is represented against
the lateral displacement (pressure = 5.1 bar, lateral amplitude 10 mm). The lateral stiffness can
be calculated easily from this graph (266.5 kN/m).
Figure 6 summarises the results obtained in different tests at the same pressure (5.1 bar). It
can be clearly observed that the lateral stiffness of the air spring diminishes as the deformation
amplitude increases.
Subsequently, the influence of the pressure of the pneumatic suspensions has been studied.
For that, different tests have been performed maintaining the amplitude of the deformation
constant. Figure 7 shows the obtained results. As can be observed, the lateral stiffness increases
with the internal pressure.

4. Vertical dynamic behaviour of the pneumatic suspension

This section presents the experimental study performed with the assembly (air spring, emer-
gency spring, pipe, and auxiliary air chamber) used in a common medium–high speed
vehicle.
The purpose of the vertical dynamic tests is to determine the vertical dynamic stiffness of
the pneumatic system under various conditions (amplitude and frequency of the harmonic
excitation, size of the auxiliary chamber, pipe diameter, presence of orifice plates, etc.).

y = -0,2665x - 0,0192
Fy (kN)

-1

-2

-3
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
y (mm)

Figure 5. Lateral force–displacement curve (pressure 5.1 bar, amplitude10 mm).

 Vehicle System Dynamics 275

3.0E+05

2.9E+05

2.8E+05
Lateral Stiffness (N/m)

2.7E+05

2.6E+05

2.5E+05
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2.4E+05

2.3E+05
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
y (mm)

Figure 6. Quasi-static lateral stiffness (pressure 5.1 bar).

2.8E+05
Amplitude=10mm
2.7E+05 Amplitude=40mm

2.6E+05
Lateral Stiffness (N/m)

2.5E+05

2.4E+05

2.3E+05

2.2E+05

2.1E+05

2.0E+05
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
Pressure (bar)

Figure 7. Lateral stiffness vs. pressure.

The following sections will show the experimental results obtained when the different
system parameters are modified, and their effects shall be analysed.

4.1. Effect of amplitude

Figure 8 shows the vertical dynamic stiffness of the pneumatic system at different frequencies
and for two different amplitudes (0.5 mm, 1 mm). The dynamic stiffness has been calculated
as the quotient between the modulus of the normal force (approximating it as a harmonic
function) and the modulus of the displacement applied to the pneumatic suspension.
The following conclusions can be drawn from the analysis of this graph.

• The pneumatic system is clearly non-linear in the medium-frequency range (from 6 to 14 Hz

in this case). As can be seen, the dynamic stiffness value in these frequencies varies with
 276 A. Alonso et al.

1.8E+06
Amplitude = 0.5 mm
1.6E+06 Amplitude = 1.0 mm

1.4E+06
Dynamic Stiffness (N/m)

1.2E+06

1.0E+06

8.0E+05
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6.0E+05

4.0E+05

2.0E+05

0.0E+00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 8. Dynamic stiffness at different amplitudes.

oscillation amplitude. On the contrary, the value of the said parameter at high and low
frequencies is not related to oscillation amplitude.
• As the frequency is reduced, the stiffness value tends to a fixed value. This value is known
as the pneumatic system static stiffness.
• Likewise, when the frequency is increased, the system tends towards a different fixed value:
the dynamic stiffness of the system for high frequencies. As can be seen, the stiffness value
for high frequencies is greater than the stiffness value for low frequencies.
• Resonance behaviour can be observed at 7.74 Hz. As it will be shown, the frequency at
which this resonance occurs depends on the volume of the auxiliary chamber and the mass
of air inside the connection pipe.

4.2. Effect of the connection pipe

Figure 9 compares the results obtained when the pipe that connects the air spring and the
auxiliary air chamber is modified. Pipe A has an interior diameter of 38 mm and pipe B has a
diameter of 50 mm. Both pipes are of similar shape and length.
As can be seen, the stiffness of the system for low and high frequencies is not affected by
changing the pipe; however, the medium-frequency range is clearly affected by this change.
The position and the maximum and minimum stiffness values are modified: as the pipe diameter
increases, the transition range moves towards higher frequencies.

