Q1: When India became republic?

Ans: The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and signed on 24January
1950 and it came into effect on 26 January 1950 and India became Republic.

Q2: When was the Election Commission of India formed ? Who was the first Chief Election
Commissioner?

Ans: It was set up in January 1950. Sukumar Sen was the Chief Election Commissioner.

Q3: Explain various challenges faced by the Election Commission in conducting the first
general election in India. OR "Why conducting India's first general election was appeared as
a mammoth exercise by the Election Commission".

Ans: But the Election Commission discovered that it was not going to be easy to hold a free
and fair election in a country of India’s size. Holding an election required delimitation or
drawing the boundaries of the electoral constituencies. It also required preparing the
electoral rolls, or the list of all the citizens eligible to vote. Both these tasks took a lot of time.
When the first draft of the rolls was published, it was discovered that the names of nearly 40
lakh women were not recorded in the list. They were simply listed as “wife of …” or “daughter
of …”. The Election Commission refused to accept these entries and ordered a revision if
possible and deletion if necessary.
Preparing for the first general election was a mammoth exercise. No election on this scale
had ever been conducted in the world before. At that time there were 17 crore eligible voters,
who had to elect about 3,200 MLAs and 489 Members of Lok Sabha. Only 15 percent of
these eligible voters were literate. Therefore the Election Commission had to think of some
special method of voting. The Election Commission trained over 3 lakh officers and polling
staff to conduct the elections. It was not just the size of the country and the electorate that
made this election unusual.
The first general election was also the first big test of democracy in a poor and illiterate
country. Till then democracy had existed only in the prosperous countries, mainly in Europe
and North America, where nearly everyone was literate. By that time many countries in
Europe had not given voting rights to all women. In this context India’s experiment with
universal adult franchise appeared very bold and risky. An Indian editor called it “the biggest
gamble in history”. Organiser, a magazine, wrote that Jawaharlal Nehru “would live to
confess the failure of universal adult franchise in India”. A British member of the Indian Civil
Service claimed that “a future and more enlightened age will view with astonishment the
absurd farce of recording the votes of millions of illiterate people

Q4: Why India's first general election was known as 1952 election?

Ans: The elections had to be postponed twice and finally held from October 1951 to
February 1952. But this election is referred to as the 1952 election since most parts of the
country voted in January 1952. It took six months for the campaigning, polling and counting
to be completed.

Q5:How ,First general election did prove all critics , wrong?

Ans:The elections had to be postponed twice and finally held from October 1951 to February
1952. But this election is referred to as the 1952 election since most parts of the country
voted in January 1952. It took six months for the campaigning, polling and counting to be
completed.Elections were competitive – there were on an average more than four
candidates for each seat. The level of participation was encouraging — more than half the
eligible voters turned out to vote on the day of elections. When the results were declared
these were accepted as fair even by the losers. The Indian experiment had proved the critics
wrong.
The Times of India held that the polls have “confounded all those sceptics who thought the
introduction of adult franchise too risky an experiment in this country”.
The Hindustan Times claimed that “there is universal agreement that the Indian people
have conducted themselves admirably in the largest experiment in democratic elections in
the history of the world”.
Observers outside India were equally impressed. India’s general election of 1952 became
a landmark in the history of democracy all over the world. It was no longer possible to argue
that democratic elections could not be held in conditions of poverty or lack of education. It
proved that democracy could be practiced anywhere in the world

Q6: Explain Congress dominance in the first three general elections.

Ans: The results of the first general election did not surprise anyone. The Indian National
Congress was expected to win this election. The Congress party, as it was popularly known,
had inherited the legacy of the national movement. It was the only party then to have an
organisation spread all over the country. And finally, in Jawaharlal Nehru, the party had the
most popular and charismatic leader in Indian politics. He led the Congress campaign and
toured through the country. When the final results were declared, the extent of the victory of
the Congress did surprise many. The party won 364 of the 489 seats in the first Lok Sabha
and finished way ahead of any other challenger. The Communist Party of India that came
next in terms of seats won only 16 seats. The state elections were held with theLok Sabha
elections. The Congress scored big victory in those elections as well. It won a majority of
seats in all the states except Travancore-Cochin (part of today’s Kerala), Madras and Orissa.
Finally even in these states the Congress formed the government. So the party ruled all over
the country at the national and the state level. As expected, Jawaharlal Nehru became the
Prime Minister after the first general election. A look at the electoral map on the previous
page would give you a sense of the dominance of the Congress during the period
1952-1962.
In the second and the third general elections, held in 1957 and 1962 respectively, the
Congress maintained the same position in the Lok Sabha by winning three-fourth of the
seats. None of the opposition parties could win even one-tenth of the number of seats won
by the Congress. In the state assembly elections, the Congress did not get majority in a few
cases. The most significant of these cases was in Kerala in 1957 when a coalition led by the
CPI formed the government. Apart from exceptions like this, the Congress controlled the
national and all the state governments.
.Pl do add some information from page 31: pie graph.

Q7: How can you say first three general elections were multi party contest?
Ans: As various Political parties contested the election. Elections were competitive as there
were on an average more than four candidates for each seat. Moreover many Political
parties like CPI, SP, KMPP, PDF, GP, HMS, SCF, BJS ,SWA, JS, DMK,SOC contested for
Lok Sabha seat. CPI was the party to win second highest number of Lok Sabha seat in three
general elections like 16 seats in first general election, 27 in Second and 29 seats in third.
( Pl write the information I asked you to write about other parties , their full names,
the seat acquired by them as given in the graph , page 31)

Q8: What speculations were generated after Nehru' s death?

Ans: write first and second para of first page of Lesson 5. Prime minister Jawahar Lal Nehru
passed away....able to manage a democratic succession.

Q1: Explain various factors responsible for the early success of the Congress.

Ans: 1: Legacy of the freedom struggle: In fact, many parties were formed only around
independence or after that. Thus, the Congress had the ‘first off the blocks’ advantage. By
the time of independence the party had not only spread across the length and breadth of the
country as we had seen in the maps but also had an organisational network down to the
local level. Most importantly, as the Congress was till recently a national movement, its
nature was all-inclusive. All these factors contributed to the dominance of the Congress
party.

2: Congress as Social coalition:

Congress evolved from its origins in 1885 as a pressure group for the newly educated,
professional and commercial classes to a mass movement in the twentieth century. This laid
the basis for its eventual transformation into a mass political party and its subsequent
domination of the political system. Thus the Congress began as a party dominated by the
English speaking, upper caste, upper middle-class and urban elite. But with every civil
disobedience movement it launched, its social base widened. It brought together diverse
groups, whose interests were often contradictory. Peasants and industrialists, urban dwellers
and villagers, workers and owners, middle, lower and upper classes and castes, all found
space in the Congress. Gradually, its leadership also expanded beyond the upper caste and
upper class professionals to agriculture based leaders with a rural orientation. By the time of
independence, the Congress was transformed into a rainbow-like social coalition broadly
representing India’s diversity in terms of classes and castes, religions and languages and
various interests.

3: Congress as ideological coalition:

Many of these groups merged their identity within the Congress. Very often they did not and
continued to exist within the Congress as groups and individuals holding different beliefs. In
this sense the Congress was an ideological coalition as well. It accommodated the
revolutionary and pacifist, conservative and radical, extremist and moderate and the right,
left and all shades of the centre. The Congress was a ‘platform’ for numerous groups,
interests and even political parties to take part in the national movement. In
pre-independence days, many organisations and parties with their own constitution and
organisational structure were allowed to exist within the Congress.Some of these, like the
Congress Socialist Party, later separated from the Congress and became opposition parties.
Despite differences regarding the methods, specific programmes and policies the party
managed to contain if not resolve differences and build a consensus.

4: Tolerance and management of factions: This coalition-like character of the Congress gave
it an unusual strength. Firstly, a coalition accommodates all those who join it. Therefore, it
has to avoid any extreme position and strike a balance on almost all issues. Compromise
and inclusiveness are the hallmarks of a coalition. This strategy put the opposition in a
difficulty. Anything that the opposition wanted to say, would also find a place in the
programme and ideology of the Congress. Secondly, in a party that has the nature of a
coalition, there is a greater tolerance of internal differences and ambitions of various groups
and leaders are accommodated. The Congress did both these things during the freedom
struggle and continued doing this even after Independence. That is why, even if a group was
not happy with the position of the party or with its share of power, it would remain inside the
party and fight the other groups rather than leaving the party and becoming an ‘opposition’.
These groups inside the party are called factions. The coalitional nature of the Congress
party tolerated and in fact encouraged various factions. Some of these factions were based
on ideological considerations but very often these factions were rooted in personal ambitions
and rivalries. Instead of being a weakness, internal factionalism became a strength of the
Congress. Since there was room within the party for various factions to fight with each other,
it meant that leaders representing different interests and ideologies remained within the
Congress rather than go out and form a new party.

Q2: Explain the role of opposition parties since independence or after independence.

Ans: As we have noted above, it is not that India did not have opposition parties during this
period. While discussing the results of the elections, we have already come across the
names of many parties other than the Congress. Even then India had a larger number of
diverse and vibrant opposition parties than many other multi-party democracies.

Main answer
Some of these had come into being even before the first general election of 1952. Some of
these parties played an important part in the politics of the country in the ’sixties and
’seventies. The roots of almost all the non-Congress parties of today can be traced to one or
the other of the opposition parties of the 1950s.All these opposition parties succeeded in
gaining only a token representation in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies during this
period. Yet their presence played a crucial role in maintaining the democratic character of the
system. These parties offered a sustained and often principled criticism of the policies and
practices of the Congress party. This kept the ruling party under check and often changed
the balance of power within the Congress. By keeping democratic political alternative
alive,first para of 42. Write example of the parties given in the book) .

Q3: Explain the cordial relation between Congress and opposition parties in early years after
independence.

Ans: In the early years there was a lot of mutual respect between the leaders of the
Congress and those of the opposition. The interim government that ruled the country after
the declaration of Independence and the first general election included opposition leaders
like Dr. Ambedkar and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee in the cabinet. Jawaharlal Nehru often
referred to his fondness for the Socialist Party and invited socialist leaders like Jayaprakash
Narayan to join his government. This kind of personal relationship with and respect for
political adversaries declined after the party competition grew more intense.

Please learn four Political Parties given in the book : Swatantra Party, Bhartiya Jana
Sangha, The Communist Party of India, Socialist Party under following headings:
Symbol of the party.
Year of Formation.
Name of main leaders.
Ideology of the party.
Any split , New party.
Q.Explain three major developments in the international politics in last decade of 20th century.

Ans. Three major developments in international politics in the last decade of the 20th century were:

1. The Fall of the Berlin Wall and the End of the Cold War: The collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989
symbolized the end of the Cold War, a period of heightened tensions between the United States and
the Soviet Union. This event marked the beginning of a series of historic changes, including the
reunification of Germany and the disintegration of the Soviet Union. The end of the Cold War
brought about a shift in global power dynamics and paved the way for new geopolitical realities.

2. Democratization and Regime Changes in Eastern Europe: Following the fall of the Berlin Wall, a
wave of mass demonstrations and popular movements swept across the Eastern European countries
that were part of the Soviet bloc. In response to these mass actions, the communist governments in
these countries were replaced, and a process of democratization began. Countries such as Poland,
Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and others transitioned from communist regimes to democratic systems.
These developments reshaped the political landscape of Eastern Europe and had far-reaching
consequences for the region and beyond.

3. Disintegration of the Soviet Union: The disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 was a
momentous event in international politics. The Soviet Union had been a superpower and a major
player in global affairs, and its collapse led to the emergence of independent nations such as Russia,
Ukraine, Belarus, and others. The end of the Soviet Union brought about significant geopolitical
shifts, altered alliances, and transformed the balance of power in the international system. It also
marked the end of the bipolar world order that had characterized the Cold War era and opened up
new opportunities and challenges for nations worldwide.

These three developments fundamentally transformed the international political landscape at the
end of the 20th century, reshaping the balance of power, leading to the spread of democracy, and
bringing about new challenges and opportunities for nations around the world.

Q. When and how was USSR formed?

Ans: The Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) came into being after the socialist revolution led
Bolshevik Communist party in Russia in 1917.

Q. What was the Soviet system?

Ans: The political and economic system which centred around the communist party and no other
political or opposition was allowed, primacy given to the state, consciously designed a society based
on principles of equality by abolishing the institution of private property, opposed to capitalism
inspired by the ideals of socialism know as the Soviet system.

Q. How USSR brought east European countries under it's influence?

Ans. After the Second World War, the east European countries that the Soviet army had liberated
from the fascist forces came under the control of the USSR. The political and the economic systems
of all these countries were modelled after the USSR. This group of countries was called the Second
World or the ‘socialist bloc’. The Warsaw Pact, a military alliance, held them together. The USSR was
the leader of the bloc.

Q.Various positive aspects of the Soviet system (USSR)?

1. Developed Economy: After World War II, the Soviet Union had a more developed economy than
most of the world, excluding the United States. This development was evident in areas such as
communications infrastructure, energy resources (including oil), iron and steel production,
machinery manufacturing, and an efficient transportation sector. This economic strength contributed
to the Soviet Union's status as a great power.

2. Minimum Standard of Living: The Soviet state aimed to provide a minimum standard of living for
all its citizens. This commitment to social welfare ensured that basic necessities, including
healthcare, education, childcare, and other welfare schemes, were subsidized by the government.
This focus on social welfare helped to improve the quality of life for many Soviet citizens.

3. Absence of Unemployment: The Soviet system aimed to eliminate unemployment. By emphasizing

state ownership and central planning, the government was able to provide employment
opportunities for its citizens. This approach helped to ensure that people had access to work and
income, reducing the social and economic challenges associated with unemployment.

4. State Ownership and Control: In the Soviet Union, state ownership was the dominant form of
ownership. Land and productive assets were owned and controlled by the Soviet state. This allowed
the government to plan and allocate resources according to national priorities. State control over key
industries and resources aimed to ensure equitable distribution and prioritize the collective welfare
of the society.

5. Domestic Consumer Industry: The Soviet Union had a domestic consumer industry that produced a
wide range of goods, from everyday items like pins to automobiles. Although the quality of these
products might not have matched that of Western capitalist countries, the presence of a consumer
industry provided access to essential goods for the Soviet population. This contributed to
self-sufficiency and reduced dependence on imports.

Various negative aspect of USSR?

1. Bureaucracy and Authoritarianism: The Soviet system became highly bureaucratic and
authoritarian, resulting in a lack of personal freedoms and making life difficult for its citizens. The
absence of democracy and limited freedom of speech stifled dissenting voices, forcing people to
express their dissatisfaction through jokes and cartoons.

2. Lack of Institutional Reforms: Many institutions within the Soviet state required reform. The
one-party system, represented by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, held tight control over
all institutions and remained unaccountable to the people. This lack of institutional reform limited
the participation of citizens in decision-making processes and marginalized their cultural affairs.

3. Dominance of Russia: While the Soviet Union consisted of fifteen different republics, in reality,
Russia held dominant control over everything. People from other regions often felt neglected and
suppressed, as their aspirations and concerns were not adequately recognized or addressed by the
central government.

4. Economic Challenges: The Soviet Union struggled to keep pace with the West in terms of
technology, infrastructure (such as transport and power), and fulfilling the political and economic
aspirations of its citizens. The arms race with the United States put a significant strain on the Soviet
economy, diverting resources away from other sectors. Productivity and technology fell behind,
leading to shortages in consumer goods and an increasing dependence on food imports.

5. Stagnant Economy: The Soviet economy faced stagnation and faltered in the late 1970s. Despite
wage growth, productivity remained low, hindering economic progress. This stagnation contributed
to a decline in the standard of living for many citizens and created economic disparities between the
Soviet Union and the West.

6. Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: The Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 further
weakened the system. The costly and protracted war not only strained the Soviet economy but also
sparked international condemnation and resistance. The invasion intensified domestic discontent
and undermined the legitimacy of the Soviet government.

Q. What was the main objective of Gorbachev reform

Ans.Mikhail Gorbachev, who had become General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet
Union in 1985, sought to reform this system. Reforms were necessary to keep the USSR Abreast of
the information and technological revolutions taking place in the West.

Q.What were the effects of Gorbachev reform

Ans.The people in the East European countries which were part of the Soviet bloc started to protest
against their own governments and Soviet control. Unlike in the past, the Soviet Union, under
Gorbachev, did not intervene when the disturbances occurred, and the communist regimes collapsed
one after another. These developments were accompanied by a rapidly escalating crisis within the
USSR that hastened its disintegration. Gorbachev initiated the policies of economic and political
reform and democratisation within the country. The reforms were opposed by leaders within the
Communist Party.

Q.Explain the coop of 1991 and its aftermaths

Ans. A coup took place in 1991 that was encouraged by Communist Party hardliners. The people had
tasted freedom by then and did not want the old-style rule of the Communist Party. Boris Yeltsin
emerged as a national hero in opposing this coup. The Russian Republic, where Yeltsin won a popular
election, began to shake off centralised control. Power began to shift from the Soviet centre to the
republics, especially in the more Europeanised part of the Soviet Union, which saw themselves as
sovereign states. The Central Asian republics did not ask for independence and wanted to remain
with the Soviet Federation. In December 1991, under the leadership of Yeltsin, Russia, Ukraine and
Belarus, three major republics of the USSR, declared that the Soviet Union was disbanded. The
Communist Party of the Soviet Union was banned. Capitalism and democracy were adopted as the
bases for the post-Soviet republics.

Q. Explain the formation of CIS?

Ans. The declaration on the disintegration of the USSR and the formation of the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS) came as a surprise to the other republics, especially to the Central Asian
ones. The exclusion of these republics was an issue that was quickly solved by making them founding
members of the CIS. Russia was now accepted as the successor state of the Soviet Union. It inherited
the Soviet seat in the UN Security Council. Russia accepted all the international treaties and
commitments of the Soviet Union. It took over as the only nuclear state of the post-Soviet space and
carried out some nuclear disarmament measures with the US. The old Soviet Union was thus dead
and buried.

Q. Why did Soviet Union disintegrated?

Ans. Reasons for the disintegration of the USSR, as outlined in the paragraph, include:
1. Economic Burden: The Soviet economy faced a significant burden due to heavy investments in
maintaining a nuclear and military arsenal, as well as developing satellite states in Eastern Europe
and the Central Asian republics. This economic strain became unsustainable for the system.

2. Disparities with the West: Ordinary citizens became more aware of the economic advancements in
the West and observed the disparities between their own system and Western systems. This
realization, after years of being told that the Soviet system was superior, led to a political and
psychological shock.

3. Administrative and Political Stagnation: The Soviet Union became stagnant in administrative and
political terms. The Communist Party, which had ruled for over 70 years, lacked accountability to the
people. Slow administration, corruption, inability to correct mistakes, lack of openness in
government, and the centralization of authority contributed to a growing sense of alienation among
the populace.

4. Loss of Popular Backing: The government increasingly lost popular support as people did not
identify with the system or its rulers. Party bureaucrats gained privileges, further widening the gap
between them and ordinary citizens. The lack of public support weakened the foundations of the
Soviet Union.

5. Gorbachev's Reforms and Unforeseen Consequences: Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms aimed to

address these problems by attempting to reform the economy, catch up with the West, and loosen
the administrative system. However, the reforms set in motion forces and expectations that were
difficult to control. The pace of reform disappointed some, while others felt their power and
privileges were eroding too quickly. This led to a loss of support for Gorbachev and divided public
opinion.

6. Rise of Nationalism and Desire for Sovereignty: The rise of nationalism and the desire for
sovereignty within various republics, including Russia, the Baltic Republics, Ukraine, Georgia, and
others, became a significant and immediate cause for the disintegration of the USSR. Nationalist
dissatisfaction grew, and the government and rulers struggled to control it.

Q.Explain consequences of disintegration of USSR

Ans. Consequences of the USSR's disintegration, as described in the paragraph, include:

1. End of Cold War Confrontations: The collapse of the Soviet Union and the socialist systems in
Eastern Europe marked the end of the ideological confrontations of the Cold War. The competition
between the socialist and capitalist systems, which had fueled military tensions, arms races, and the
accumulation of nuclear weapons, was no longer a relevant issue. This created an opportunity for
disarmament efforts and the pursuit of new paths towards peace.

2. Changes in Power Relations: The disintegration of the Soviet Union led to a shift in power relations
in world politics. With the United States becoming the sole superpower, a unipolar system emerged,
where one dominant power held significant influence. The capitalist economy, backed by the power
and prestige of the US, became the dominant economic system globally. Institutions such as the
World Bank and International Monetary Fund gained influence as advisors in assisting countries
transitioning to capitalism. Liberal democracy also emerged as a widely accepted political framework.

3. Emergence of New Independent Countries: The end of the Soviet bloc resulted in the emergence
of many new countries with their own aspirations and choices. Baltic and Eastern European states
sought to join the European Union and became part of NATO. Central Asian countries aimed to
maintain close ties with Russia while establishing connections with the West, the US, China, and
others. This led to the diversification of the international system, with new players entering the
stage, each with their unique identities, interests, and economic and political challenges.

Q. What was the process of transition experienced by most countries after the collapse of
communism, and what were the desired outcomes?

Ans. Most countries experienced a painful process of transition from an authoritarian socialist system
to a democratic capitalist system after the collapse of communism. The desired outcomes of this
transition were to establish democratic governance, introduce market-based economies, and align
with Western capitalist systems.

Q. How was the transition model in Russia, Central Asia, and Eastern Europe influenced by the World
Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and what was it called?

Ans.The transition model in Russia, Central Asia, and Eastern Europe, influenced by the World Bank
and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), was known as "shock therapy." This model aimed to
bring about rapid and comprehensive changes in the economic and political systems of these
countries.

Q.What were the key features and objectives of "shock therapy" as a model of transition?

Ans. The key features and objectives of "shock therapy" included a complete shift to a capitalist
economy, which involved dismantling structures that had evolved during the Soviet period. The
model emphasized private ownership as the dominant pattern of property ownership. It entailed
rapid privatization of state assets and corporate ownership patterns, as well as replacing collective
farms with private farming and embracing capitalism in agriculture. "Shock therapy" excluded
alternative paths such as state-controlled socialism or a "third way."

Q. How did shock therapy promote a shift to a capitalist economy and what were the implications for
ownership patterns and privatization?

Ans. Shock therapy facilitated a shift to a capitalist economy by emphasizing private ownership as the
dominant pattern. It involved rapid privatization of state assets and corporate ownership, replacing
collective farms with private farming, and embracing capitalism in agriculture. These changes had
implications for ownership patterns as state-owned assets were transferred to private entities and
individuals. Privatization became a significant aspect of the transition.

Q.What were the major changes in the external orientation of these transitioning economies as part
of shock therapy, and why was a sudden and complete switch to free trade considered essential?

Ans. As part of shock therapy, transitioning economies underwent major changes in their external
orientation. The model emphasized a sudden and complete switch to free trade as essential for
development. This meant opening up to international trade and reducing trade barriers. The shift
towards free trade aimed to promote economic growth and integration with the global economy.

Q. How did the break-up of existing trade alliances among the countries of the Soviet bloc impact the
region, and how were these countries gradually absorbed into the Western economic system?

Ans.The break-up of existing trade alliances among the countries of the Soviet bloc had a significant
impact on the region. Each state from the bloc became directly linked to the Western economic
system instead of relying on trade within the region. These countries were gradually absorbed into
the Western economic system, with Western capitalist states assuming leadership roles and guiding
the development of the region through various agencies and organizations.

Q.Explain the consequences of shock therapy

Ans. The consequences of shock therapy, as described in the paragraph, include:

1. Collapse of Industries: The implementation of shock therapy led to the virtual disappearance of
entire industries in Russia. Around 90% of state-controlled industries were put up for sale to private
individuals and companies, often undervalued and sold at low prices. This resulted in the collapse of
the industrial complex and the loss of valuable industries.

2. Economic Ruin and Inflation: The value of the Russian ruble declined dramatically, and inflation
rates soared. People lost their savings, and the rate of poverty increased. The disintegration of the
collective farm system led to food insecurity, necessitating food imports. The real GDP of Russia
decreased, and the old trading structure broke down without a viable alternative.

3. Social Welfare and Inequality: The old system of social welfare was systematically destroyed,
causing large sections of the population to fall into poverty. The middle classes were marginalized,
and academic and intellectual manpower disintegrated or migrated. Economic disparities increased
due to privatization, leading to significant economic inequality between people and regional
divisions.

4. Emergence of Mafia and Corruption: The transition period saw the emergence of organized crime
and mafia in many of these countries. These criminal entities gained control over economic activities,
exacerbating corruption and impacting the rule of law.

5. Weak Democratic Institutions: The construction of democratic institutions received less attention
and priority compared to economic transformation. The constitutions of these countries were hastily
drafted, often granting extensive powers to executive presidents, which weakened elected
parliaments. Authoritarianism prevailed in some Central Asian countries, with presidents holding
great powers and stifling dissent and opposition. Judicial culture and independence of the judiciary
were not firmly established in many of these countries.

6. Revival through Natural Resource Exports: In the 2000s, some of these economies, especially
Russia, began to revive primarily due to the export of natural resources such as oil, natural gas, and
minerals. Countries like Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan benefited from
their significant production and export of oil and gas, while other countries gained rent from oil
pipelines crossing their territories. Some manufacturing also restarted, albeit to a lesser extent.

Q. Explain the internal and external tension and conflict of former Soviet republic

Ans.Internal Tensions:

1. Secessionist Movements: Several republics within Russia, such as Chechnya and Dagestan, have
experienced violent secessionist movements seeking independence. These movements have resulted
in clashes with Moscow and human rights violations.

2. Civil Wars and Insurgencies: Tajikistan witnessed a ten-year civil war, and there have been
instances of civil wars and insurgencies in various Central Asian countries. Conflicts have arisen due
to sectarian issues, demands for independence, and opposition against existing regimes.

3. Ethnic and Nationalist Conflicts: Provinces like Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan and certain regions
in Georgia have seen demands for independence from ethnic groups seeking to join neighboring
countries. These conflicts have often resulted in civil wars and tensions between different ethnic and
national groups.

External Tensions:

1. Competition among Outside Powers: The former Soviet republics, particularly in Central Asia,
possess vast hydrocarbon resources, which have attracted the attention of outside powers and oil
companies. Russia, China, and other countries vie for influence and access to these resources,
leading to geopolitical competition.

2. Role of the United States: The United States sought military bases in the Central Asian region after
the events of September 11, 2001. This move led to tensions and a competition for influence
between the U.S. and Russia. The U.S. paid the governments of Central Asian states for bases and
transit rights during the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.

3. Regional Proximity and Interests: The geographic location of the former Soviet republics, such as
their proximity to Russia, China, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and West Asia, makes them significant for
these neighboring countries. Russia perceives these states as its "Near Abroad" and seeks to
maintain influence over them. China, on the other hand, has interests in the region due to its oil
resources and conducts trade while settling populations along the borders.

4. Balkan Conflicts: In Eastern Europe, conflicts erupted in the Balkan republics of Yugoslavia
following its breakup in 1991. Provinces like Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina declared
independence, leading to opposition from ethnic Serbs. The inter-ethnic civil war resulted in violence
and massacres, leading to NATO intervention and the bombing of Yugoslavia.
.Q1. Explain the formation of European Union.

Ans: European integration after 1945 was aided by the Cold War. America extended massive
financial help for reviving Europe’s economy under what was called the ‘Marshall Plan’. The
US also created a new collective security structure under NATO. Under the MarshallPlan,
the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation(OEEC) was established in 1948 to
channel aid to the westEuropean states. It became a forum where the westernEuropean
states began to cooperate on trade and economic issues. The Council of Europe,
established in 1949,was another step forward in political cooperation. Learn the timeline at
page 54

Q2.'EU has emerged as a new alternative center of power in contemporary politics' . Justify
the statement.

Ans: The European Union has evolved over time from an economic union to an increasingly
political one. The EU has started to act more as anation state. While the attempts to have a
Constitution for the EUhave failed, it has its own flag,anthem, founding date, and currency. It
also has some form of a common foreign and security policy in its dealings with other
nations.
The EU has economic, political and diplomatic, and military influence. The EU is the world’s
biggest economy with a GDP of more than $12 trillion in 2005,slightly larger than that of
theUnited States. Its currency, the euro, can pose a threat to the dominance of the US dollar.
Its Share of world trade is three times larger than that of the United States allowing it to be
more assertive in trade disputes with the US and China. Its economic power gives it
influence over its closest neighbours as well as in Asia and Africa. It also functions as an
important bloc in international economic organisations such as the World Trade
Organisation(WTO).
The EU also has political and diplomatic influence. Two Members of the EU, Britain
andFrance, hold permanent seats on the UN Security Council. The EU includes several
non-permanent members of the UNSC. This has enabled the EU to influence some US
policies such as the current US position on Iran’s nuclear programme. Its use of
diplomacy,economic investments, and negotiations rather than coercion and military force
has been effective as in the case of its dialogue with China on human rights and
environmental degradation.
Militarily, the EU’s combined med forces are the second largest in the world. Its total
spending on defence is second after the US. Two EU member states, Britain and France,
also have nuclear arsenals of approximately 550 nuclear Warheads. It's Also the world's
second most important source of space and communications technology.

Older member nations of European Union: Ireland, United Kingdom(no longer the
member), Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Germany(West Germany till 1990),
Luxembourg, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Austria,Sweden, Finland, Greece, Malta
New members: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary,
Cyprus, Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia.
Kindly learn the year of joining and their location

Q3. Explain various limitations of the EU.

Ans: The European Union has tried to expand areas of Cooperation while acquiring new
members, especially from the erstwhile Soviet bloc. The process has not proved easy, for
people in many countries are not very enthusiastic in giving the EU powers that were
exercised by the government of their country. There are also reservations about including
some new countries within the EU.
But in many areas its member states have their own foreign relations and defence policies
that are often at odds with each other. Thus, Britain’s Prime Minister Tony Blair was
America’s partner in the Iraq invasion, and many of the EU’s newer members made up the
US-led ‘coalition of the willing’ whereas Germany and France opposed American policy.
There Is also a deep-seated ‘Euro- scepticism’ in some parts of Europe about the EU’s
integrationist agenda. Thus, for example, Britain’s former prime minister, Margaret Thatcher,
kept the UK out of the European Market. Denmark and Sweden have resisted the Maastricht
Treaty and the adoption of the euro, the common European currency. This limits the ability of
the EU to act in matters of foreign relations and defence.

Q: Explain the European Union as a nation state.

Ans: EU has started to act as a nation state as it has Parliament, its own flag, anthem,
founding date, currency and single market. It also has some form of a common foreign and
security policy in dealings with other nations.

Q1: Explain various reasons for the formation of ASEAN.

Ans: Before and during the Second World War, this region of Asia suffered the economic and
political consequences of repeated colonialisms, both European and Japanese. At the end of
the war, it confronted problems of nation-building, the ravages of poverty and economic
backwardness and the pressure to align with one great power or another during the Cold
War. This was a recipe for conflict, which the countries of Southeast Asia could ill afford.
Efforts at Asian and Third World unity, such as the Bandung Conference and the
Non-Aligned Movement, were ineffective in establishing the conventions for informal
cooperation and interaction. Hence, the Southeast Asian alternative by establishing the
Association for SouthEast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

Q2: Explain the process of formation of ASEAN.

