Unit II

UNIT II: Satellite Channels
Unit-2 Satellite channels
1. The Friis Equation for Antenna
The Friis transmission formula is used in telecommunications engineering, equating the

power at the terminals of a receive antenna as the product of power density of the incident
wave and the effective aperture of the receiving antenna under idealized conditions given
another antenna some distance away transmitting a known amount of power.
Consider two antennas in free space separated by a distance R.
Let the antenna on satellite be isotropic antenna and antenna on earth be earth station antenna.
Let the power of earth station antenna be ‘Pr’ Watts and power of isotropic antenna be ‘Pt’
Watts.
Assume Transmitting antenna have some gain ‘GT’ also earth station antenna have some area
‘A’ in m2.
Then the flux density F (in Watts per square meter) on the receive antenna a distance R from
the transmit antenna is given by:
F= 2
4
As the transmit antenna has an antenna gain in the direction of the receive antenna therefore
F= 2 Gt
4
Now, Power receive by earth station antenna is product of flux density and area.
SSGMCE, Shegaon Page 1

Received Power = Flux Density * Area
Pr= F * A
Pr= 2 GtA
4
But receive antenna has an effective aperture given by ‘AE ‘. Then the power received by this
antenna PR is given by
Pr= 2 GtAe ----------- (1)

4
We know the basic equation of gain of the antenna i.e
Gr=
Ae=
Put this value in Equation (1)
Pr=
( )
-------- (2)
Pr=
( )
∗ ! "
Received Power = "#$%&&
Where, EIRP = Reflective Isotropic Radiation Power
In terms of dB wattsame equation can be written as
(Pr) dB= [()*+,)-. + (012345+67268239:3;6331)dB – (Path Loss) dB]

EIRP = 20log10 (PtGt) dB
GR= 10log10[ ] dB

LP = 20log10[ ] dB
This is known as the Friis Transmission Formula. It relates the free space path loss, antenna
gains and wavelength to the received and transmit powers.

2. Satellite Antennas
An antenna is a transition device or transducer between a guided wave and a
free space wave, or vice versa
An antenna pattern is a plot of the field strength in the far field of the antenna
when the antenna is driven by a transmitter. It is usually measured in decibels
(dB) below the maximum field strength. The gain of an antenna is a measure of
the antenna's capability to direct energy in one direction, rather than all around.
A useful principle in antenna theory is reciprocity. Reciprocity means that an
antenna has the same gain and pattern at any given frequency whether it
transmits or receives. An antenna pattern measured when receiving is identical
to the pattern when transmitting.
Field regions

Fig. Satellite coverage zone
There are four main types of antennas used in satellite communication. These
are
Wire Antennas
Aperture Antennas
Horn Antennas
Reflector Antennas
Array Antennas
Aperture antennas (horns and reflectors) have a physical collecting area

that can be easily calculated from their dimensions
Real antennas have effective flux collecting areas less than physical
aperture area
Define effective aperture aarea as

A physical is the physical aperture size (Ar at the receiver)
- η is the aperture efficiency
– 75% is very good
– Typically 55% - 60%
All antennas have (maximum) gain related to effective aperture area, Ae,
by:
Therefore, for aperture antennas:
1. Wire Antennas
Wire antennas are used primarily at VHF and UHE, to provide

communications for the TTC&M systems. They are positioned with great
care on the body of the satellite in an attempt to provide omnidirectional
coverage. Most satellites measure only a few wavelengths at VHF
frequencies, which makes it difficult to get the required antenna patterns
and there tend to be some orientations of the satellite in which the
sensitivity of the TTC&M system is reduced by nulls in the antenna
pattern
Monopole and Dipole

Used at VHF and UHF to provide communications for TTC&M systems
Omnidirectional coverage

2. Aperture Antenna Types
2.1 Horn Antenna
Horn antennas are used at microwave frequencies when relatively wide beams are
required, as for global coverage. A horn is a flared section of waveguide that provides an
aperture several wavelengths wide and a good match between the waveguide impedance
and free space. Horns are also used as feeds for reflectors, either singly or in clusters.
Horns and reflectors are examples of aperture antennas that launch a wave into free space
from a waveguide. It is difficult to obtain gains much greater than 23 dB or beamwidths
narrower than about 10° with horn antennas. For higher gains or narrow beamwidths a
reflector antenna or array must be used.
– Low gain (maximum 23dB)

– Wide beam (narrower than 10o)
– Efficient: 65% – 80%
2.2 Reflector Antennas
Reflector antennas are usually illuminated by one or more horns and provide a larger aperture
than can be achieved with a horn alone. For maximum gain, it is necessary to generate a
plane wave in the aperture of the reflector. This is achieved by choosing reflector profile that
has equal path lengths from the feed to the aperture, so that all the radiated by the feed and
reflected by the reflector reaches the aperture with the same phase angle and creates a
uniform phase front. One reflector shape that achieves this point source of radiation is the
paraboloid, with a feed placed at its focus.