4.3. Effect of the auxiliary air chamber

With the purpose of checking the effect caused by the chamber, Figure 10 compares the results
obtained using an auxiliary chamber with the case without the chamber.
As can be seen, virtual constant dynamic stiffness is achieved when an auxiliary chamber
is not used. This stiffness value is similar to the dynamic stiffness value at high frequencies
obtained when using an auxiliary chamber.
 Vehicle System Dynamics 277

1.8E+06

Pipe A: inner diameter = 38 mm

1.6E+06
Pipe B: inner diameter = 50 mm
1.4E+06
Dynamic stiffness (N/m)

1.2E+06

1.0E+06

8.0E+05
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6.0E+05

4.0E+05

2.0E+05

0.0E+00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 9. Dynamic stiffness. Effect of the pipe diameter. Amplitude 1 mm.

1.8E+06
With auxiliary chamber. 0.5 mm amplitude

1.6E+06 With auxiliary chamber. 1.0 mm amplitude

Without auxiliary chamber. 0.5 mm amplitude
1.4E+06 Without auxiliary chamber. 1.0 mm amplitude
Dynamic stiffness (N/m)

1.2E+06

1.0E+06

8.0E+05

6.0E+05

4.0E+05

2.0E+05

0.0E+00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 10. Dynamic stiffness (pipe A). Effect of the pipe and chamber.

Therefore, it can be stated that using an auxiliary chamber enables modification (always
decreasing) of the stiffness value of the pneumatic system for low frequencies.
On the other hand, when using an auxiliary chamber, a transition is generated between
the stiffness at low frequencies and the stiffness at high frequencies. As has been shown in
the previous section, the transition rather depends on the characteristics of the connection
pipe.
 278 A. Alonso et al.

1.8E+06
Without orifice
1.6E+06 Orifice = 30 mm
Orifice = 25 mm
1.4E+06 Orifice = 15 mm
Dynamic stiffness (N/m)

1.2E+06

1.0E+06

8.0E+05
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6.0E+05

4.0E+05

2.0E+05

0.0E+00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 11. Dynamic stiffness (pipe A). Effect of an orifice plates on the pipe. Amplitude 0.5 mm.

4.4. Effect of orifice plates in the connection pipe

In order to check the effect of load loss produced in the connection pipe, Figure 11 shows the
response of the pneumatic system using different orifice plates (whose function is to increase
the load loss). As can be observed, using these elements enables us to modify the dynamic
stiffness value in the medium-frequency range completely.
As expected, it is important to point out that the introduction of this element does not modify
the stiffness value for low or high frequencies. Likewise, it does not modify the frequency at
which the transition range maximums and minimums are produced.

5. Theoretical modelling of a pneumatic system’s vertical behaviour

The theoretical prediction of a pneumatic system’s behaviour has been widely studied. Among
the different models used, the following are mentioned.

• Modelling by means of a single stiffness element K.

• Nishimura model [1,2] (Figure 12(a)). In this model, K1 refers to the flexibility of the air
inside the air spring, K2 refers to the air inside the auxiliary air chamber and C relates to
the resistance of the fluid as it flows through the connection pipe. It is worth mentioning
that the viscous damping introduced is quadratic.
• VAMPIRE model [3] (Figure 12(b)). In this model, the K1 , K2 and C parameters have the
same meaning as in the Nishimura model. The M parameter relates to the inertia of the air
inside the pipe.
• The air spring vertical model proposed by Berg [4] start from similar hypothesis than the
VAMPIRE model and the results provided by both methods are very similar. Therefore, a
detailed study of this model will not be included in this work.
 Vehicle System Dynamics 279