Ans: ASEAN was established in 1967 by five countries of this region — Indonesia, Malaysia,
the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand (i am Phil singh from Thailand)— by signing the
Bangkok Declaration. The objectives of ASEAN were primarily to accelerate economic
growth and through that ‘social progress and cultural development’. A secondary objective
was to promote regional peace and stability based on the rule of law and the principles of the
United Nations Charter. Over the years, Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar
(Burma) and Cambodia joined ASEAN takes its strength to ten.(Brunei's vibrant landscape
loves Myanmar and Cambodia.)

Q3: Explain two objectives of ASEAN.

Ans: The objectives of ASEAN were primarily to accelerate economic growth and through
that ‘social progress and cultural development’. A secondary objective was to promote
regional peace and stability based on the rule of law and the principles of the United Nations
Charter.

Q4: What is the ASEAN way?

Ans: Unlike the EU there is little desire in ASEAN for supranational structures and
institutions. ASEAN countries have celebrated what has become known as the ‘ASEAN
Way’, a form of interaction that is informal, non-confrontationist and cooperative. The respect
for national sovereignty is critical to the functioning of ASEAN.

Q3: Explain ASEAN's vision 2020 .

Ans: ASEAN is rapidly growing into a very important regional organisation. Its Vision 2020
has defined an outward-looking role for ASEAN in the international community. This builds
on the existing ASEAN policy to encourage negotiation over conflicts in the region. Thus,
ASEAN has mediated the end of the Cambodian conflict, the East Timor crisis, and meets
annually to discuss East Asian cooperation. .Vision 2020 calls for a clean - green ASEAN
with fully established mechanisms to ensure the protection of the environment, sustainability
of natural resources, and high quality of life for people in the region. By 2020, ASEAN region
will be a zone of peace, freedom, neutrality, Nuclear weapon Free Zone.

Q1: Explain organisational structure of ASEAN.

Ans: The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) which was established in 1994, is the organisation
that carries out coordination of security and foreign policy. With some of the fastest growing
economies in the world..... respect for national difference and sovereign rights. ( Page 56 &
57, para last and first).

Q2: How is ASEAN emerging as a new centre of Power in contemporary world politics?

Ans: With some of the fastest growing economies in the world, ASEAN broadened its
objectives beyond the economic and social spheres. In 2003, ASEAN moved along the path
of the EU by agreeing to establish an ASEAN Community comprising three pillars, namely,
the ASEAN Security Community, the ASEAN Economic Community and the ASEAN
Socio-Cultural Community.

1. The ASEAN security community was established to prevent territorial disputes from
escalating into armed confrontation.
2. By 2003, ASEAN had multiple agreements in place that focused on peace, cooperation,
non-interference, and respect for national differences and sovereign rights.
3. The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) was created in 1994 to coordinate security and
foreign policy among member states.
Economic
4. ASEAN is primarily an economic association, and its economy is growing rapidly
compared to the US, EU, and Japan.
5. The ASEAN Economic Community aims to establish a common market and production
base within member states and promote social and economic development in the region.
6. ASEAN aims to improve the ASEAN Dispute Settlement Mechanism to resolve economic
disputes.
7. ASEAN has prioritised the creation of a Free Trade Area (FTA) for investment, labour, and
services and has negotiated FTAs with the US and China.

8. ASEAN has emerged as an important regional organisation, with an outward-looking role

defined in its Vision 2020.
9. ASEAN has successfully mediated conflicts such as the Cambodian conflict and the East
Timor crisis and holds annual meetings for East Asian cooperation.
10. ASEAN's economic strength and relevance as a trading and investment partner make it
attractive to growing Asian economies like India and China.
11. In recent years, India has increased its engagement with ASEAN by signing FTAs with
Singapore and Thailand and aiming to sign an FTA with ASEAN itself.
12. ASEAN's strength lies in its policies of interaction and consultation with member states,
dialogue partners, and non-regional organisations.
13. ASEAN provides a political forum where Asian countries and major powers can discuss
political and security concerns, making it unique among Asian regional associations.

Q: Explain the position of ASEAN in Asia. Or Explain the relation between India and ASEAN.

Ans:The current economic strength of ASEAN, especially its economic relevance as a

trading and investment partner to the growing Asian economies such as India and China,
makes this an attractive proposition. During the Cold War years Indian foreign policy did not
pay adequate attention to ASEAN. But in recent years, India has tried to make amends. It
signed FTAs with two ASEAN members, Singapore andThailand. It is trying to sign an FTA
with ASEAN itself. ASEAN’s strength, however, lies in its policies of interaction and
consultation with member states, with dialogue partners, and with other non-regional
organisations. It is the only regional association in Asia that provides a political forum where
Asian countries and the major powers can discuss political and security concerns.

Q: What is FTA? Explain its significance for ASEAN?

Ans. ASEAN has focused on creating a Free Trade Area (FTA) for investment, labour, and
services. The US and China have already moved fast to negotiate FTAs with ASEAN.

Q: What is the main objective of the ASEAN Economic Community?

Ans. The objectives of the ASEAN Economic Community are to create a common market
and production base within ASEAN states and to aid social and economic Development in
the region. The Economic Community would also like to improve the existing
ASEANbDispute Settlement Mechanism to resolve economic disputes.

Q: Why is the Economic Community is working to improve the existing ASEAN Dispute
Settlement Mechanism?

Ans. The Economic Community would also like to improve the existing ASEAN Dispute
Settlement Mechanism to resolve economic disputes.
Q1: Explain the features of 'Close economy of China.

Ans: After the inception of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, following the communist
revolution under the leadership of Mao, its economy was based on the Soviet model. The
economically backward communist China chose to sever
its links with the capitalist world. It had little choice but to fall back on its own resources and,
for a brief period, on Soviet aid and advice. The model was to create a state-owned heavy
industries sector from the capital accumulated from agriculture. As it was short of foreign
exchange that it needed in order to buy technology and goods on the world market, China
decided to substitute imports by domestic goods. This model allowed China to use its
resources to establish the foundations of an industrial economy on a scale that did not exist
before. Employment and social welfare was assured to all citizens, and China moved ahead
of most developing countries in educating its citizens and ensuring better health for them.
The economy also grew at a respectable rate of 5-6 per cent. But an annual growth of 2-3
per cent in population meant that economic growth was insufficient to meet the needs of a
growing population. Agricultural production was not sufficient to generate a surplus for
industry. In Chapter 2, we discussed the crisis of the state controlled economy in the USSR.
A similar crisis was to face China too: its industrial production was not growing fast enough,
international trade was minimal and per capita income was very low.. Main points to
remember: People's Republic of China formed in1949. Gave up links with capitalist
world. Developed, state owned heavy industries.Initially development , employment
took place. But gradually faced crisis

Q2: Explain China's Open Door policy and the changes initiated by the policy.

Ans: After facing tremendous economic crisis due to its policy of 'Close economy', the
Chinese leadership major policy decision in 1970s.
1. In the 1970s, China made significant policy decisions, ending its political and economic
isolation by establishing relations with the United States in 1972.
2. Premier Zhou Enlai proposed the "four modernisations" (agriculture, industry, science and
technology, and military) in 1973.
3. In 1978, Deng Xiaoping announced China's "open door" policy and initiated economic
reforms.
4. China introduced a market economy gradually, avoiding "shock therapy" and opening its
economy step by step.
5. The privatization of agriculture began in 1982, followed by the privatization of industry in
1998.
6. Trade barriers were eliminated in Special Economic Zones (SEZs), allowing foreign
investors to set up enterprises.
7. The state played and continues to play a central role in establishing a market economy in
China.
8. The new economic policies led to a break from stagnation and resulted in a remarkable
rise in agricultural production and rural incomes.
9. High personal savings in the rural economy led to exponential growth in rural industry.
10. Both industry and agriculture in China experienced faster growth rates.
11. New trading laws and the creation of Special Economic Zones contributed to a
phenomenal rise in foreign trade.
12. China has become the leading destination for foreign direct investment (FDI) globally
and has accumulated significant foreign exchange reserves.
13. China's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001 further facilitated its
opening to the outside world.
14. China plans to deepen its integration into the world economy and aims to shape the
future world economic order.

Main points to remember: China revived it's political relation with USA in1972. Zhou
Enlai proposed four modernisation in1973. Deng Xiaoping announced Open Door
policy.Privatisation of agriculture in1982. Privatisation of industry in 1998.SEZ
developed, FDI started. Rural industry and employment increased. Foreign trade,
foreign exchange reserve increased. China joined WTO in 2001.

result of economic growth of China due to which China has kept aside all political
conflicts aside and emerging as big power.

However, regionally and globally, China has become an economic power to reckon with. The
integration of China’s economy and the inter-dependencies that this has created has
enabled China to have considerable influence with its trade partners. Hence, its outstanding
issues with Japan, the US, ASEAN, and Russia have been tempered by economic
considerations. It hopes to resolve its differences with Taiwan, which it regards as a
renegade province, by integrating it closely into its economy. Fears of China’s rise have also
been mitigated by its contributions to the stability of the ASEAN economies after the 1997
financial crisis. Its more outward looking investment and aidpolicies in Latin America and
Africa are increasingly projecting it as a global player on the side of developing economies.

Q3: Explain certain negative aspects of China.

Ans:While the Chinese economy has improved dramatically, not everyone in China has
received the benefits of the reforms. Unemployment has risen in China with nearly 100
million people looking for jobs. Female employment and conditions of work are as bad as in
Europe of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Environmental degradation and
corruption have increased besides a rise in economic inequality between rural and urban
residents and coastal and inland provinces.

Page 63 yaad karna hai

Q1: Why are International organizations needed?
Ans: International organisations are not the answer to everything, but they are important.
International organisations help with matters of war and peace. They also help countries
cooperate to make better living conditions for us all.

Countries have conflicts and differences with each other. That does not necessarily mean
they must go to war to deal with their antagonists. They can, instead, discuss contentious
issues and find peaceful solutions; indeed, even though this is rarely noticed, most conflicts
and differences are resolved without going to war. The role of an international organisation
can be important in this context. An international organisation is not a super-state with
authority over its members. It is created by and responds to states. It comes into being when
states agree to its creation. Once created, it can help member states resolve their problems
peacefully.

International organisations are helpful in another way. Nations can usually see that there are
some things they must do together. There are issues that are so challenging that they can
only be dealt with when everyone works together. Disease is an example. Some diseases
can only be eradicated if everyone in the world cooperates in inoculating or vaccinating their
populations. Or take global warming and its effects. As atmospheric temperatures rise
because of the spread of certain chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), there is a
danger that sea levels will also rise, thereby submerging many coastal areas of the world
including huge cities. Of course, each country can try to find its own solution to the effects of
global warming. But in the end a more effective approach is to stop the warming itself. This
requires at least all of the major industrial powers to cooperate.

Unfortunately, recognising the need for cooperation and actually cooperating are two
different things. Nations can recognise the need to cooperate but cannot always agree on
how best to do so, how to share the costs of cooperating, how to make sure that the benefits
of cooperating are justly divided, and how to ensure that others do not break their end of the
bargain and cheat on an agreement. An international organisation can help produce
information and ideas about how to cooperate. It can provide mechanisms, rules and a
bureaucracy, to help members have more confidence that costs will be shared properly, that
the benefits will be fairly divided, and that once a member joins an agreement it will honour
the terms and conditions of the agreement.

the UN Logo:The emblem has a world map with olive branches around it, signifying
world peace.

Q1: Explain various changes or realities in international sphere after the Cold War which
directed the reforms in UN.

● Ans: The Soviet Union has collapsed.

● The US is the strongest power.
● The relationship between Russia, the successor to the Soviet Union, and the US is
much more cooperative.
● China is fast emerging as a great power, and India also is growing rapidly.
● The economies of Asia are growing at an unprecedented rate.
 ● Many new countries have joined the UN (as they became independent from the
Soviet Union or former communist states in eastern Europe).
● A whole new set of challenges confronts the world (genocide, civil war, ethnic
conflict, terrorism, nuclear proliferation, climate change, environmental degradation,
epidemics).

Q2: What reforms for the UN was suggested or thought for after the Cold War?

Ans: Reform and improvement are fundamental to any organisation to serve the needs of a
changing environment. The UN is no exception. In recent years, there have been demands
for reform of the world body. However, there is little clarity and consensus on the nature of
reform.
Two basic kinds of reforms face the UN: reform of the organisation’s structures and
processes; and a review of the issues that fall within the jurisdiction of the organisation.
Almost everyone is agreed that both aspects of reform is necessary. What they cannot agree
on is precisely what is to be done, how it is to be done, and when it is to be done.
On the reform of structures and processes, the biggest discussion has been on the
functioning of the Security Council. Related to this has been the demand for an increase in
the UN Security Council’s permanent and non-permanent membership so that the realities of
contemporary world politics are better reflected in the structure of the organisation. In
particular, there are proposals to increase membership from Asia, Africa and South America.
Beyond this, the US and other Western countries want improvements in the UN's budgetary
procedures and its administration.
On the issues to be given greater priority or to be brought within the jurisdiciton of the UN,
some countries and experts want the organisation to play a greater or more effective role in
peace and security missions, while others want its role to be confined to development and
humanitarian work (health, education, environment, population control, human rights, gender
and social justice).

Q3: What three shortcomings , limitations or complaints were reflected in the resolution
adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1992?

● Ans: The Security Council no longer represents contemporary political realities.

● Its decisions reflect only Western values and interests and are dominated by a few
powers.
● It lacks equitable representation.

Q4:How UN tried to achieve the reform of Structures and Processes ?

Ans: Let us examine the debate over reform of the UN Security Council. In 1992, the UN
General Assembly adopted a resolution. The resolution reflected three main complaints:

● The Security Council no longer represents contemporary political realities.

● Its decisions reflect only Western values and interests and are dominated by a few
powers.
● It lacks equitable representation.
In view of these growing demands for the restructuring of the UN, on 1 January 1997, the
UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan initiated an inquiry into how theUN should be reformed.
How, for instance, should new Security Council members be chosen? In the years since
then, the following are just some of the criteria that have been proposed for new permanent
and non- permanent members of the Security Council. A new member, it has been
suggested, should be:

● A major economic power.

● A major military power.
● A substantial contributor to the UN budget.
● A big nation in terms of its population.
● A nation that respects democracy and human rights.
● A country that would not make the Council more representative of the world’s
diversity in terms of geography, economic systems, and culture.

Clearly, each of these criteria has some validity. Governments saw advantages in some
criteria and disadvantages in others depending on their interests and aspirations. But these
criterias are problematic , controversial and contradictory. According to these criteria some
permanent members of Security Council do not fulfil them completely and restrict the
membership small countries and developing countries.)
Then add: last two paragraphs of page 90
and first two paragraphs of page 91.

Q1: Explain the process of formation of UN

Ans:
1941 August: Signing of the Atlantic Charter by the US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and
British PM Winston S. Churchill.

1942 January: 26 Allied nations fighting against the Axis Powers meet in Washington, D.C.,
to support the Atlantic Charter and sign the ‘Declaration by United Nations’.

1943 December: Tehran Conference Declaration of the Three Powers (US, Britain and
Soviet Union)

1945 February: Yalta Conference of the ‘Big Three’ (Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin)
decides to organise a United Nations conference on the proposed world organisation.

April-May: The 2-month long United Nations Conference on International Organisation at

San Francisco.