The paraboloid is the basic shape for most reflector antennas, and is commonly used for earth
station antennas. Satellite antennas often use modified paraboloidal re
reflector
flector profile to tailor
the beam pattern to a particular coverage zone. Phased array antennas are also on satellites to
create multiple beams from a single aperture, and have been used by Iridium and Globalstar
to generate up to 16 beams from a single apaperture
erture for their LEO mobile telephone system
Uses one or more horn for illumination

Provide maximum gain
--generates
generates a plane wave in the aperture
– High gain
– Narrow beam
– Not as efficient: 50% – 60%
– May have to be deployed in space

Reflector Types
Parabolic Reflector Antennas
Types of parabolic reflector antennas:
Parabolic right cylindrical reflector antenna

Paraboloidal reflector antenna
Parabolic right cylindrical reflector antenna
This antenna is usually fed by a line source such as a dipole antenna and
converts a cylindrical wave from the source into a plane wave at the
aperture
Paraboloidal reflector antenna
This antenna is usually fed by a point source such as a horn antenna and
converts a spherical wave from the feeding source into a plane wave at
the aperture

Double Reflector Antennas
Cassegrain Antenna (Subreflector-hyperboloid)
Gregorian Antenna (Subreflector

(Subreflector-ellipsoid)
Cassegrain Antenna

Gregorian Antenna
3. Array antenna
An antenna array (or array antenna) is a set of multiple

connected antennas which work together as a single antenna, to transmit or
receive radio waves.

3. ATMOSPHERIC LOSSES
Multiple losses occur due to the Earth’s atmosphere. Losses may be because of the adverse
weather conditions or because of the energy absorption done by the various gases present in
the atmosphere.
1]Atmospheric Absorption
Weather related losses are called atmospheric attenuation. Absorption losses are called
atmospheric absorption. And due to change of refractive index called as atmospheric
scintillation.Atmospheric attenuation a reduction in the intensity of electromagnetic radiation
in the earth’s atmosphere as a result of absorption and scattering of the radiation. Solar
radiation is absorbed primarily by water vapour and ozone and is scattered by molecule of air
and areoles. For the majority of signal absorption oxygen(O2) and water vapour (H2O). The
first peak occurs at 22GHz due to water and second at 66GHz due to oxygen. However at
frequencies well clear of these peak, the absorption is quite low.

2] Cloud Attenuation
It has been considered as to be largely irrelevant for satellite connections. Clouds have
become an important factor for some Ka-Band paths and all V- band systems.
3]Rain Attenuation
Rain attenuation is a function of rain rate. Rain rate is meant the rate at which rain water
would accumulate in rain gauge situated at the ground in region of interest. In calculations
relating to radio wave attenuation rain rate is measured in millimetre per hour of interest in
the percentage of time that specified value are exceeded. The time percentage is usually that
of a year for equation, a rain rate of 0.001% means that the rain rate would be exceeded for
0.001% of year, or about 5.3min during any one year. In this case the rain rate would be
denoted by R0.001. in general , the percentage time is denoted by p and rain rate by RT , the
specific attenuation is a= aRpbdb/km
Where a & b depends on frequency and polarization values for a & b are available in tabular
from in no of publication. Once specific attenuation is found, the total attenuation is
determined A= aL db.

Where, L is effective path length of signal through the rain, because the rain density is
unlikely to be uniform over the actual path length, an effective path length must be used
rather than actual length.
3] Scintillation
This is a fading phenomenon, the fading period being several tens of seconds. It is course by
differences in the atmosphere refractive index which cause the radio waves to focus and
defocus because of the differences in the atmospheric refractive index is seen. This effect is
called “Atmospheric scintillation”.Which follows different paths through the atmosphere. It
may be necessary to make an allowance for atmosphere scintillation through the introduction
of a fade margin in the link power budget calculations. It is the variation in the amplitude,
phase, polarization, angle of arrival of radio waves. They are caused by the irregularities in
the ionosphere, which change with time.Fading of signal is the major effect of ionosphere
scintillation. The effect of fading can sometimes be very sever and may last up to several
minutes.
• Ionosphere is one of the layers in the earth’s atmosphere. It is situated between 90kms
to 400kms above the surface of the earth.