Figure 12. Theoretical model for pneumatic suspension: (a) Nishimura model, (b) VAMPIRE model.
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In order to calculate the parameters of the Nishimura or VAMPIRE model, the following
formulae can be used:
P0 A2e n
K1 =
Vb0
P0 A2e n Vb0
K2 = = K1 ·
Vr0 Vr0
M = ms = ρAs Ls (1)
 3
Ae
C = Cs ·
As
Ae
κ=
As
where P0 is the static pressure inside the air spring, Ae the effective area of the air spring, n the
air polytrophic constant, Vb0 the volume of the air spring, Vr0 the volume of the auxiliary cham-
ber, ρ the density of the air inside the pneumatic system, As the area of the pipe, Ls the length
of the pipe,and Cs a damping coefficient related with the load losses inside the pipe. In order to
calculate this parameter, empiric formulae obtained from the literature have been used [8,9].
It is worth mentioning that all the parameters can be defined from geometrical and physical
magnitudes; that is, without testing.
As can be seen, all three models have different degrees of complexity. Figure 13 compares
the predictions provided by the different theoretical models.
Using the simplest model, it is necessary to use a single stiffness value (which usually
coincides with the stiffness at low frequencies).
On the other hand, when using the Nishimura model, proper representation of stiffness at
low and high frequencies is achieved. However, the results obtained during the transition are
not accurate enough.
Figure 14 shows the experimental results obtained in certain cases along with their cor-
responding theoretical predictions provided by the VAMPIRE model. As can be seen, the
theoretical results of VAMPIRE are very close to the experimental ones.
As conclusion, it can be affirmed that the VAMPIRE models enable to reproduce the
behaviour of the pneumatic system adequately in the entire frequency range.

6. The effect of pneumatic suspension characteristics on comfort

The effect of pneumatic suspension on a vehicle’s comfort is high. The characteristics of the
air spring and chamber have a direct effect on air spring stiffness and therefore on comfort.
 280 A. Alonso et al.

5
x 10
14
K
Nishimura
12
VAMPIRE

10
Dynamic Stiffness (N/n)

8
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0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Freq (Hz)
Figure 13. Comparison of the results between the different models (K1 = 7.6299e + 005, K2 = 5.4292e + 005,
C = 1.2882e + 005, M = 0.0054).

5
x 10
16
Without orifice Exp
14 Without orifice Teo
Orifice 30 mm Exp
12 Orifice 30 mm Teo
Dynamic Stiffness (N/m)

Orifice 25 mm Exp
10 Orifice 25 mm Teo
Orifice 15 mm Exp
Orifice 15 mm Teo
8

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Freq (Hz)

Figure 14. Theoretical–experimental comparison at different frequencies with orifice plates of different diameters
(pressure 4 bar, amplitude 0.5 mm).

However, other factors that at first seem to not have much effect (such as connection pipe
characteristics) can completely determine the vehicle’s response.
This section will show how the chosen model and data affect the comfort results obtained
and will also show the effect of different parameter variations.
In order to perform this comparison, the model of a common medium–high-speed vehicle
has been used. The main characteristics of this vehicle model are as follows.
• The vehicle is composed of two bogies and four wheel sets (102 degrees of freedom).
• Two carbody-mounted motors.
 Vehicle System Dynamics 281

500
C=0
450 C=C0

400 C=10C0
C=100C0
350

300
FRF (m/s 2/m)

250
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200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
f (Hz)

Figure 15. FRF vertical acceleration in terms of frequency (Nishimura model, C0 = 3.4287 · 105 N s2 /m2 ).

• Wheelset load: from 142 to 165 kN.

• Pneumatic secondary suspension
• Arm primary suspension.