1945 June 26: Signing of the UN Charter by 50 nations (Poland signed on October 15; so
the UN has 51 original founding members).

1945 October 24: the UN was founded (hence October 24 is celebrated as UN Day).

1945 October 30: India joins the UN.

Atlantic charter compromised No annexation, Freedom from fear and want,
Restoration of Self government, global Cooperation for better economic and social
security
India signed the Declaration by UN on 1st Jan 1942
Tehran conference: three big powers opened second front on Germany. Turkey and
Iran supported against Japan
Yelta conference: confirmed to shape Post-War peace, self -determimation,
re-establishment of war torn Europe
Indian delegation led by Sir Arcot Ramaswamy Mudaliar signed UN charter on behalf
of India
India and China both are founding members of UN)

Q2: Name the International organization formed after Second World War. What was it's
prime objective?

Ans: The League of Nations . It's prime objective was to prevent Second World War. It failed
to prevent the war. Second World War was from 1939-1945.

Q3: Name and explain the functions and structure of UN's principal organs

Ans: General Assembly: It functions like World Parliament. All members of UN are it's
member. Presently 193 members. Discussion, debate, approving UN budget, election and
selection of various members.
Representatives of all 193 member states each with one vote major decisions require
a two third majority otherwise a simple majority decision not binding on UN members

Security Council; monitors international peace and security, responsible for UN military
operations and peace keeping operations. 15 members five permanent with V2 rights and
elected by the General assembly for 2 year terms decision on all un member.

Economic and Social ; works to promote social and economic development of the world.
member states elected by the General assembly for overlapping 3 year terms 54 seats
based on geographical representation

International Court of Justice: resloves international disputes between nations. 15 judges

elected for 9 years by absolute majority in both the general assembly the security
council based in the hague

Secretariat: documentation work, formalising the agreements. international staff servicing

the other principle organs headed by the secretary general who is appointed by the
General assembly on the recommendation of the security council for for a 5 year
renewable term

Trusteeship council: suspended on November 1st 1994 with the independence of allow the
last you and trust territory

Learn : League of Nations was UN's predecessor

UN is League's successor.

Q1 Explain various objectives of UN

Ans: to prevent international conflict and to facilitate cooperation among states.It was
founded with the hope that it would act to stop the conflicts between states escalating
into war and, if war broke out, to limit the extent of hostilities. Furthermore, since
conflicts often arose from the lack of social and economic development, the UN was
intended to bring countries together to improve the prospects of social and economic
development all over the world.

Q2: Explain the structure of Security Council

Ans: In the Security Council, there are five permanent members and ten non-permanent
members. The Charter gave the permanent members a privileged position to bring about
stability in the world after the Second World War. The main privileges of the five permanent
members are permanency and the veto power. The non-permanent members serve for only
two years at a time and give way after that period to newly elected members. A country
cannot be re-elected immediately after completing a term of two years. The non-permanent
members are elected in a manner so that they represent all continents of the world.Most
importantly, the non-permanent members do not have the veto power. What is the veto
power? In taking decisions, the Security Council proceeds by voting. All members have one
vote. However, the permanent members can vote in a negative manner so that even if all
other permanent and non-permanent members vote for a particular decision, any permanent
member’s negative vote can stall the decision. This negative vote is the veto.

Q3: Define veto. Which countries enjoy veto power? Write how many times veto has been
used till now.

Ans: Veto is negative voting power. In taking decisions, the Security Council proceeds by
voting. All members have one vote. However, the permanent members can vote in a
negative manner so that even if all other permanent and non-permanent members vote for a
particular decision, any permanent member’s negative vote can stall the decision. This
negative vote is the veto. UK, US, China, Russia, France ,five permanent members of
Security Council enjoys veto.
Use of veto power by permanent members up to 1 June 2018
Russia-135
USA-84
UK-32
France-18
China-11

Q5 How many original founder member nations were there in UN?

Ans: 51 countries had signed United Nations Charter. Presently 193 countries are there.

Q1: Explain India's suggestions regarding UN reforms.

Ans: India has supported the restructuring of the UN on several grounds. It believes that a
strengthened and revitalised UN is desirable in a changing world. India also supports an
enhanced role for the UN in promoting development and cooperation among states. India
believes that development should be central to the UN’s agenda as it is a vital precondition
for the maintenance of international peace and security. One of India’s major concerns has
been the composition of the Security Council, which has remained largely static while the UN
General Assembly membership has expanded considerably. India considers that this has
harmed the representative character of the Security Council. It also argues that an expanded
Council, with more representation,will enjoy greater support in the world community. We
should keep in mind that the membership of the UN Security Council was expanded from 11
to 15 in 1965. But, there was no change in the number of permanent members. Since then,
the size of the Council has remained stationary. The fact remains that the overwhelming
majority of the UN General Assembly members now are developing countries. Therefore,
India argues that they should also have a role in shaping the decisions in the Security
Council which affect them. India supports an increase in the number of both permanent and
non-permanent members. Its representatives have argued that the activities of the Security
Council have greatly expanded in the past few years. The success of the Security Council’s
actions depends upon the political support of the international community. Any plan for
restructuring of the Security Council should, therefore, be broad-based. For example, the
Security Council should have more developing countries in it.

(Main points to remember)

1: India believes strengthened and revitalised UN is desirable in changing world.
2: India argues for expansion of Security Council which had been static though
General Assembly members increased.
3: Developing countries who have majority in Gen Assembly should play vital role in
Security Council.
4:India supports increase of both permanent and non permanent members.

Q2:What are various factors based on India claims for permanent membership of Security
Council ?

Ans: India itself also wishes to be a permanent member in a restructured UN. India is the
second most populous country in the world comprising almost one-fifth of the world
population. Moreover, India is also the world’s largest democracy. India has participated in
virtually all of the initiatives of the UN. Its role in the UN’s peacekeeping efforts is a long and
substantial one. The country’s economic emergence on the world stage is another factor that
perhaps justifies India’s claim to a permanent seat in the Security Council. India has also
made regular financial contributions to the UN and never faltered on its payments. India is
aware that permanent membership of the Security Council also has symbolic importance. It
signifies a country’s growing importance in world affairs. This greater status is an advantage
to a country in the conduct of its foreign policy the reputation for being powerful makes you
more influential.

Q3: What are various hurdles in the way of India's acquiring permanent membership of UN.?
Ans: Despite India’s wish to be a permanent veto-wielding member of the UN, some
countries question its inclusion. Neighbouring Pakistan, with which India has troubled
relations, is not the only country that is reluctant to see India become a permanent veto
member of the Security Council. Some countries, for instance, are concerned about India’s
nuclear weapons capabilities. Others think that its difficulties with Pakistan will make India
ineffective as a permanent member. Yet others feel that if India is included, then other
emerging powers will have to be accommodated such as Brazil, Germany, Japan, perhaps
even South Africa, whom they oppose. There are those who feel that Africa and South
America must be represented in any expansion of the permanent membership since those
are the only continents not to have representation in the present structure. Given these
concerns, it may not be very easy for India or anyone else to become a permanent member
of the UN in the near future.

Q2: What is common suggestion regarding veto for structural reforms ? Is abolition of or
modification in veto system is possible?

Ans:A related issue was to change the nature of membership altogether. Some insisted, for
instance, that the veto power of the five permanent members be abolished. Many perceived
the veto to be in conflict with the concept of democracy and sovereign equality in the UN and
thought that the veto was no longer right or relevant.
While there has been a move to abolish or modify the veto system, there is also a realisation
that the permanent members are unlikely to agree to such a reform. Also, the world may not
be ready for such a radical step even though the Cold War is over. Without the veto, there is
the danger as in 1945 that the great powers would lose interest in the world body, that they
would do what they pleased outside it, and that without their support and involvement the
body would be ineffective.

Q3: What reforms had been listed for the jurisdiction of the UN?

Ans As the UN completed 60 years of its existence, the heads of all the member-states met
in September 2005 to celebrate the anniversary and review the situation. The leaders in this
meeting decided that the following steps should be taken to make the UN more relevant in
the changing context.
● Creation of a Peacebuilding Commission.
● Acceptance of the responsibility of the international community in case of failures of
national governments to protect their own citizens from atrocities.
● Establishment of a Human Rights Council (operational since 19 June 2006).
● Agreements to achieve the Millennium Development Goals.
● Condemnation of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations.
● Creation of a Democracy Fund.
● An agreement to wind up the Trusteeship Council. It is not hard to see that these are
contentious issues for the UN.

For instance what should a Peacebuilding Commission do? Which international conflict it
would intervene in? Or What are human rights, what course of action would be taken when
they are violated? So reforms regarding jurisdiction of UN could not meet international
aspirations.

Q4: Explain the role of UN in a Unipolar World.

Ans: Certainly, here's the explanation broken down into points:

Introduction:
- Concerns exist about reforming the UN to better cope with a unipolar world where the US
holds dominant power.
- Some hope changes could help the UN serve as a balance against US dominance.

Challenges for the UN to Check US Hegemony:

1. Unmatched US Power:
- After the Soviet Union's collapse, the US stands as the sole superpower.
- Its military and economic might allow it to disregard the UN and other international
bodies.

2. Influence within the UN:

- The US is a significant contributor to the UN, yielding financial power.
- The UN's location on US territory grants additional influence.
- US nationals hold positions within the UN bureaucracy.
- US's veto power allows it to halt actions contrary to its interests.

3. Secretary General Selection:

- US's power influences the selection of the UN Secretary General.
- This power is used to divide the world and reduce opposition to US policies.

How UN Can Balance Power:

- Facilitating Discussions:
- Despite challenges, the UN brings the US and other nations together to discuss global
issues.
- US leaders recognize the UN's role in addressing conflicts, social matters, and economic
development.
- Voicing Concerns and Compromise:
- The UN provides a platform for raising concerns about specific US policies.
- It enables compromise and concessions to be negotiated between the US and other
nations.

Conclusion:
- The UN's role is not perfect, but it is crucial.
- Increasing global interdependence amplifies the importance of the UN.
- People and governments must find ways to work with international organizations to serve
their interests and global well-being.
- The UN serves as a vital forum for dialogue, cooperation, and striving for a more balanced
international order.

Please learn this:

top contributors to UN, logo of 60th anniversary of UN in 2005 ( according to 2019
version of the book).

The main organs of the UN

● The General Assembly
● The Security Council
● The Secretariat
● The International Court of Justice
● The Economic and Social Council
● The International Criminal Court ( inaugurated in March 2003)
The General Assembly:
It is also known as World Parliament.All member nations of UN are members of General
Assembly. It meets once in a year but special session can be called. Each member can send
up to five representatives, though there is one vote per nation.
Function: Its function is to discuss and make decisions about international problems, to
consider the UN budget and what amount each member should pay, to elect Security
Council members and to supervise the work of many other UN bodies.

The Security Council: Till 1965 it had 11 members, six non-permanent and five permanent
but in 1965 , the number of members increased to fifteen which includes 10 non permanent
members and five permanent members.
Function: Its function is to restore international peace and security for which it can call for
economic and military action against an aggressor. Security Council along with General
Assembly work together for selection procedure of member nations for different organs of
UN

The Secretariat: This is office staff of UN consist of over thousands of employees.

It is headed by the Secretary -General.
Function: They look after the administrative work, preparing minutes of meetings,
translations and information.

Who was the first Asian to hold the post of UN secretary General since 1971?

Ans. Ban Ki moon

Learn the table on page 87 and 89
Page:100
1.Define Security?

Ans. security implies freedom from threats.only those things that threaten ‘core values’
should be regarded as being of interest in discussions of security.security relates only to
extremely dangerous threats— threats that could so endanger core values that those values
would be damaged beyond repair if we did not do something to deal with the situation.

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2. Explain the features/attributes of external threat of tradition notion of security

Ans.The traditional notion of security, focused on external threats, has several key features
or attributes:

1. **Military Threats**: In this conception, the primary danger to a country's security arises
from military threats posed by other nations. This includes the possibility of armed conflicts
and the use of military force.

2. **Endangering Core Values**: The source of this danger is seen as another country that
threatens the core values of sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity. Military
actions are viewed as endangering not only a nation's government but also the lives of its
ordinary citizens.

3. **Civilian Targeting**: The traditional view acknowledges that in wartime, civilians are
often made targets to weaken public support for the war effort. This recognizes the broader
impact of military conflicts on society.

4. **Government Responses**: Governments facing these external threats have three basic
choices: surrender, deterrence, or defense. Surrender is rarely openly declared as a policy,
so the primary focus is on deterrence (preventing war) and defense (limiting or ending war).

5. **Deterrence and Defense**: Deterrence involves convincing potential adversaries that

the costs of war would be too high, thus dissuading them from initiating conflict. Defense, on
the other hand, involves actively repelling attacking forces and denying the aggressor its
objectives.

6. **Balance of Power**: Countries pay close attention to the balance of power in their region
and the world. They are sensitive to disparities in military, economic, and technological
capabilities, as an imbalance can indicate a potential threat in the future. Maintaining a
favorable balance of power often involves building up military strength.

7. **Alliance Building**: Alliances are formal coalitions of states that coordinate their actions
for deterrence or defense against military threats. These alliances are often based on shared
interests and can change as national interests evolve. The example of the U.S. initially
supporting Afghan militants against the Soviet Union but later clashing with them
demonstrates the fluid nature of alliances.
8. **External Focus**: In the traditional view, the majority of threats to a country's security are
perceived to come from outside its borders. The international system is seen as a
competitive and sometimes brutal arena where no central authority can effectively control
behavior. Consequently, each country is responsible for its own security.

These attributes collectively form the foundation of the traditional notion of security, which
places a strong emphasis on external military threats, the need for deterrence and defense,
the maintenance of a balance of power, and the strategic importance of alliances in
safeguarding a nation's security.

3. Explain three basic choices for a government to respond external threat of traditional
notions of security

Ans.In response to external threats in the traditional notion of security, governments have
three basic choices:

1. **Surrender**: While this choice is rarely openly declared as a policy, it is an option for
governments when confronted with an overwhelming external threat. Surrender involves
yielding to the demands or military pressure of the aggressor, effectively giving up one's
sovereignty and independence to avoid further conflict. However, governments typically do
not advertise this choice, as it can be politically and culturally unacceptable to surrender.

2. **Deterrence**: Deterrence is a proactive approach aimed at preventing war from

occurring in the first place. In this strategy, a government seeks to dissuade potential
aggressors by convincing them that the costs and risks of military action would be too high.
This may involve building up a strong military, showcasing the capability to retaliate
effectively, and establishing clear red lines or policies that signal a willingness to defend vital
interests. The objective is to make the prospect of conflict so unattractive that potential
adversaries choose not to engage in hostilities.

3. **Defense**: When diplomacy and deterrence fail, and war actually breaks out, the
government's third basic choice is defense. Defense involves actively repelling and
countering the attacking forces to deny the aggressor its objectives. This can include military
operations aimed at protecting the country's territory, population, and core values.
Governments may also seek international support or form alliances to bolster their defense
efforts.

These three choices—surrender, deterrence, and defense—represent the spectrum of

responses available to governments when facing external threats in the traditional security
paradigm. The choice among them depends on various factors, including the nature and
severity of the threat, the country's military capabilities, the geopolitical context, and the
government's assessment of its national interests and values.