• All communication signals between satellite and earth station have to pass through
this layer.
• This layer contains free electrons, which are charged due to solar radiation.
• This ion are not uniformly distributed across the ionosphere, but move together across
the ionosphere in clusters.
• Such clusters are called clouds of electrons or travelling ionosphere disturbance.
When signal pass through such electron clouds, fluctuation are caused.
• Electron clouds are created when accelerated charged particles disturb stray electrons
already floating in the atmosphere and bounce the electrons into each other and the
passing by signal.
• These stray electrons can be photo-electrons from synchronous radiation or electrons
from ionized gas molecule and have adverse effect on the signals passing through
them especially if the density of these clouds is high.
• The other seen on the signal also include scintillation, absorption, and attenuation is
the major concern for the atmospheric losses.
• The concrete amount of water vapour and oxygen in the atmosphere normally
declines with an increase in altitude because of the decrease in pressure.
• The atmosphere close to the ground, sometimes called the boundary layer,
• Energy from the sun warms the surface of the earth and the resultant convective
activity agitates the boundary layer. This agitation results in turbulent mixing of
different parts of the boundary layer , causing small-scale variations in refractive
index.
• Schematic of stratified and turbulent conditions in the boundary layer of the

atmosphere in (a) the air is clam and the lower atmosphere next to the earth’s surface
(the boundary layer ) forms into layer each layer has slightly different refractive index
,decreasing in general with height. In (b), earth’s surface has become heated by
energy from the sun and the resultant convective activity has mixed the formerly
stratified layers into “bubbles” that have different refractive indices. The turbulent
mixing of the lower atmosphere will cause relatively rapid fluctuations in a signal
passing through it, which are called scintillations.

4. NOISE
1. Noise is any unwanted signal in our communication system.
2. It is an undesirable portion of an electrical signal.
3. It Limits systems ability to process weak signals.
NOISE POWER
1. The main source of noise in the satellite equipments is the noise arising from the
random thermal motion of electrons in the various devices in the receiver.
2. Thermal noise is also generated in the lossy components of the antenna and a
thermal – like noise is picked – up by the antenna as radiation.

3. Power from a thermal noise source is given by:
Np = KB T B
Where,
kB = Boltzmann’s constant 1.38x10 -23 J/K
T = Absolute temperature of device
B = Circuit bandwidth
4. Noise power is measured in hertz.
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO (SNR)
1. The signal to noise ratio, or SNR as it is often termed is a measure of the sensitivity
performance of a receiver. This is of prime impo
importance
rtance in all applications from simple
broadcast receivers to those used in cellular or wireless communications as well as in
fixed or mobile radio communications, two way radio communications systems,
satellite radio and more.
2. There are a number of ways in which the noise performance, and hence the sensitivity
of a radio receiver can be measured. The most obvious method is to compare the
signal and noise levels for a known signal level, i.e. the signal to noise (S/N) ratio or
SNR. Obviously the greater th
thee difference between the signal and the unwanted noise,
i.e. the greater the S/N ratio or SNR, the better the radio receiver sensitivity
performance.
3.Signal to noise ratio formula :

The signal to noise ratio is the ratio between the wanted signal and the unwanted background
noise.
It is more usual to see a signal to noise ratio expressed in a logarithmic basis using decibels:
If all levels are expressed in decibels, then the formula can be simplified to:
The power levels may be expressed in levels such as dBm (decibels relative to a milliwatt, or
to some other standard by which the levels can be compared.
NOISE FIGURE
1. Noise figure is the parameter that is seen widely in specifications and in use when
defining radio receivers and the elements within the receiver systems. The noise figure
uses a logarithmic scale and is simply the noise factor expressed in decibels.
2. Using the diagram above it is possible to determine the noise figure formula fromt he
conditions described above.
NF=10log10(SiNiSo/No)
3. Ideal value of noise figure is 0 dB.
NOISE FACTOR
1. The noise factor can be derived simply by taking the SNR at the input and dividing it
by the SNR at the output. As the SNR at the output will always be worse, i.e. lower,
this means that the noise factor is always greater than one. The noise factor is rarely
seen in specifications.
2. Noise factor is denoted by F.
3. Noise factor ‘F’ is always greater than 1.
4. Ideal value of noise factor is equal to 1.
5. Formula, F=(Si/Ni)/(So/No)