The frequency response functions (FRFs) are used in order to analyse the influence of the
suspension model in the comfort characteristics. In this work, the FRF gives the vertical
acceleration of the carbody centre of gravity as a function of a sinusoidal track irregularity (in
order to avoid geometric filtering a synchronous excitation at all wheelsets is employed).
Figure 15 shows the FRF for various damping values using the Nishimura model. Logically,
if the value of C tends towards zero, the results will be similar to those obtained using a single
spring (with a value equal to the stiffness at low frequencies).
As can be observed, when the damping parameter is varied, important variations in
acceleration response is produced thus affecting the comfort.
Figure 16 compares the results obtained while varying the term associated with the inertia of
the air inside the pipe (Mκ 2 ). This term can be modified changing the length or the diameter
of the pipe, the relation between the effective area of the air spring and the pipe area (see
Equation (1)). In the case shown in Figure 16, M0 = 154 kg and the value of κ has been
maintained constant).
As can be seen, the results between cases vary largely. It can also be observed that if the
peak stiffness that appears during the transition between static and dynamic stiffness reaches
near one of the vehicle vibration modes, it may produce a significant comfort reduction.
From the analysis above, it can be concluded that the characteristics of the pneumatic
system affect comfort in a large extend. Likewise, it can be concluded that the use of a model
that enables us to represent the behaviour of the pneumatic system properly is required for
performing comfort predictions.

• If no auxiliary chamber is used, the pneumatic suspension can be modelled accurately using
a single stiffness value.
 282 A. Alonso et al.

350

M k 2=0
300 M k 2=M0

M k 2=3M0
250
M k 2=5M0

M k 2=10M0
FRF (m/s 2/m)

200

150
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100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
f (Hz)
Figure 16. FRF vertical acceleration in terms of frequency (VAMPIRE model) Influence of air inertia, M0 = 154 kg.

• The Nishimura model is valid if the pipe is very small or if there is a direct connection
between the air spring and the auxiliary chamber. In these cases, the influence of the term
associated with the air inertia is small.
• Finally, the VAMPIRE model should be used is cases where the air inertia term is relevant
(for example, with pipes of medium or long length)

7. Introduction of a variable orifice valve

Experimental as well as theoretical results have verified that the secondary pneumatic suspen-
sion is a non-linear system. This non-linear property results from the loss of pressure to air
speed ratio when travelling through the connection pipe. Consequently, choosing the system’s
damping value is not straightforward because the C value which maximises passenger comfort
depends entirely on the level of excitation. This fact is illustrated in Figures 17 and 18.
Figure 17 shows the effective value of vertical accelerations at two points of the carbody
(centre and pivot) when varying the damping parameter, C, and for a specific level of track
irregularities. The value of the vertical acceleration is normalised, the reference being the
minimum effective value obtained while varying the damping parameter. This normalised
acceleration value is called in the graph ‘normalised comfort parameter’. Therefore, if a C
value of 0.23 · 104 N/m2 /s2 is chosen, the result is the maximum comfort at the pivot but poor
results at the centre of the carbody, as can be seen in Figure 14. In this particular case, the
C parameter, which is able to achieve good levels of comfort at the two measuring points, is
around 0.65 · 104 N/m2 /s2 .
Figure 18 is obtained if the excitation is doubled. As can be seen, if the C obtained in the
previous case is used, the level of comfort is not the optimum (the optimum level that can
be achieved is around 1.36, and when using C = 0.65 · 104 N/m2 /s2 , a normalised comfort
parameter of 2.35 is obtained).
In order to solve this problem, we propose to insert an orifice plate inside the pipe whose
opening will be dependent on the pressure. By choosing a proper opening, the system can
 Vehicle System Dynamics 283

3.5
Centre
Pivot

Normalised Confort Parameter 3

2.5
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1.5

1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
C 4
x 10

Figure 17. Normalised comfort parameter for different values of C. Level of oscillations L0.