4. Explain four angles of security policies in response to external threat of traditional notions
of security

Ans.
1. **Deterrence**:
 - **Preventing War**: Deterrence is a central aspect of traditional security policies.
Governments aim to prevent war by making the prospect of conflict unattractive to potential
aggressors. This is done through the credible threat of retaliation and the demonstration of
military strength.
- **Raising the Costs of War**: One angle of deterrence involves promising to raise the
costs of war to an unacceptable level for the aggressor. Governments may emphasize their
ability to withstand and respond to attacks, making any potential gains from aggression
seem outweighed by the potential losses.
- **Policy Signaling**: Governments use policy signals to communicate their resolve to
potential adversaries. These signals can take the form of public statements, military
exercises, or diplomatic posturing, all aimed at conveying a willingness to defend national
interests.

2. **Defense**:
- **Denying Objectives**: Defense is the response to an actual military attack.
Governments engage in defensive actions to thwart the objectives of the aggressor. This
involves protecting territorial integrity, securing borders, and safeguarding the lives and
well-being of citizens.
- **Military Operations**: Defensive measures may include deploying military forces to
repel invading forces, fortifying strategic positions, and conducting counteroffensives to
regain lost territory.
- **Resisting Aggression**: The goal of defense is to resist and ultimately defeat the
attacking country's forces or, at the very least, force them to withdraw without achieving their
objectives.

3. **Balance of Power**:
- **Assessing Relative Strength**: Governments closely monitor the balance of power
between their country and potential adversaries. They assess the military, economic, and
technological capabilities of both friendly and hostile states.
- **Maintaining Favorable Balance**: Maintaining a favorable balance of power is crucial to
deter aggression. This involves building up one's military strength, forming alliances, and
pursuing strategies that enhance national security vis-à-vis potential threats.
- **Preemptive Actions**: In some cases, governments may take preemptive actions to
prevent the emergence of a threatening power or to counterbalance an increasingly powerful
neighbor.

4. **Alliance Building**:
- **Formal Coalitions**: Governments engage in alliance building by forming formal
coalitions or alliances with other states that share common interests and concerns. These
alliances are often documented in treaties.
- **Coordinated Defense**: Alliances are intended to coordinate defense efforts against
potential aggressors. Member states pledge to come to each other's aid in the event of an
attack, enhancing their collective security.
- **Changing Alliances**: Alliance building is dynamic and can change based on shifts in
national interests. Governments may enter into or exit alliances as their perceptions of
external threats evolve.
Page:102
5. Explain various reasons for external threat of traditional notions of security or why most
threats to country's security come from outside it's boarders?

Ans.In the traditional view of security, then, most threats to a country’s security come from
outside its borders. That is because the international system is a rather brutal arena in which
there is no central authority capable of controlling behaviour. Within a country, the threat of
violence is regulated by an acknowledged central authority — the government. In world
politics, there is no acknowledged central authority that stands above everyone else. It is
tempting to think that the United Nations is such an authority or could become such an
institution. However, as presently constituted, the UN is a creature of its members and has
authority only to the extent that the membership allows it to have authority and obeys it. So,
in world politics, each country has to be responsible for its own security.

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6. Why were internal threats of traditional notions of security not given much importance by
the western or European countries even after the world war 2

Ans.Traditional security must also, therefore, concern itself with internal security. The reason
it is not given so much importance is that after the Second World War it seemed that, for the
most powerful countries on earth, internal security was more or less assured. While internal
security was certainly a part of the concerns of governments historically, after the Second
World War there was a context and situation in which internal security did not seem to matter
as much as it had in the past. After 1945, the US and the Soviet Union appeared to be
united and could expect peace within their borders. Most of the European countries,
particularly the powerful Western European countries, faced no serious threats from groups
or communities living within those borders. Therefore, these countries focused primarily on
threats from outside their borders.

7. Explain the prime security concerns of new independent countries of Asia Africa or
famous colony

Ans.

1. **Internal Security:** After gaining independence, many of these countries faced internal
security challenges due to separatist movements and ethnic or tribal conflicts. Maintaining
peace and stability within their borders was a top priority.

2. **Neighboring Threats:** These nations often had to contend with security threats from
neighboring countries. Border disputes, territorial conflicts, and historical animosities
sometimes led to tensions and the risk of armed conflict.

3. **Former Colonial Powers:** Some newly-independent countries were concerned about

potential aggression from their former colonial rulers. This fear arose from a history of
colonial oppression and a desire to safeguard their newfound sovereignty.

4. **Cold War Dynamics:** During the Cold War era, many newly-independent countries
found themselves caught in the geopolitical rivalry between the United States and the Soviet
Union. They worried about becoming proxy battlegrounds in the event of a superpower
confrontation.

5. **Securing Independence:** Securing and consolidating their newly acquired

independence was a significant challenge. This involved establishing effective governance,
law and order, and dealing with the legacy of colonialism.

6. **Internal Conflicts:** Apart from separatist movements, internal conflicts, often fueled by
political, ethnic, or religious differences, posed a threat to these countries' stability. Managing
and resolving these conflicts was crucial for their security.

7. **Economic Vulnerability:** Many newly-independent nations faced economic

vulnerabilities due to their colonial past. Achieving economic self-sufficiency and reducing
dependency on former colonial powers was a key security concern.

8. **Regional Alliances and Rivalries:** Joining regional alliances or organizations became

important for some countries to gain support and protection against external threats.
However, these alliances could also expose them to regional rivalries.

9. **Resource Scarcity:** Competition for valuable resources, such as water, arable land,
and minerals, often led to conflicts both within and between countries in these regions.

10. **Legacy of Colonial Borders:** The arbitrary borders drawn by colonial powers often did
not align with the ethnic or tribal divisions within these countries. This created ongoing
tensions and disputes over territorial control.

Page:104
9. How the security challenges facing the newly independent countries of Asia and Africa
were different from the challenges in Europe?

Ans.The security challenges facing the newly-independent countries of Asia and Africa were
different from the challenges in Europe in two ways. For one thing, the new countries faced
the prospect of military conflict with neighbouring countries. For another, they had to worry
about internal military conflict. These countries faced threats not only from outside their
borders, mostly from neighbours, but also from within. Many newly independent countries
came to fear their neighbours even more than they feared the US or Soviet Union or the
former colonial powers. They quarrelled over borders and territories or control of people and
populations or all of these simultaneously.

10. Explain various security challenges faced by newly independent countries of Asia and
Africa

11. Explain cooperation policy for traditional notion of security

Ans.

Page:106
12. explain the features of non traditional notions of security

Ans.Non-traditional notions of security go beyond military threats to include a wide range of

threats and dangers affecting the conditions of human existence. They begin by questioning
the traditional referent of security. In doing so, they also question the other three elements of
security — what is being secured, from what kind of threats and the approach to security.
When we say referent we mean ‘Security for who?’ In the traditional security conception, the
referent is the state with its territory and governing institutions. In the non-traditional
conceptions, the referent is expanded. When we ask ‘Security for who?’ proponents of non-
traditional security reply ‘Not just the state but also individuals or communities or indeed all
of humankind’. Non-traditional views of security have been called ‘human security’ or ‘global
security’

13. Explain the difference between traditional and non traditional notions of security

Ans.Traditional
1. Traditional notion is concerned with the use of the military, a war the balance of power
and alliance building.
2. Traditional notion is concerned with the state and its governing institutions.
3. It is confined to state only by thinking of internal and external threats
4. Its main focus is on force only to achieve the target.

Non-Traditional
1. It goes beyond military by threatening conditions necessary for human survival.
2. It covers a broad aspect of security i.e hunger diseases etc.
3. It covers not only the state but also all individuals or humankind.
4. It comprises cooperation, hence it protects human or global security.

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14. What are the new threats of 21st century
15. how terrorism is a new threat to security

Ans.Terrorism refers to political violence that targets civilians deliberately and

indiscriminately. International terrorism involves the citizens or territory of more than one
country. Terrorist groups seek to change a political context or condition that they do not like
by force or threat of force. Civilian targets are usually chosen to terrorise the public and to
use the unhappiness of the public as a weapon against national governments or other
parties in conflict. The classic cases of terrorism involve hijacking planes or planting bombs
in trains, cafes, marketsand other crowded places. Since 11 September 2001 when terrorists
attacked the World Trade Centre in America, other governments and public have paid more
attention to terrorism, though terrorism itself is not new. In the past, most of the terror attacks
have occurred in the Middle East, Europe, Latin America and South Asia.

Page:108
16. How violation of human rights is a new threat

Ans.Human rights have come to be classified into three types. The first type is political rights
such as freedom of speech and assembly. The second type is economic and social rights.
The third type is the rights of colonised people or ethnic and indigenous minorities. While
there is broad agreement on this classification, there is no agreement on which set of rights
should be considered as universal human rights, nor what the international community
should do when rights are being violated.Since the 1990s, developments such as Iraq’s
invasion of Kuwait, the genocide in Rwanda, and the Indonesian military’s killing of people in
East Timor have led to a debate on whether or not the UN should intervene to stop human
rights abuses. There are those who argue that the UN Charter empowers the international
community to take up arms in defence of human rights. Others argue that the national
interests of the powerful states will determine which instances of human rights violations the
UN will act upon

17. Classify 3 types of human rights to be ensured to promote security by international

community?

Ans. Human rights have come to be classified into three types.

The first type is political rights such as freedom of speech and assembly.
The second type is economic and social rights.
The third type is the rights of colonised people or ethnic and indigenous minorities.

Page:109
18. 6 most populous countries

19. How global poverty is new threat?

Ans.Global poverty is another source of insecurity. World population—now at 650 crore will
reach 700 to 800 crore within 25 years and may eventually level out at 900 to 1000 crore.
Currently, half the world’s population growth occurs in just six countries—India, China,
Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh and Indonesia. Among the world’s poorest countries,
population is expected to triple in the next 50 years, whereas many rich countries will see
population shrinkage in that period. High pera capita income and low population growth
make rich states or rich social groups get richer, whereas low incomes and high population
growth reinforce each other to make poor states and poor groups get poorer. Globally, this
disparity contributes to the gap between the Northern and Southern countries of the world.
Within the South, disparities have also sharpened, as a few countries have managed to slow
down population growth and raise incomes while others have failed to do so. For example,
most of the worlds armed conflicts now take place in sub-Saharan Africa, which is also the
poorest region of the world. At the turn of the 21st century, more people were being killed in
wars in this region than in the rest of the world combined.

Q. How global poverty reflects the gap between Northern and Southern countries

Ans. Globally, this disparity contributes to the gap between the Northern and Southern
countries of the world. Within the South, disparities have also sharpened, as a few countries
have managed to slow down population growth and raise incomes while others have failed
to do so. For example, most of the worlds armed conflicts now take place in sub-Saharan
Africa, which is also the poorest region of the world. At the turn of the 21st century, more
people were being killed in wars in this region than in the rest of the world combined.
20. Trace the reason responsible for global poverty

22. Global v/s global South

Page:110

23. How large scale illegal migration is a new threat to security

Ans. Poverty in the South has also led to large-scale migration to seek a better life,
especially better economic opportunities, in the North. This has created international political
frictions. International law and norms make a distinction between migrants (those who
voluntarily leave their home countries) and refugees (those who flee from war, natural
disaster or political persecution). States are generally supposed to accept refugees, but they
do not have to accept migrants. While refugees leave their country of origin, people who
have fled their homes but remain within national borders are called ‘internally displaced
people’. Kashmiri Pandits that fled the violence in the Kashmir Valley in the early 1990s are
an example of an internally displaced community.
The world refugee map tallies almost perfectly with the world conflicts map because wars
and armed conflicts in the South have generated millions of refugees seeking safe haven.
From 1990 to 1995, 70 states were involved in 93 wars which killed about 55 lakh people. As
a result, individuals, and families and, at times, whole communities have been forced to
migrate because of generalised fear of violence or due to the destruction of livelihoods,
identities and living environments. A look at the correlation between wars and refugee
migration shows that in the 1990s, all but three of the 60 refugee flows coincided with an
internal armed conflict

24. Difference between migrants and refugees

Ans a distinction between migrants (those who voluntarily leave their home countries) and
refugees (those who flee from war, natural disaster or political persecution). States are
generally supposed to accept refugees, but they do not have to accept migrants.

25. Define the term 'internally displaced people'

Ans. While refugees leave their country of

origin, people who have fled their homes but remain within national borders are called
‘internally displaced people’. Kashmiri Pandits that fled the violence in the Kashmir Valley in
the early 1990s are an example of an internally displaced community.

26. How health epidemic is a new threat

Ans. Health epidemics such as HIV-AIDS, bird flu, and severe acute respiratory syndrome
(SARS) have rapidly spread across countries through migration, business, tourism and
military operations. One country’s success or failure in limiting the spread of these diseases
affects infections in other countries.By 2003, an estimated 4 crore people were infected with
HIV- AIDS worldwide, two-thirds of them in Africa and half of the rest in South Asia. In North
America and other industrialised countries, new drug therapies dramatically lowered the
death rate from HIV-AIDS in the late 1990s. But these treatments were too expensive to help
poor regions like Africa where it has proved to be a major factor in driving the region
backward into deeper poverty. Other new and poorly understood diseases such as ebola
virus, hantavirus, and hepatitis C have emerged, while old diseases like tuberculosis,
malaria, dengue fever and cholera have mutated into drug resistant forms that are difficult to
treat. Epidemics among animals have major economic effects. Since the late 1990s, Britain
has lost billions of dollars of income during an outbreak of the mad-cow disease, and bird flu
shut down supplies of poultry exports from several Asian countries. Such epidemics
demonstrate the growing inter- dependence of states making their borders less meaningful
than in the past and emphasise the need for international cooperation. Expansion of the
concept of security does not mean that we can include any kind of disease or distress in the
ambit of security. If we do that, the concept of security stands to lose its coherence.
Everything could become a security issue. To qualify as a security problem, therefore, an
issue must share a minimum common criterion, say, of threatening the very existence of the
referent (a state or group of people) though the precise nature of this threat may be different.
For example, the Maldives may feel threatened by global warming because a big part of its
territory may be submerged with the rising sea level, whereas for countries in Southern
Africa, HIV-AIDS poses a serious threat as one in six adults has the disease (one in three for
Botswana, the worst case). In 1994, the Tutsi tribe in Rwanda faced a threat to its existence
as nearly five lakh of its people were killed by the rival Hutu tribe in a matter of weeks. This
shows that non-traditional conceptions of security, like traditional conceptions of security,
vary according to local contexts.

27. Name few epidemic

Ans.

These instances show that concept of non-traditional traditional new threat (probably)
variation according to region.

Page:112
28.Explain cooperate security policies to combat non traditional notions of security and new
threats

Ans. Cooperative security policies involve international cooperation to combat non-traditional

notions of security and new threats. This can take various forms, including sharing of
intelligence, joint military exercises, and disaster response mechanisms. Cooperative
security may also involve a variety of other players, both international and national, such as
international organizations (the UN, the World Health Organization, the World Bank, the IMF,
etc.), non-governmental organizations (Amnesty International, the Red Cross, private
foundations and charities, churches and religious organizations, trade unions, associations,
social and development organizations), businesses and corporations, and great personalities
(e.g. Mother Teresa, Nelson Mandela). The international community may have to sanction
the use of force to deal with governments that kill their own people or ignore the misery of
their populations who are devastated by poverty, disease, and catastrophe. It may have to
agree to the use of violence against international terrorists and those who harbor them.
(Page 14)
29. Explain India's Security strategy

Ans.India's security strategy has four broad components, which have been used in a varying
combination from time to time. The first component is strengthening its military capabilities
because India has been involved in conflicts with its neighbors - Pakistan in 1947-48, 1965,
1971, and 1999; and China in 1962. Since it is surrounded by nuclear-armed countries in the
South Asian region, India's decision to conduct nuclear tests in 1998 was justified by the
Indian government in terms of safeguarding national security. The second component of
India's security strategy has been to strengthen international norms and international
institutions to protect its security interests. The third component is to address non-traditional
security threats, such as terrorism, cyber attacks, and pandemics. The fourth component is
to promote economic development and social stability, as these are essential for national
security. (Page 15)
Q1:Define globalisation

Ans: Multidimensional phenomenon interconnecting the countries across the world is

globalisation.