NOISE TEMPERATURE
1. Noise figure of an amplifier or any Rx device is defined as a temperature (Te) of a

resistance which provides the same noise power at the output of an ideal amplifier as
that given by the actual amplifier which has its input terminated at noise free resistance
To=0.
2. Relation of noise temperature with Noise Figure,
Te = To ( F – 1 )
Where,
Te : The effective noise temperature of device
T0 : a reference temperature 290K (room temperature)
3. The total noise in any amplifier or network is the sum of internally and externally
generated noise. In terms of noise temperature:
Pn(total) = GKB(To + Te)
where,
Pn(total) is the total noise power
RELATION BETWEEN NOISE TEMPERATURE AND NOISE FIGURE
As we know,
Pi/Ni
<= =
Po/No
DE <G
= ×
<E DG
Po=G.Pi
…………….where,G=gain
<G
<= =
H. <E
……………………eq(1)
We know that,Noise power,
Pn=K.T.B
∴I/p noise power is given by,

Ni=K.Ti.B
…………………..eq(2)
Similarly,output power is,
No=G.Ni
=G.K.Ti.B
By putting the value of No in eq(1) we get,
H. K. LE. M + ∆O
<= =
H. K. LE. M
Where,∆O=amplifier noise
H. K. LE. M + H. K. LP. M
<= =
H. K. LE. M
As ∆O=G.K.Te.B
LP
∴ <= = 1 +
LE
LP
∴ <= − 1 =
LE
∴ LE(= − 1) = LP
G/T RATIO
The link equation can be written in terms of (C/N) at the earth station,
DT. HT. HS
DS =
(4 VU)W
DS = DT. HT. HS. (UV4 )W
X DT. HT. HS
= × (UV4 )W
< K. LY. M
Here Ts=system noise temperature
B=Noise Bandwidth
X DT. HT. HS
= × (UV4 )W
< K. LY. M

X DT. HT HS
= × (UV4 )W ×
< K. M LY
X HS
∴ Z
< LY
X H
∴ Z
< L
Thus C/NZGr/Ts,and the terms in the square brackets are all constant for a given satellite
system.

5. SINGLE CONVERSION TRANSPONDER
Fig. Single Conversion Transponder (bent pipe) for 6/4 GHz band.
Single conversion bent pipe transponder is used on the many of satellites for 6/4 GHz
band.The output power amplifier is usually a solid-state power amplifier (SSPA) unless very
high output power (>50W) is required, when travelling wave tube amplifier (TWTA) would
be used.The local oscillator is at 2225MHz to appropriate shift in frequency from the 6GHz
uplink frequency to the 4 GHz downlink frequency, and the band-pass filter after mixer
removes unwanted frequencies resulting from down-conversion operation. The attenuator can
be controlled via the uplink command system to set gain of the transponder. Redundancy is
provided for high power amplifier (HPA) in each transponder including a spare TWT or
solid-state amplifier (SSPA) that can be switch into circuit if the primary amplifier fails. The
lifetime of HPA is limited, and they represent a least reliable component in most transponder.
Providing a spare HPA in each transponder greatly increase the probability that satellite will
be reach to the end of its working life with all its transponder still operational. Transponder
can also be arranged so that there are spare transponders available in the event of total failure.
The arrangement is known as Mand N redundancy.For example, it is common to have 16 for
10 redundancy or even 14 for 10. That is, 16(or 14) output amplifiers are connected in ring
such that any of the 10 signals can pass through them. Thus 6(or 4) amplifier are acting as
back up amplifier while 10 are on a line. Most HPAs have bandwidths much larger than
allocated frequency band and so it matters little which signals are passing through them. At
Ku band,ring redundancy is still used, but it much more like 2 for 1, that is, one spare of
every active unit.