6
Centre
5.5
Pivot
5
Normalised Confort Parameter

4.5

3.5

2.5

1.5

1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
c 4
x 10

Figure 18. Normalised comfort parameter for different values of C. Level of oscillations 2 × L0.

achieve a linear property. In this way, the above-mentioned problem may be avoided and
optimum values of comfort achieved that are independent of the rail irregularity level.
The system’s non-linear property is due to the ratio between the pressure drop (p) in the
pipe and the air velocity (v):

p = Kv 2 . (2)
 284 A. Alonso et al.
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Figure 19. Left: sketch of the variable opening valve. Right: principal part in 3D.

By making a variable orifice valve that varies its opening according to pressure, a pressure
loss (K) that is not constant but inversely proportional to the pressure value can be observed
K
K(p) = . (3)
p
By substituting Equation (3) into Equation (2), a linear expression between pressure and
velocity is achieved.
In order to determine the law for orifice opening according to pressure, it can first be assumed
that load losses follow the following law [8]:
 2
Apipe
K(p) = 2.78 · . (4)
Aorifice (p)
By making expressions (3) and (4) equal, the variable orifice opening law can be calculated:

0.6 K(p)
Aorifice (p) = . (5)
Apipe K
In order to realise this device, different solutions has been studied. Figure 19 shows a schematic
design of the variable opening valve and the principal part modelled in 3D.

Air spring

Variable opening valve Auxiliary air chamber

Figure 20. Left: different parts of the variable opening valve. Right: air spring–pipe–auxiliary air chamber valve
assembled on the ASTB.
 Vehicle System Dynamics 285

1.6E+06
Amplitude = 0,50 mm
1.4E+06
Amplitude = 0.75 mm

1.2E+06 Amplitude = 1.00 mm

Dynamic Stiffness (N/m)

1.0E+06

8.0E+05

6.0E+05
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4.0E+05

2.0E+05

0.0E+00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 21. Dynamic stiffness at different amplitudes.

Figure 20 shows two photographies: on the left, we can see the different parts of the valve,
and on the right, the valve mounted between the pipe and the auxiliary air chamber ready
to test.
Some preliminary results of the vertical dynamic stiffness obtained experimentally with the
valve are shown in Figure 21.
Comparing these results with those shown in Figure 8, the use of this kind of valve causes
a significant decrease dependence on the vertical dynamic stiffness with the amplitude of
excitation. The pneumatic system is, therefore, linearised.

8. Conclusions and final remarks

The results obtained with a test bench were the basis of the work presented in the paper. This
test machine was specifically designed for the characterisation of railway vehicle pneumatic
suspensions throughout the entire frequency range of interest in the area of railway vehicle
dynamics.
Both vertical and lateral tests have been shown. The performance of pneumatic suspen-
sions has been analysed through experimenting along with the effect of different parameters
(volumes of the air chamber, air spring, pipes, amplitude).
By comparing these results with different classical models, it has been proved that the
VAMPIRE model is able to properly reproduce the performance of this type of suspension.
In addition, the effect that modelling these types of elements has on comfort has been studied.
It has been checked that the characteristics of the pneumatic system affect comfort to a large
extent. Moreover, it has been concluded that the use of a model which properly represents the
behaviour of the pneumatic system is required for performing comfort predictions
Finally, a simple comfort study has been performed by estimating the accelerations at two
locations of the carbody which shows the difficulties in selecting an optimum secondary
suspension damping factor. A solution was proposed to overcome this problem by using an
orifice plate inside the pipe connecting the air spring and the auxiliary chamber whose opening
will be dependent on the pressure. By choosing a proper opening, the system achieves a
linear property.
 286 A. Alonso et al.

A first prototype of a variable area valve has been presented and its working principle
described. Some tests were carried out using the test bench and fitting the new valve in the air
spring/auxiliary chamber system. The results obtained show that the system using this kind
of valve has now been linearised. Additional work is in process trying to improve its design
in order to optimise its effectiveness.

Acknowledgement
This work is part of the research project AVI-2015 which is partially funded by the Spanish CDTI through the CENIT
Programme.
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