Q2: Explain two main attributes of globalisation.

Ans: 1: Globalisation as a concept fundamentally deals with flows. These flows could be of
various kinds — ideas moving from one part of the world to another,capital shunted between
two or more places, commodities being traded across borders, and people moving in search
of better livelihoods to different parts of the world. The crucial element is the ‘worldwide
interconnectedness’ that is created and sustained as a consequence of these constant
flows.

2: Globalisation is a multi- dimensional concept. It has political, economic and cultural

manifestations, and these must be adequately distinguished. It is wrong to assume that
globalisation has purely economic dimensions, just as it would also be mistaken to assume
that it is a purely cultural phenomenon. The impact of globalisation is vastly uneven — it
affects some societies more than others and some parts of some societies more than others
— and it is important to avoid drawing general conclusions about the impact of globalisation
without paying sufficient attention to specific contexts.

Q3: Explain various causes of Globalisation.

Ans: Globalisation has a strong historical basis, and it is important to view contemporary
flows against this backdrop. While globalisation is not caused by any single factor,
technology remains a critical element. There is no doubt that the invention of the telegraph,
the telephone, and the microchip in more recent times has revolutionised communication
between different parts of the world. When printing initially came into being it laid the basis
for the creation of nationalism. So also today we should expect that technology will affect the
Way we think of our personal but also our collective lives. The ability of ideas,
capital,commodities and people to move more easily from one part of the world to another
has been made possible largely by technological advances. The pace of these flows may
vary. For instance, the movement of capital and commodities will most likely be quicker and
wider than the movement of peoples across different parts of the world. Globalisation,
however, does not emerge merely because of the availability of improved communications.
What is important is for people in different parts of the world to recognise these
interconnections with the rest of the world. Currently, we are aware of the fact that events
taking place in one part of the world could have an impact on another part of the world. The
Bird flu or tsunami is not confined to any particular nation. It does not respect national
boundaries. Similarly,when major economic events take place, their impact is felt outside
their immediate local, national or regional environment at the global level.
(Main points to remember)
1: Historical background
2: Development of transport -communication , Science and Technology.
3: Interconnectedness
Q4: Explain Political Consequences of Globalisation.

Ans: At the most simple level, globalisation results in an erosion of state capacity, that is, the
ability of government to do what they do. All over the world, the old ‘welfare state’ is now
giving way to a more minimalist state that performs certain core functions such as the
maintenance of law and order and the security of its citizens. However, it withdraws from
many of its earlier welfare functions directed at economic and social well-being. In place of
the welfare state, it is the market that becomes the prime determinant of economic and
social priorities. The entry and the increased role of multinational companies all over the
world leads to a reduction in the capacity of governments to take decisions on their own. At
the same time, globalisation does not always reduce state capacity. The primacy of the state
continues to be the unchallenged basis of political community. The old jealousies and
rivalries between countries have not ceased to matter in world politics. The state continues
to discharge its essential functions (law and order ,national security) and consciously
withdraws from certain domains from which it wishes to. States continue to be important.
Indeed, in some respects state capacity has received a boost as a consequence of
globalisation, with enhanced technologies available at the disposal of the state to collect
information about its citizens. With this information, the state is better able to rule, not less
able. Thus, states become more powerful than they were earlier as an outcome of the new
technology.
Main points to remember
1: Erosion of State capacity
2: welfare state replaced by minimalist state
3: States continue to be important.
4: Technology has strengthened states

Q1: What debate is associated with

Ans: One of the debates that has been generated as a consequence of contemporary
processes of globalisation relates to its ongoing political impact.
the people who opposed Globalisation-
At the most simple level,globalisation results in an erosion of state capacity, that is, the
ability of government to do what they do. All over the world, the old ‘welfare state’ is now
giving way to a more minimalist state that performs certain core functions such as the
maintenance of law and order and the security of its citizens. However, it withdraws from
many of its earlier welfare functions directed at economic and social well-being. In place of
the welfare state, it is the market that becomes the prime determinant of economic and
social priorities. The entry and the increased role of multinational companies all over the
world leads to a reduction in the capacity of governments to take decisions on their own.

the people who supported Globalisation-

At the same time, globalisation does not always reduce state capacity. The primacy of the
state continues to be the unchallenged basis of political community. The old jealousies and
rivalries between countries have not ceased to matter in world politics. The state continues
to discharge its essential functions (law and order ,national security) and consciously
withdraws from certain domains from which it wishes to. States continue to be important.
Indeed, in some respects state capacity has received a boost as a consequence of
globalisation, with enhanced technologies available at the disposal of the state to collect
information about its citizens. With this information, the state is better able to rule, not less
able. Thus, states become more powerful than they were earlier as an outcome of the new
technology.

Q2: Define Welfare State and Minimalist State.

Ans: State directing Welfare functions for economic and social well-being of people known
as Welfare State.
In contemporary world, states have withdrawn from many of their earlier welfare functions
only perform certain core functions such as the maintenance of law and order and the
security of its citizens known as minimalist states.

Q3: Explain economic consequences of Globalisation. Or What debate is associated with

economic consequences of Globalisation?

Ans: While everything may not be known about the economic facets of globalisation, this
particular dimension shapes a large part of the content and direction of contemporary
debates surrounding globalisation. A part of the problem has to do with defining economic
globalisation itself. The mention of economic globalisation draws our attention immediately to
the role of international institutions like the IMF and the WTO and the role they play in
determining economic policies across the world. Yet,globalisation must not be viewed in
such narrow terms. Economic Globalisation involves many actors other than these
international institutions. A much broader way of understanding of economic Globalisation
requires us to look at the distribution of economic gains, i.e. who gets the most from
globalisation and who gets less, indeed who loses from it. What is often called economic
globalisation usually involves greater economic flows among different countries of the world.
Some of this is voluntary and some forced by international institutions and powerful
countries. As we saw in the examples at the beginning of this chapter, this flow or exchange
can take various forms: commodities, capital, people and ideas. Globalisation has involved
greater trade in commodities across the globe; the restrictions imposed by different countries
on allowing the imports of other countries have been reduced. Similarly, the restrictions on
movement of capital across countries have also been reduced. In operational terms, it
means that investors in the rich countries can invest their money in countries other than their
own, including developing countries, where they might get better returns. Globalisation has
also led to the flow of ideas across national boundaries. The spread of internet and computer
related services is an example of that. But globalisation has not led to the same degree of
increase in the movement of people across the globe. Developed countries have carefully
guarded their borders with visa policies to ensure that citizens of other countries cannot take
away the jobs of their own citizens. In thinking about the consequences of globalisation, it is
necessary to keep in mind that the same set of policies do not lead to the same results
everywhere. While globalisation has led to similar economic policies adopted by
governments in different parts of the world, this has generated vastly different outcomes in
different parts of the world. It is again crucial to pay attention to specific context rather than
make simple generalisations in this connection.

view of those opposes the economic consequence of Globalisation-

Economic globalisation has created an intense division of opinion all over the world. Those
who are concerned about social justice are worried about the extent of state withdrawal
caused by processes of economic globalisation. They point out that it is likely to benefit only
a small section of the population while impoverishing those who were dependent on the
government for jobs and welfare (education, health, sanitation, etc.). They have emphasised
the need to ensure institutional safeguards or creating ‘social safety nets’ to minimise the
negative effects of globalisation on those who are economically weak. Many movements all
over the world feel that safety nets are insufficient or unworkable. They have called for a halt
to forced economic globalisation, for its results would lead to economic ruin for the weaker
countries, especially for the poor within these countries. Some economists have described
economic globalisation as re-colonisation of the world.

view of those who supports the economic consequences of Globalisation-

Advocates of economic globalisation argue that it generates greater economic growth and
well-being for larger sections of the population when there is de-regulation. Greater trade
among countries allows each economy to do what it does best. This would benefit the whole
world. They also argue that economic globalisation is inevitable and it is not wise to resist
the march of history. More moderate supporters of globalisation say that globalisation
provides a challenge that can be responded to intelligently without accepting it uncritically.
What, however, cannot be denied is the increased momentum towards inter - dependence
and integration between governments, businesses, and ordinary people in different parts of
the world as a result of globalisation.
Otherwise :

Q4: Explain cultural consequences of Globalisation.Or What debate is associated with

cultural consequences of Globalisation?

Ans: The consequences of globalisation are not confined only to the sphere of politics and
economy. Globalisation affects us in our home, in what we eat, drink, wear and indeed in
what we think. It shapes what we think are our preferences. The cultural effect of
globalisation leads to the fear that this process poses a threat to cultures in the world. It does
so, because globalisation leads to the rise of a uniform culture or what is called cultural
homogenisation. The rise of a uniform culture is not the emergence of a global culture. What
we have in the nameof a global culture is the imposition of Western culture on the rest of the
world. We have already studied this phenomenon as the soft power of US hegemony in
Chapter 3. The popularity of a burger or blue jeans, some argue, has a lot to do with the
powerful influence of the American way of life. Thus, the culture of the politically and
economically dominant society leaves its imprint on a less powerful society, and the world
begins to look more like the dominant power wishes it to be. Those who make this argument
often draw attention to the ‘McDonaldization’ of the world, with cultures seeking to buy into
the dominant American dream. This is dangerous not only for the poor countries but for the
whole of humanity, for it leads to the shrinking of the rich cultural heritage of the entire globe.
At the same time, it would be a mistake to assume that cultural consequences of
globalisation are only negative. Cultures are not static things. All cultures accept outside
influences all the time. Some external influences are negative because they reduce our
choices. But sometimes external influences simply enlarge our choices, and sometimes they
modify our culture without overwhelming the traditional. The burger is no substitute for a
masala dosa and, therefore, does not pose any real challenge. It is simply added on to our
food choices. Blue jeans, on the other hand, can go well with a homespun khadi kurta. Here
the outcome of outside influence is a new combination that is unique —a khadi kurta worn
over jeans.Interestingly, this clothing combination has been exported back to the country that
gave us blue jeans so that it is possible to see young Americans wearing a kurta and jeans!
While cultural homogenisation is an aspect of globalisation, the same process also
generates precisely the opposite effect. It leads to each culture becoming more different and
distinctive. This phenomenon is called cultural heterogenisation. This is not to deny that
there remain differences in power when cultures interact but instead more fundamentally to
suggest that cultural exchange is rarely one way.

Q5: Define cultural homogenisation and cultural heterogenisation.

Ans: Globalisation leads to the rise of a uniform culture it is known as cultural

homogenisation.
Globalisation has also lead to each culture becoming more different and distinctive . This
phenomenon is called cultural heterogenization.

Q: What is McDonaldisation?

Ans: McDonald reflects US Soft Power. Other cultures seeking to buy into the dominant
American dream which is dangerous not only for the poor countries but for the whole of
humanity , for it leads to the shrinking of the rich cultural heritage of the entire globe.

Q: Give one example of cultural homogenisation.

Ans: All cultures accept outside influences all the time. Some external influences are
negative because they reduce our choices. But sometimes external influences simply
enlarge our choices, and sometimes they modify our culture without overwhelming the
traditional. The burger is no substitute for a masala dosa and, therefore, does not pose any
real challenge. It is simply added on to our food choices. Blue jeans, on the other hand, can
go well with a homespun khadi kurta. Here the outcome of outside influence is a new
combination that is unique —a khadi kurta worn over jeans. Interestingly, this clothing
combination has been exported back to the country that gave us blue jeans so that it is
possible to see young Americans wearing a kurta and jeans!

Q: Explain different phases of Globalisation in India.

Ans: 1) globalisation has occurred in earlier periods in history in different parts of the world.
Flows pertaining to the movement of capital, commodities, ideas and people go back several
centuries in Indian history. During the colonial period, as a consequence of Britain’s imperial
ambitions, India became an exporter of primary goods and raw materials and a consumer of
finished goods.

2) After independence, because of this experience with the British, we decided to make
things ourselves rather than relying on others. We also decided not to allow others to export
to us so that our own producers could learn to make things. This ‘protectionism’ generated
its own problems. While some advances were made in certain arenas,critical sectors such
as health,housing and primary education did not receive the attention they deserved. India
had a fairly sluggish rate of economic growth.
3) In 1991, responding to a financial crisis and to the desire for higher rates of economic
growth, India embarked on a programme of economic reforms that has sought increasingly
to de-regulate various sectors including trade and foreign investment.

Q: Why there is resistance to Globalisation

Ans: Critics of globalisation make a variety of arguments. Those on the left argue that
contemporary globalisation represents a particular phase of global capitalism that makes the
rich richer (and fewer) and the poor poorer. Weakening of the state leads to a reduction in
the capacity of the state to protect the interest of its poor. Critics of globalisation from the
political right express anxiety over the political, economic and cultural effects. In political
terms, they also fear the weakening of the state. Economically, they want a return to
self-reliance and protectionism, at least in certain area of the economy. Culturally, they are
worried that traditional culture will be harmed and people will lose their age-old values and
ways. It is important to note here that anti-globalisation movements too participate in global
networks, allying with those who feel like them in other countries. Many anti-globalisation
movements are not opposed to the idea of globalisation per se as much as they are opposed
to a specific programme of globalisation, which they see as a form of imperialism.

Q: How is globalisation resisted at International level

Ans: In 1999, at the World Trade Organisation (WTO) Ministerial Meeting there were
widespread protests at Seattle alleging unfair trading practices by the economically powerful
states. It was argued that the interests of the developing world were not given sufficient
importance in the evolving global economic system. The World Social Forum (WSF) is
another global platform, which brings together a wide coalition composed of human rights
activists, environmentalists, labour, youth and women activists opposed to neo-liberal
globalisation. The first WSF meeting was organised in Porto Alegre, Brazil in 2001. The
fourth WSF meeting was held in Mumbai in 2004. The latest WSF meeting was held in Brazil
in March 2018.
(Learn The Meaning, Significance and venues of meetings of WSF - Very imp)

Q: How is globalisation resisted in India

Ans: Social movements play a role in helping people make sense of the world around them
and finding ways to deal with matters that trouble them. Resistance to globalisation in India
has come from different quarters. There have been left wing protests to economic
liberalisation voiced through political parties as well as through forums like the Indian Social
Forum. Trade unions of industrial workforce as well as those representing farmer interests
have organised protests against the entry of multinationals. The patenting of certain plants
like Neem by American and European firms has also generated considerable opposition.
Resistance to globalisation has also come from the political right. This has taken the form of
objecting particularly to various cultural influences — ranging from the availability of foreign
T.V. channels provided by cable networks, celebration of Valentine’s Day, and westernisation
of the dress tastes of girl students in schools and colleges.
Q1: When India became republic?

Ans: The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and signed on 24January
1950 and it came into effect on 26 January 1950 and India became Republic.

Q2: When was the Election Commission of India formed ? Who was the first Chief Election
Commissioner?

Ans: It was set up in January 1950. Sukumar Sen was the Chief Election Commissioner.

Q3: Explain various challenges faced by the Election Commission in conducting the first
general election in India. OR "Why conducting India's first general election was appeared as
a mammoth exercise by the Election Commission".