DOUBLE CONVERSION TRANSPONDER
Fig. Double Conversion Transponder (bent pipe) for14/11 GHz

Transponder for use in the 14/11 GHz bands normally employ a double frequency
conversion. It is easier to make filters, amplifier, and equalizers at an intermediate frequency
(IF) such as 1100-MHz than at 14 or 11 GHz, so the incoming 14-GHz carrier is translated to
an IF of around 1 GHz. The amplification and filtering are performed at 1 GHz and a
relatively high-level carrier is translated back to 11 GHz for amplification by the HPA.
Stringent requirements are placed on the filter used in transponder, since they must
provide good rejection of unwanted frequencies, such as intermodulation product, and also
have very low amplitude and phase ripple in their bands. Frequently a filter will be followed
by equalizer that smoothes out amplitude and phase variation in pass band. Phase variation
across the pass band produces group delay distortion, which is particularly troublesome with
wideband FM signals and high-speed phase shift keyed data transmission.
A considerable increase in the communication capacity of a satellite can be achieved
by combining onboard processing with switch-beam technology. A switch-beam satellite
generates a narrow transmit beam for each earth station with which communicate, and then
transmit sequentially to each one using time division multiplexing of signal. The narrow
beam has to cover only one earth station, allowing allowing the satellite transmit antenna to
have a very high gain compared to zone-coverage antenna. A narrow scanning beam can also
beam used, or a combination of fixed and scanning beams. Unless the satellite has a zone-
coverage receiver antenna, data storage is required at the satellite since it communicate with
only one earth station at a time. The high gain antenna used in switch-beam system raise the
EIRP(effective isotropically radiated power)of a satellite transmitter and thus increase the
capacity of a downlink. Switched beam system on GEO satellites work best at Ka band where
the wavelength is short enough that limit dimension of antennas on the satellite still allow
beams of also 0.4o beam width to be generated. Multiple beam antenna with a baseband
processing transponder are used on GEO and LEO satellite providing service to mobile

terminals. The low gain of near omnidirectional antenna of a mobile earth station must be
compensated by high gain antenna on the satellite, necessitating the use of multiple beam
antennas.
It is possible to conserve uplink bandwidth by using different modulation techniques
on the uplink and downlink and by providing a baseband processor on the satellite. A high-
level modulation such as 16-QAM with four bits per symbol can be used on link between the
satellite and the large earth station to improve bandwidth efficiency. This approach has been
adopted in the Astrolink and Spaceway 30/20 GHz satellite.
Onboard processing may also be used to advantages to switch between the uplink
access technique (e.g MF-TDMA) and downlink access technique (e.g TDM) so that small
earth station may access each other directly via satellite. The processor can provide data
storage needed for a switch-beam system and also can perform error correction independently
on the uplink and downlink.

6. CALCULATION OF SYSTEM NOISE

TEMPERATURE
Model A :
Noise Power: KTBn
Pn = GIF.K.TIF.Bn + GM.GIF.K.TM.Bn+GRF.GM.GIF.K(TRP+TRF)Bn
[
Pn = K.Bn.GIF.GRF.GM LEO + L = +
[\
]
+
[ ]
]. \
]
[
Pn = GRF.GM.GIF.K.Bn LEO + L = +
[\
]
+
[ ]
]. \
]
…...........................……..............(1)
Model B :
Pn = K.T.Bn

Pn=
K.Bn.GIF.GRF.GM.TS………………………….....................................…................(
2)
FROM 1 AND 2
TS = [ LEO + L = +
[\
]
+
[]
]. \
]
NOISE TEMPERATURE
4. Noise figure of an amplifier or any Rx device is defined as a temperature (Te) of a

resistance which provides the same noise power at the output of an ideal amplifier as
that given by the actual amplifier which has its input terminated at noise free resistance
To=0.
5. Relation of noise temperature with Noise Figure,
Te = To ( F – 1 )
Where,
Te : The effective noise temperature of device
T0 : a reference temperature 290K (room temperature)
6. The total noise in any amplifier or network is the sum of internally and externally
generated noise. In terms of noise temperature:
Pn(total) = GKB(To + Te)
where,
Pn(total) is the total noise power

7. Satellite link models
• A satellite is a body that moves around another body in a particular path. A

communication satellite is nothing but a microwave repeater station in space.
• It is helpful in telecommunications, radio and television along with internet
applications.Satellite link is – according to articleof the International
Telecommunication Union´s (ITU) Radio Regulations (RR) defined as A radio link
between a transmitting earth station and a receiving earth station through one satellite.
• A satellite link comprises one up-link and one down-link. Satellite links are used to
provide communications over very large distances (global coverage).
• This is achieved by using the satellite as a repeater. A ground station relays a signal
up to the satellite at a frequency known as the uplink frequency.
• The satellite receives this signal and re-broadcasts it on a downlink frequency to
another ground station.
• If digital communications signaling is used, the signal may be regenerated before it is
re-transmitted to Earth.
• There are three types of link analysis of satellite which are given below
Satellite link analysis
• Satellite Uplink
• Satellite downlink
• Satellite Crosslink

Satellite Uplink
• The term uplink chain is used to refer to the series of pieces of equipment that are
used to produce a radio frequency signal for sending out data.
• The frequency with which, the signal is sent into the space is called as Uplink
frequency.
• The transmission of signal from first earth station to satellite through a channel is
called as uplink.
• Uplink frequency is the frequency at which, the first earth station is communicating
with satellite.
• Transmitter power for earth stations is generally provided by high-powered

amplifiers, such as TWTs and klystrons
• Size and weight are not prime considerations, and fairly high transmitter EIRP levels
can be achieved
• In the design of satellite uplinks, the beam pattern may often be of more concern than
the actual uplink EIRP

• EIRP determines power to the desired satellite
• Shape of the pattern determines the amount of off-axis (sidelobe) interference power
impinging on nearby satellite
• The beam pattern therefore establishes an acceptable satellite spacing, and thus the
number of satellites that can simultaneously be placed in a given orbit with a specified
amount of communication interference
• The narrower the earth-station beam, the closer an adjacent satellite can be placed
without receiving significant interference
• On the other hand, an extremely narrow beam may incur significant pointing losses
due to uncertainties in exact satellite location
• For a 20 dB reduction in adjacent satellite interference, we see that the nearest

satellite must be at least 3° away
• That is, when observed from Earth, two satellites in the same orbit must be separated
by about 3°
• If satellite pointing is improved, the uplink beamwidth can be narrowed, allowing

closer satellite spacing in the same orbit
• This would increase the total number of satellites placed in a common orbit, such as
the synchronous orbit

Satellite Downlink
• A satellite downlink is constrained by the fact that the power amplifier and
transmitting antenna must be spaceborne
• This limits the power amplifiers to the efficient, lightweight devices with
limited output power capabilities that are dependent on the carrier frequency
• The frequency with which, the signal is sent by the transponder is called as
Downlink frequency.
• The transmission of signal from satellite to second earth station through a
channel is called as downlink.
• The satellite transponder converts this signal into another frequency and sends
it down to the second earth station. This frequency is called as Downlink
frequency.
Satellite Downlink Model Spacecraft Power Source
• The spacecraft antenna, ,while similarly limited in size, must use beam patterns that
provide the required coverage area on Earth
• Coverage area for a specified minimal viewing elevation angle depends only on the
satellite altitude

• Hence, the satellite downlink beam width for a given coverage area is automatically
selected as soon as the satellite orbit altitude is selected.
• This also means the corresponding downlink antenna gain is established by the orbit
altitude.
Satellite Spacecraft Parameters
• By using higher-frequency bands (smaller λ), this required downlink beamwidth can
be achieved with smaller satellite antenna sizes
• Although use of higher carrier frequencies allows smaller satellite antennas, care must
again be used in accounting for its effect in downlink analysis
• It will produce higher earth-station G/T values, but it will not increase CNR owing to
the increased downlink space loss
Satellite crosslink
• Satellite systems often require communications between two satellites via a crosslink
• A crosslink can be established between synchronous satellites, low-earth-orbiting

satellites, or deep-space satellites
• A crosslink between two orbiting satellites is referred to as an intersatellite link (ISL)

Satellite Crosslink Model
• As a communication link, an intersatellite link has the disadvantage that both

transmitter and receiver are spaceborne, limiting operation to both low PT and low
G/T values
• To compensate in long links, it is necessary to increase EIRP by resorting to narrow

transmit beams for higher power concentration
• With satellite antenna size constrained, the narrow beams are usually achieved by
resorting to higher carrier frequencies
• Hence, satellite crosslinks are typically designed for K-band (20-30 GHz) or EHF (60
GHz) frequencies
• Optical (laser) crosslinks are also possible

8. Satellite Transponder Model

The subsystem, which provides the connecting link between transmitting and receiving
antennas of a satellite is known as Transponder. It is one of the most important subsystem
of space segment subsystems.
Transponder performs the functions of both transmitter and receiver (Responder) in a

satellite. Hence, the word ‘Transponder’ is obtained by the combining few letters of two
words, Transmitter (Trans) and Responder (ponder).
Block diagram of Transponder

Transponder performs mainly two functions. Those are amplifying the received input signal
and translates the frequency of it. In general, different frequency values are chosen for both
uplink and down link in order to avoid the interference between the transmitted and received
signals.
The block diagram of transponder is shown in below figure.
We can easily understand the operation of Transponder from the block diagram itself. The
function of each block is mentioned below.