Ans: But the Election Commission discovered that it was not going to be easy to hold a free
and fair election in a country of India’s size. Holding an election required delimitation or
drawing the boundaries of the electoral constituencies. It also required preparing the
electoral rolls, or the list of all the citizens eligible to vote. Both these tasks took a lot of time.
When the first draft of the rolls was published, it was discovered that the names of nearly 40
lakh women were not recorded in the list. They were simply listed as “wife of …” or “daughter
of …”. The Election Commission refused to accept these entries and ordered a revision if
possible and deletion if necessary.
Preparing for the first general election was a mammoth exercise. No election on this scale
had ever been conducted in the world before. At that time there were 17 crore eligible voters,
who had to elect about 3,200 MLAs and 489 Members of Lok Sabha. Only 15 percent of
these eligible voters were literate. Therefore the Election Commission had to think of some
special method of voting. The Election Commission trained over 3 lakh officers and polling
staff to conduct the elections. It was not just the size of the country and the electorate that
made this election unusual.
The first general election was also the first big test of democracy in a poor and illiterate
country. Till then democracy had existed only in the prosperous countries, mainly in Europe
and North America, where nearly everyone was literate. By that time many countries in
Europe had not given voting rights to all women. In this context India’s experiment with
universal adult franchise appeared very bold and risky. An Indian editor called it “the biggest
gamble in history”. Organiser, a magazine, wrote that Jawaharlal Nehru “would live to
confess the failure of universal adult franchise in India”. A British member of the Indian Civil
Service claimed that “a future and more enlightened age will view with astonishment the
absurd farce of recording the votes of millions of illiterate people

Q4: Why India's first general election was known as 1952 election?

Ans: The elections had to be postponed twice and finally held from October 1951 to
February 1952. But this election is referred to as the 1952 election since most parts of the
country voted in January 1952. It took six months for the campaigning, polling and counting
to be completed.

Q5:How ,First general election did prove all critics , wrong?

Ans:The elections had to be postponed twice and finally held from October 1951 to February
1952. But this election is referred to as the 1952 election since most parts of the country
voted in January 1952. It took six months for the campaigning, polling and counting to be
completed.Elections were competitive – there were on an average more than four
candidates for each seat. The level of participation was encouraging — more than half the
eligible voters turned out to vote on the day of elections. When the results were declared
these were accepted as fair even by the losers. The Indian experiment had proved the critics
wrong.
The Times of India held that the polls have “confounded all those sceptics who thought the
introduction of adult franchise too risky an experiment in this country”.
The Hindustan Times claimed that “there is universal agreement that the Indian people
have conducted themselves admirably in the largest experiment in democratic elections in
the history of the world”.
Observers outside India were equally impressed. India’s general election of 1952 became
a landmark in the history of democracy all over the world. It was no longer possible to argue
that democratic elections could not be held in conditions of poverty or lack of education. It
proved that democracy could be practiced anywhere in the world

Q6: Explain Congress dominance in the first three general elections.

Ans: The results of the first general election did not surprise anyone. The Indian National
Congress was expected to win this election. The Congress party, as it was popularly known,
had inherited the legacy of the national movement. It was the only party then to have an
organisation spread all over the country. And finally, in Jawaharlal Nehru, the party had the
most popular and charismatic leader in Indian politics. He led the Congress campaign and
toured through the country. When the final results were declared, the extent of the victory of
the Congress did surprise many. The party won 364 of the 489 seats in the first Lok Sabha
and finished way ahead of any other challenger. The Communist Party of India that came
next in terms of seats won only 16 seats. The state elections were held with theLok Sabha
elections. The Congress scored big victory in those elections as well. It won a majority of
seats in all the states except Travancore-Cochin (part of today’s Kerala), Madras and Orissa.
Finally even in these states the Congress formed the government. So the party ruled all over
the country at the national and the state level. As expected, Jawaharlal Nehru became the
Prime Minister after the first general election. A look at the electoral map on the previous
page would give you a sense of the dominance of the Congress during the period
1952-1962.
In the second and the third general elections, held in 1957 and 1962 respectively, the
Congress maintained the same position in the Lok Sabha by winning three-fourth of the
seats. None of the opposition parties could win even one-tenth of the number of seats won
by the Congress. In the state assembly elections, the Congress did not get majority in a few
cases. The most significant of these cases was in Kerala in 1957 when a coalition led by the
CPI formed the government. Apart from exceptions like this, the Congress controlled the
national and all the state governments.
.Pl do add some information from page 31: pie graph.

Q7: How can you say first three general elections were multi party contest?
Ans: As various Political parties contested the election. Elections were competitive as there
were on an average more than four candidates for each seat. Moreover many Political
parties like CPI, SP, KMPP, PDF, GP, HMS, SCF, BJS ,SWA, JS, DMK,SOC contested for
Lok Sabha seat. CPI was the party to win second highest number of Lok Sabha seat in three
general elections like 16 seats in first general election, 27 in Second and 29 seats in third.
( Pl write the information I asked you to write about other parties , their full names,
the seat acquired by them as given in the graph , page 31)

Q8: What speculations were generated after Nehru' s death?

Ans: write first and second para of first page of Lesson 5. Prime minister Jawahar Lal Nehru
passed away....able to manage a democratic succession.

Q1: Explain various factors responsible for the early success of the Congress.

Ans: 1: Legacy of the freedom struggle: In fact, many parties were formed only around
independence or after that. Thus, the Congress had the ‘first off the blocks’ advantage. By
the time of independence the party had not only spread across the length and breadth of the
country as we had seen in the maps but also had an organisational network down to the
local level. Most importantly, as the Congress was till recently a national movement, its
nature was all-inclusive. All these factors contributed to the dominance of the Congress
party.

2: Congress as Social coalition:

Congress evolved from its origins in 1885 as a pressure group for the newly educated,
professional and commercial classes to a mass movement in the twentieth century. This laid
the basis for its eventual transformation into a mass political party and its subsequent
domination of the political system. Thus the Congress began as a party dominated by the
English speaking, upper caste, upper middle-class and urban elite. But with every civil
disobedience movement it launched, its social base widened. It brought together diverse
groups, whose interests were often contradictory. Peasants and industrialists, urban dwellers
and villagers, workers and owners, middle, lower and upper classes and castes, all found
space in the Congress. Gradually, its leadership also expanded beyond the upper caste and
upper class professionals to agriculture based leaders with a rural orientation. By the time of
independence, the Congress was transformed into a rainbow-like social coalition broadly
representing India’s diversity in terms of classes and castes, religions and languages and
various interests.

3: Congress as ideological coalition:

Many of these groups merged their identity within the Congress. Very often they did not and
continued to exist within the Congress as groups and individuals holding different beliefs. In
this sense the Congress was an ideological coalition as well. It accommodated the
revolutionary and pacifist, conservative and radical, extremist and moderate and the right,
left and all shades of the centre. The Congress was a ‘platform’ for numerous groups,
interests and even political parties to take part in the national movement. In
pre-independence days, many organisations and parties with their own constitution and
organisational structure were allowed to exist within the Congress.Some of these, like the
Congress Socialist Party, later separated from the Congress and became opposition parties.
Despite differences regarding the methods, specific programmes and policies the party
managed to contain if not resolve differences and build a consensus.

4: Tolerance and management of factions: This coalition-like character of the Congress gave
it an unusual strength. Firstly, a coalition accommodates all those who join it. Therefore, it
has to avoid any extreme position and strike a balance on almost all issues. Compromise
and inclusiveness are the hallmarks of a coalition. This strategy put the opposition in a
difficulty. Anything that the opposition wanted to say, would also find a place in the
programme and ideology of the Congress. Secondly, in a party that has the nature of a
coalition, there is a greater tolerance of internal differences and ambitions of various groups
and leaders are accommodated. The Congress did both these things during the freedom
struggle and continued doing this even after Independence. That is why, even if a group was
not happy with the position of the party or with its share of power, it would remain inside the
party and fight the other groups rather than leaving the party and becoming an ‘opposition’.
These groups inside the party are called factions. The coalitional nature of the Congress
party tolerated and in fact encouraged various factions. Some of these factions were based
on ideological considerations but very often these factions were rooted in personal ambitions
and rivalries. Instead of being a weakness, internal factionalism became a strength of the
Congress. Since there was room within the party for various factions to fight with each other,
it meant that leaders representing different interests and ideologies remained within the
Congress rather than go out and form a new party.

Q2: Explain the role of opposition parties since independence or after independence.

Ans: As we have noted above, it is not that India did not have opposition parties during this
period. While discussing the results of the elections, we have already come across the
names of many parties other than the Congress. Even then India had a larger number of
diverse and vibrant opposition parties than many other multi-party democracies.

Main answer
Some of these had come into being even before the first general election of 1952. Some of
these parties played an important part in the politics of the country in the ’sixties and
’seventies. The roots of almost all the non-Congress parties of today can be traced to one or
the other of the opposition parties of the 1950s.All these opposition parties succeeded in
gaining only a token representation in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies during this
period. Yet their presence played a crucial role in maintaining the democratic character of the
system. These parties offered a sustained and often principled criticism of the policies and
practices of the Congress party. This kept the ruling party under check and often changed
the balance of power within the Congress. By keeping democratic political alternative
alive,first para of 42. Write example of the parties given in the book) .

Q3: Explain the cordial relation between Congress and opposition parties in early years after
independence.

Ans: In the early years there was a lot of mutual respect between the leaders of the
Congress and those of the opposition. The interim government that ruled the country after
the declaration of Independence and the first general election included opposition leaders
like Dr. Ambedkar and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee in the cabinet. Jawaharlal Nehru often
referred to his fondness for the Socialist Party and invited socialist leaders like Jayaprakash
Narayan to join his government. This kind of personal relationship with and respect for
political adversaries declined after the party competition grew more intense.

Please learn four Political Parties given in the book : Swatantra Party, Bhartiya Jana
Sangha, The Communist Party of India, Socialist Party under following headings:
Symbol of the party.
Year of Formation.
Name of main leaders.
Ideology of the party.
Any split , New party.
Q1: How was planning or Centralised planning executed in India?

Ans: 1: Planning Commission is not one of the many commissions and other bodies set up
by the Constitution. The Planning Commission was set up in March, 1950 by a simple
resolution of the Government of India. It has an advisory role and its recommendations
become effective only when the Union Cabinet approved these. The resolution which set up
the Commission defined the scope of its work in the following terms :

Objective of commission
(a) that the citizens, men and women equally, have the right to an adequate means of
livelihood ;
(b) that the ownership and control of the material resources of the community are so
distributed as best to subserve the common good;
(This means that in a community, the stuff we need, like land, money, and things,
should be shared fairly so that it helps everyone in the community and not just a few
people.)

(c) that the operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration of wealth
and means of production to the common detriment.

2: Planning Commission opted for Five Year Plan

1951-56 1st five year plan
1956-61 2nd five year plan
1961-66 3rd five year plan
1966- plan holiday
1966-1969- 3 annual plan
2012 12th five year plan

3: Budget divided into Plan and Non plan budget: As in the USSR, the Planning Commission
of India opted for five year plans (FYP). The idea is very simple: the government of India
prepares a document that has a plan for all its income and expenditure for the next five
years. Accordingly the budget of the central and all the State governments is divided into two
parts: ‘non-plan’ budget that is spenton routine items on a yearly basis and ‘plan’ budget that
is spent on a five year basis as per the priorities fixed by the plan. A five year plan has the
advantage of permitting the government to focus on the larger picture and make long-term
intervention in the economy.

The draft of the First Five Year Plan and then the actual Plan Document, released in
December 1951, generated a lot of excitement in the country. People from all walks of life –
academics, journalists, government and private sector employees, industrialists, farmers,
politicians etc. – discussed and debated the documents extensively. The excitement with
planning reached its peak with the launching of the Second Five Year Plan in 1956 and
continued somewhat till the Third Five Year Plan in 1961. The Fourth Plan was due to start in
1966. By this time, the novelty of planning had declined considerably, and moreover, India
was facing acute economic crisis. The government decided to take a ‘plan holiday’. Though
many criticisms emerged both about the process and the priorities of these plans, the
foundation of India’s economic development was firmly in place by then.
 Q: Which two models of modern development India had before it on the Eve of
Independence?

Ans: On the eve of independence, India had before it, two models of modern development:
the liberal-capitalist model as in much of Europe and the US and the socialist model as in
the USSR. There were many in India then who were deeply impressed by the Soviet model
of development. These included not just the leaders of the Communist Party of India, but
also those of the Socialist Party and leaders like Nehru within the Congress. There were
very few supporters of the American style capitalist development.

Q: Explain various factors which promoted or strengthened the concept of Planning or

Centralized Planning in India.

Ans: 1:Two model of modern development:On the eve of independence, India had before it,
two models of modern development: the liberal-capitalist model as in much of Europe and
the US and the socialist model as in the USSR. You have already studied these two
ideologies and read about the ‘cold war’ between the two super powers. There were many in
India then who were deeply impressed by the Soviet model of development. These included
not just the leaders of the Communist Party of India, but also those of the Socialist Party and
leaders like Nehru within the Congress. There were very few supporters of the American
style capitalist development.

2: This reflected a broad consensus that had developed during the national movement. The
nationalist leaders were clear that the economic concerns of the government of free India
would have to be different from the narrowly defined commercial functions of the colonial
government. It was clear, moreover, that the task of poverty alleviation and social and
economic redistribution was being seen primarily as the responsibility of the government.
There were debates among them. For some, industrialisation seemed to be the preferred
path. For others, the development of agriculture and in particular alleviation of rural poverty
was the priority.

3: International happenings Despite the various differences, there was a consensus on one
point: that development could not be left to private actors, that there was the need for the
government to develop a design or plan for development. In fact the idea of planning as a
process of rebuilding economy earned a good deal of public support in the 1940s and 1950s
all over the world. The experience of Great Depression in Europe, the inter-war
reconstruction of Japan and Germany, and most of all the spectacular economic growth
against heavy odds in the Soviet Union in the 1930s and 1940s contributed to this
consensus.

4: Bombay Plan:the Planning Commission was not a sudden invention. In fact, it has a very
interesting history. We commonly assume that private investors, such as industrialists and
big business entrepreneurs, are averse to ideas of planning: they seek an open economy
without any state control in the flow of capital. That was not what happened here. Rather, a
section of the big industrialists got together in 1944 and drafted a joint proposal for setting up
a planned economy in the country. It was called the Bombay Plan. The Bombay Plan wanted
the state to take major initiatives in industrial and other economic investments. Thus, from
left to right, planning for development was the most obvious choice for the country after
independence. Soon after India became independent, the Planning Commission came into
being. The Prime Minister was its Chairperson. It became the most influential and central
machinery for deciding what path and strategy India would adopt for its development.

Q: Explain the formation and objectives of the Planning Commission.

Ans Objective of commission

(a) that the citizens, men and women equally, have the right to an adequate means of
livelihood ;
(b) that the ownership and control of the material resources of the community are so
distributed as best to subserve the common good;
(This means that in a community, the stuff we need, like land, money, and things, should be
shared fairly so that it helps everyone in the community and not just a few people.)

(c) that the operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration of wealth
and means of production to the common detriment.

Q: Define budget and classify it's plan and Non plan budget.

Ans: budget- the government of India prepares a document that has a plan for all its income
and expenditure for the
next five years
Accordingly the budget of the central and all the State governments is divided into two parts:
‘non-plan’ budget that is spent on routine items on a yearly basis and ‘plan’ budget that is
spent on a five year basis as per the priorities fixed by the plan. A five year plan has the
advantage of permitting the government to focus on the larger picture and make long-term
intervention in the economy.

Q: Explain the features of First Five Year Plan.