• Duplexer is a two-way microwave gate. It receives uplink signal from the satellite
antenna and transmits downlink signal to the satellite antenna.
• Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) amplifies the weak received signal.
• Carrier Processor performs the frequency down conversion of received signal (uplink).
This block determines the type of transponder.
• Power Amplifier amplifies the power of frequency down converted signal (down link)
to the required level.
Types of Transponders
Basically, there are two types of transponders. Those are Bent pipe transponders and
Regenerative transponders.
Bent Pipe Transponders

Bent pipe transponder receives microwave frequency signal. It converts the frequency of
input signal to RF frequency and then amplifies it.
Bent pipe transponder is also called as repeater and conventional transponder. It is suitable
for both analog and digital signals.
Regenerative Transponders
Regenerative transponder performs the functions of Bent pipe transponder. i.e., frequency
translation and amplification. In addition to these two functions, Regenerative transponder
also performs the demodulation of RF carrier to baseband, regeneration of signals and
modulation.
Regenerative transponder is also called as Processing transponder. It is suitable only for

digital signals. The main advantages of Regenerative transponders are improvement in
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) and have more flexibility in implementation.

Advantages of Regenerative Transponder

• Improved channel quality
• Higher capacity
• Interference resistance
• Flexible & dynamic routing of messages
• Better network interconnectivity
• Optimization of uplink 7 downlink is independent
• Access security

FREQUENCY REUSE
Same frequency band to transmit separate carriers is referred to as frequency reuse.
Frequency reuse increases the information capacity of the link without increasing link
bandwidth.
Using Dual Polarization.
Using Spot Beams.
Dual polarization achieves frequency reuse by using the spatial orthogonality of the field
alignments during propagation .
Principles of cellular frequency reuse.
In the cellular concept, frequencies allocated to the service are re-used in a regular pattern of
areas, called 'cells', each covered by one base station. In mobile-telephone nets these cells are
usually hexagonal. In radio broadcasting, a similar concept has been developed based on
rhombic cells.

Dual polarization and Depolarization
Depolarization is an effect wherein a satellite link's wave polarization is altered after being
launched by the antenna. Some texts refer to depolarization as cross-polarization. For the case
of a linearly polarized wave passing through the medium, components of the opposite
polarization will be developed. For the case of circular polarization, there will be a tendency
to develop into an elliptical wave. This is particularly important for the case of frequency
reuse systems, where depolarization effectively reduces the polarization isolation and can
tend to increase crosstalk on the signal.
Depolarization on a satellite can be caused by rain, ice, snow, multipath, effects, and
refractive effects. It can also be caused by Faraday rotation.
Faraday Rotation. Analysis of the propagation of a linearly polarized high-frequency wave in

the ionosphere shows that it experiences rotation of the plane of polarization such that a wave
launched with vertical polarization does not remain vertical. Depending on the frequency,
length of the path in the ionosphere, and orientation with respect to the earth's magnetic field,
the amount of Faraday rotation may vary from negligible to 360° or many rotations.
Of most importance for satellite links is the fact that the rotation varies inversely as the
square of the frequency. Typically, at 4 GHz, the rotation is only several degrees.
• Dual polarization achieves frequency reuse by using the spatial orthogonality of the
field alignments during propagation
• Atmosphere may create problems in dual polarization
• It may cause an inherent cross-coupling of one channel onto the other at the same
frequency band, producing interference and crosstalk in that channel, even with
perfectly aligned receiving systems
• Atmospheric depolarization is basically negligible below about 10 GHz, and dual

polarization is therefore commonly used in C-band satellite systems
• However, depolarization significantly increases at higher carrier frequencies,

especially when a high water content is present in the atmosphere
• This makes the feasibility of using dual polarization for frequency reuse in the 10--30-
GHz range somewhat questionable

• Inparticular, depolarization depends on rainfall rate and extent (path length), raindrop
size, raindrop orientation (rain canting angle), and carrier wavelength
• The atmosphere behaves as an anisotropic medium for radio propagation
Consequently power from one polarization is coupled to its orthogonal component, causing
interference between the channels of a dual polarized system.
• Spot Beams

Spot beaming from satellites:

(a) simple global beam
(b) two spot beams
(c) multiple spot beam
(d) dual polarized spots
Fig :- Spot beam diagram

9. NUMERICALS
Q.1)A Satellite at a distance of 40,000km from a point on the earth surface radiates a power
of 10W from an antenna at a gain of 17 dB in the direction of the observer. Find the flux
density at receiver point, and the power receive by the antenna at this point with an effective
area of 10 m2.
Solution
^_∗`_
We Know F= 2 =( 2.49 ×10-14 W/m2
∗^_)a )
=
4 ∗(
The Power receive with an effective collective area of 10 m2 is therefore

-13
Pr= 2.49 ×10 W
The calculation is more easily handle in decibels, Noting that 10log10(4π) = 11.0 dB
F in dB units = 10log10 (PtGt) dB - 20log10 (R) dB – 11
= 27.0 -152.0 – 11.0
= -136 dB (W/m2)
Then, Pt= -136.0 + 10
= -126.0 dBW
Here we put the antenna effective area into decibels greater than 1m2 (10m2 = 10 dB greater
than 1 m2)
Q.2)In the above Q.1) operates at an frequency of 11GHz. The receiving antenna has a gain
of 52.3 dB .Find the received power.
Solution
Using Equation and Working in decibels
(Pr) dB= [()*+,) -. + (0123 45 +67268239 :3;6331)dB – (Path Loss) dB]

EIRP= 27.0 dBW
Gt = 52.3 dB
W
4
Path Loss = b c =20log10[ ] dB
U

∗ ∗^_a
= 20log10[ ] dB
W.dWd∗^_e
= -205.3 dB
Pt = 27.0 + 52.3 - 205.3

= -126 dB
Q.3) An earth station has a diameter of 30 m, has an overall efficiency of 68%, and is used to
receive a signal at 4150MHz. At this frequency, the system noise temperature is 79 k when an
antenna points at the satellite at an elevation angle of 28o. What is the earth station G/T ratio
under these condition? If heavy rain Cause the sky temperature to increase so that the system
noise temperature rises to 88 k, what is the new G/T value?
Solution
First calculate the antenna gain for the circular aperture
fg i W
Gr = = η b c
At 4150 MHz, λ = 0.0723 m ,then

∗j_
G = 0.68 × (_._dWj)W
= 1.16 × 106
= 60.6 dB
Convert TsintodBK
Ts =10log79
= 19.0 dBK
G/T = 60.6 -19.0 = 41.6 dBK
If Ts = 88k in heavy rain,
G/T = 60.6 – 19.4
= 41.6 dB/K

Unit II

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Unit II

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UNIT II: Satellite Channels

Unit-2 Satellite channels

1. The Friis Equation for Antenna

The Friis transmission formula is used in telecommunications engineering, equating the

Consider two antennas in free space separated by a distance R.

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Received Power = Flux Density * Area

Pr= 2 GtAe ----------- (1)

We know the basic equation of gain of the antenna i.e

Put this value in Equation (1)

In terms of dB wattsame equation can be written as

(Pr) dB= [()*+,)-. + (012345+67268239:3;6331)dB – (Path Loss) dB]

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Fig. Satellite coverage zone

Aperture antennas (horns and reflectors) have a physical collecting area

Define effective aperture aarea as

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A physical is the physical aperture size (Ar at the receiver)

- η is the aperture efficiency

– 75% is very good

– Typically 55% - 60%

Therefore, for aperture antennas:

Wire antennas are used primarily at VHF and UHE, to provide

Monopole and Dipole

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2. Aperture Antenna Types

2.1 Horn Antenna

– Low gain (maximum 23dB)

2.2 Reflector Antennas

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Uses one or more horn for illumination

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Parabolic Reflector Antennas

Types of parabolic reflector antennas:

Parabolic right cylindrical reflector antenna

Parabolic right cylindrical reflector antenna

Paraboloidal reflector antenna

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Double Reflector Antennas

Cassegrain Antenna (Subreflector-hyperboloid)

Gregorian Antenna (Subreflector

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An antenna array (or array antenna) is a set of multiple

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• Schematic of stratified and turbulent conditions in the boundary layer of the

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3. Power from a thermal noise source is given by:

SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO (SNR)

3.Signal to noise ratio formula :

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1. Noise figure of an amplifier or any Rx device is defined as a temperature (Te) of a

Pn(total) is the total noise power

RELATION BETWEEN NOISE TEMPERATURE AND NOISE FIGURE

We know that,Noise power,

∴I/p noise power is given by,

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