Ans :The First Five Year Plan (1951–1956) sought to get the country’s economy out of the
cycle of poverty. K.N. Raj, a young economist involved in drafting the plan, argued that India
should ‘hasten slowly’ for the first two decades as a fast rate of development might endanger
democracy. The First Five Year Plan addressed, mainly, the agrarian sector including
investment in dams and irrigation.Agricultural sector was hit hardest by partition and needed
urgent attention. Huge allocations were made for large-scale projects like the Bhakhra
Nangal Dam. The Plan identified the pattern of land distribution in the country as the
principal obstacle in the way of agricultural growth. It focused on land reforms as the key to
the country’s development. One of the basic aims of the planners was to raise the level of
national income, which could be possible only if the people saved more money than they
spent. As the basic level of spending was very low in the 1950s, it could not be reduced any
more. So the planners sought to push savings up. That too was difficult as the total capital
stock in the country was rather low compared to the total number of employable people.
Nevertheless, people’s savings did rise in the first phase of the planned process until the end
of the Third Five Year Plan. But, the rise was not as spectacular as was expected at the
beginning of the First Plan. Later, from the early 1960s till the early 1970s, the proportion of
savings in the country actually dropped consistently.
Q: Explain the features of Second Five Year Plan and it's challenges.

Ans: features- The Second FYP stressed on heavy industries. It was drafted by a team of
economists and planners under the leadership of P. C. Mahalanobis. If the first plan had
preached patience, the second wanted to bring about quick structural transformation by
making changes simultaneously in all possible directions. Before this plan was finalised, the
Congress party at its session held at Avadi near the then Madras city, passed an important
resolution. It declared that ‘socialist pattern of society’ was its goal. This was reflected in the
second plan. The government imposed substantial tariffs on imports in order to protect
domestic industries. Such protected environment helped both public and private sector
industries to grow. As savings and investment were growing in this period, a bulk of these
industries like electricity, railways, steel, machineries and communication could be
developed in the public sector. Indeed, such a push for industrialisation marked a turning
point in India’s development.

Problems- It, however, had its problems as well. India was technologically backward, so it
had to spend precious foreign exchange to buy technology from the global market. That
apart, as industry attracted more investment than agriculture, the possibility of food shortage
loomed large. The Indian planners found balancing industry and agriculture really difficult.
The Third Plan was not significantly different from the Second. Critics pointed out that the
plan strategies from this time around displayed an unmistakable “urban bias”. Others thought
that industry was wrongly given priority over agriculture. There were also those who wanted
focus on agriculture-related industries rather than heavy ones.

Q: How Government of India protected domestic industries during second Five Year Plan?

Ans: The Government imposed substantial tariff on imports in order to protect domestic
industries. Such protected environment helped both private and public sector industries to
grow.

. Q: When and why Government declared Plan Holiday?

Ans: 4th was due to due to start in 1966 but then government decided to take a plan holiday
due to economic crisis military crisis the decade of 60s was known as dangerous decade as
India faced various challenges like China's invasion in 1962 that of Nehru in May 1964 which
created political void and Indo Pak war 1965 along with inflation evaluation and employment
and oil crisis

Q: Explain the features of Third Five Year Plan.

Ans: Pl refer additional information and last few lines of page 53.

Planned development is economic development which is planned to centralised and

decentralised means like through five year plan in India with the objective of striking a
balance between economic development and justice is known as plan development
Posco plant was Indian and Korean venture m o u which was signed in 2005 and
expired in 2011 nearly 1200 hectare forest land was to be taken over for this

Why Government of Odisha signed mou for posco plant?

Ans. As the global demand for steel increases, Orissa, which has one of the largest reserves
of untapped iron ore in the country, is being seen as an important investment destination.
The State government hopes to cash in on this unprecedented demand for iron ore and has
signed Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with both international and domestic steel
makers. The government believes that this would bring in necessary capital investment and
proivde a lot of employment opportunities.

Why were tribals scared of posco plant?

Ans. The iron ore resources lie in some of the most underdeveloped and predominantly tribal
districts of the state. The tribal population fears that the setting up of industries would mean
displacement from their home and livelihood. The environmentalists fear that mining and
industry would pollute the environment. The central government feels that if the industry is
not allowed it would set a bad example and discourage investments in the country.

1.Different meaning of development for different sectors?

Ans.1. Different meaning of development for different sectors:

The concept of development holds different meanings for various segments of society. For
instance, an industrialist planning to establish a steel plant, an urban consumer of steel, and
an Adivasi residing in the region where the plant is proposed would each perceive
development differently. This diversity in perspectives underscores the existence of
contradictions, conflicts, and debates in any discussion on development ,[object Object],.

2. Difference in Development of Ideas in Westernization and Modernization

Ans.2. Difference in Development of Ideas in Westernization and Modernization:

The notion of development has historically been associated with the Western model, which
involves the breakdown of traditional social structures, the rise of capitalism and liberalism,
and the pursuit of growth, material progress, and scientific rationality. However, it is
important to question whether it is necessary to emulate the Western model in order to
achieve modernity. This prompts us to consider the possibility of being modern without
conforming to Western ideals ,[object Object],.
Q: Define Foreign Policy

Ans: A policy which determines external relation of one nation with other countries based on
various principles and ideologies known as the foreign policy.

Q: Mention two objectives or aims of India's foreign policy

Ans: To respect the sovereignty of all other nations

To achieve security through the maintenance of peace.

Q: Explain international factors which influenced India's Foreign Policy.

Ans: India was born in a very trying and challenging international context. The world had
witnessed a devastating war and was grappling with issues of reconstruction; yet another
attempt to establish an international body was underway; many new countries were
emerging as a result of the collapse of colonialism; and most new nations were trying to
come to terms with the twin challenges of welfare and democracy. The foreign policy of a
nation reflects the interplay of domestic and external factors. Therefore, the noble ideals that
inspired India’s struggle for freedom influenced the making of its foreign policy. But India’s
attainment of independence coincided with the beginning of the Cold War era. As you read in
the first chapter of the book, Contemporary World Politics, this period was marked by the
political, economic, and military confrontation at the global level between the two blocs led
by the superpowers, the US and the USSR. The same period also witnessed developments
like the establishment of the UN, the creation of nuclear weapons, the emergence of
CommunistChina, and the beginning of decolonisation. So India’s leadership had to pursue
its national interests within the prevailing international context.

Q: Why the developing countries pursue more modest goal through their foreign policy?

Ans: The developing countries lack the required resources to effectively advocate their
concerns in the international system. So they pursue more modest goals than the advanced
states. They focus more on peace and development in their own neighbourhood. Moreover,
their economic and security dependence on the more powerful states occasionally
influences their foreign policy.

Q1: Explain the Constitutional principles or Directive Principles which promote international
peace and security or highlights objective of India ' s Foreign Policy.

Ans: Article 51 of the Indian Constitution lays down some Directive Principles of State Policy
on ‘Promotion of international peace and security’.

“The State shall endeavour to –

(a) Promote international peace and security

(b) Maintain just and honourable relations between nations
(c) Foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the dealings of organised
people with one another; and
(d) Encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration.”
Q2: Explain role of Jawahar Lal Nehru as a main architect of India's Foreign Policy.

Ans : write second para 1:of page 67, topic : Nehru's role
2:(Then add entire topic : Distance from two camps): India's attainment of independence
coincided with the beginning of the Cold War. The foreign policy of independent India
vigorously pursued the dream of a peaceful world.... military alliances led by US and Soviet
union against each other.
3:Afro -Asian unity ( entire topic from page 68)
4: Panchsheel ( From Ans2: Principles of India's Foreign Policy)

Q3: What were three main objectives Nehru's Foreign Policy?

Ans: Nehru’s foreign policy were to preserve the hard-earned sovereignty, protect territorial
integrity, and promote rapid economic development. Nehru wished to achieve these
objectives through the strategy of non-alignment.

Q4:Name the leaders and Political parties who supported pro - US foreign policy.

Ans: There were, of course, parties and groups in the country that believed that India should
be more friendly with the bloc led by the US because that bloc claimed to be pro-democracy.
Among those who thought on these lines were leaders like Dr Ambedkar. Some political
parties, which were opposed to communism, also wanted India to follow a pro-US foreign
policy. These included the Bharatiya Jan Sangh and later the Swatantra Party

Q5: Why was India's NAM criticised?

Ans: India advocated non-alignment as the ideal foreign policy approach. This was a difficult
balancing act and sometimes the balance did not appear perfect. In 1956 when Britain
attacked Egypt over the Suez Canal issue, India led the world protest against this
neo-colonial invasion. But in the same year when the USSR invaded Hungary, India did not
join its public condemnation. Despite such a situation, by and large India did take an
independent stand on various international issues and could get aid and assistance from
members of both the blocs.
Then you can add other two points from page 12, Book : World

Q6: How the policy of non alignment posed a regional challenge for India?

Ans: While India was trying to convince the other developing countries about the policy of
non-alignment, Pakistan joined the US-led military alliances. The US was not happy about
India’s independent initiatives and the policy of non-alignment. Therefore, there was a
considerable unease in Indo-US relations during the 1950s. The US also resented India’s
growing partnership with the Soviet Union.

Q7: How policy of non alignment posed challenge for economic development?

Ans: After independence the strategy of planned economic development adopted by India.
This policy emphasised import-substitution. The emphasis on developing a resource base
also meant that export oriented growth was limited. This development strategy limited India’s
economic interaction with the outside world

Q7: Freedom of which Asian country was supported by India in an international conference
in 1949?

Ans: Indonesia

Q8: When was the Afro -Asian conference of Bandung Conference organised? What was its
achievement?

Ans: The Afro-Asian conference held in the Indonesian city of Bandung in 1955, commonly
known as the Bandung Conference, marked the zenith of India’s engagement with the newly
independent Asian and African nations. The Bandung Conference later led to the
establishment of the NAM.

Q: Explain the views of Jawahar Lal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel for China.

Ans: Nehru felt strongly for this neighbour that was coming out of the shadow of western
domination and helped the new government in international fora. Some of his colleagues,
like Vallabhbhai Patel, were worried about a possible Chinese aggression in future.

Q: Explain early relationship between India and China.

Ans: Unlike its relationship with Pakistan, free India began its relationship with China on a
very friendly note. After the Chinese revolution in 1949, India was one of the first countries to
recognise the communist government. Nehru felt strongly for this neighbour that was coming
out of the shadow of western domination and helped the new government in international
fora. Some of his colleagues, like Vallabhbhai Patel, were worried about a possible Chinese
aggression in future. But Nehru thought it was ‘exceedingly unlikely’ that India will face an
attack from China. For a very long time, the Chinese border was guarded by para-military
forces, not the army. The joint enunciation of Panchsheel, the Five Principles of Peaceful
Coexistence, by the Indian Prime Minister Nehru and the Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai on 29
April 1954 was a step in the direction of stronger relationship between the two countries.
Indian and Chinese leaders visited each other’s country and were greeted by large and
friendly crowds.

Q: When and between whom was Panchsheel signed

Ans: The joint enunciation of Panchsheel, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, by
the Indian Prime Minister Nehru and the Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai on 29 April 1954 was a
step in the direction of stronger relationship between the two countries.

Q: Explain Tibet annexation by China

Ans: page 69, entire topic

Main points-
1950- China took over Tibet
1956- The Tibetan spiritual leader Dalai Lama and Zhou Enlai visited India
1958- Armed Uprising in Tibet
1958-Dalai Lama seeked political asylum in India

Q: Explain the Chinese invasion in 1962

Ans: China launched a swift and massive invasion in October 1962 on both the disputed
regions. The first attack lasted one week and Chinese forces captured some key areas in
Arunachal Pradesh. The second wave of attack came next month. While the Indian forces
could block the Chinese advances on the western front in Ladakh, in the east the Chinese
managed to advance nearly to the entry point of Assam plains. Finally, China declared a
unilateral ceasefire and its troops withdrew to where they were before the invasion began.

Q: Explain reasons for the Chinese invasion in 1962.

Ans: Two developments strained this relationship. China annexed Tibet in 1950 and thus
removed a historical buffer between the two countries. Initially, the government of India did
not oppose this openly. But as more information came in about the suppression of Tibetan
culture, the Indian government grew uneasy. The Tibetan spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama,
sought and obtained political asylum in India in 1959. China alleged that the government of
India was allowing anti-China activities to take place from within India.
A little earlier, a boundary dispute had surfaced between India and China. India claimed that
the boundary was a matter settled in colonial time, but China said that any colonial decision
did not apply. The main dispute was about the western and the eastern end of the long
border. China claimed two areas within the Indian territory: Aksai-chin area in the Ladakh
region of Jammu and Kashmir and much of the state of Arunachal Pradesh in what was then
called NEFA (North Eastern Frontier Agency). Between 1957 and 1959, the Chinese
occupied the Aksai-chin area and built a strategic road there. Despite a very long
correspondence and discussion among top leaders, these differences could not be resolved.
Several small border skirmishes between the armies of the two countries took place.

Main points-
1: Tibet issue
2: Border disputes

Q: Which two areas within the Indian territory was claimed by China

Ans: Aksai Chin area in Ladakh and much of the state of Arunachal Pradesh in what was
then called NEFA( North Eastern Frontier Agency)

Q: Explain adverse effects of the Chinese invasion on India's Politics

Ans: The China war dented India’s image at home and abroad. India had to approach the
Americans and the British for military assistance to tide over the crisis. The Soviet Union
remained neutral during the conflict. It induced a sense of national humiliation and at the
same time strengthened a spirit of nationalism. Some of the top army commanders either
resigned or were retired. Nehru’s close associate and the then Defence Minister, V. Krishna
Menon, had to leave the cabinet. Nehru’s own stature suffered as he was severely criticised
for his naïve assessment of the Chinese intentions and the lack of military preparedness. For
the first time, a no-confidence motion against his government was moved and debated in the
Lok Sabha. Soon thereafter, the Congress lost some key by-elections to Lok Sabha. The
political mood of the country had begun to change.
The war with China alerted the Indian leadership to the volatile situation in the Northeast
region. Apart from being isolated and extremely underdeveloped, this region also presented
India with the challenge of national integration and political unity. The process of its
reorganisation began soon after the China war. Nagaland was granted statehood; Manipur
and Tripura, though Union Territories, were given the right to elect their own legislative
assemblies.

Q: Name the Defence Minister of India at time of Chinese invasion.

Ans: V. Krishna Menon(learn box on page-71)

Q: How was Communist Party of India or opposition party influenced by the Sino- Indian
conflict ?

Ans: The Sino-Indian conflict affected the

opposition as well. This and the growing
rift between China and the Soviet Union
created irreconcilable differences within
the Communist Party of India (CPI). The
pro-USSR faction remained within the
CPI and moved towards closer ties with
the Congress. The other faction was for
sometime closer to China and was against
any ties with the Congress. The party
split in 1964 and the leaders of the latter
faction formed the Communist Party of
India (Marxist) (CPI-M). In the wake of
the China war, many leaders of what
became CPI (M) were arrested for being
pro-China.

Q: How process of State Reorganisations began in North East India after the war?

Ans: The war with China alerted the Indian leadership to the volatile situation in the
Northeast region. Apart from being isolated and extremely underdeveloped, this region also
presented India with the challenge of national integration and political unity. The process of
its reorganisation began soon after the China war. Nagaland was granted statehood;
Manipur and Tripura, though Union Territories, were given the right to elect their own
legislative assemblies.

Q: How India resumed its Political relations with China after the war?
Ans: It took more than a decade for India and China to resume normal relations. It was in
1976 that full diplomatic relations were restored between the two countries. Atal Behari
Vajpayee was the first top level
leader (he was then External Affairs Minister) to visit China in 1979. Later,Rajiv Gandhi
became the first Prime Minister after Nehru to visit China. Since then, the emphasis is more
on trade relations between the two countries. In the book, Contemporary World Politics, you
have already read about these developments.

Q: Explain various wars between India and Pakistan

Ans: 1: 1947: the conflict started just after Partition over the dispute on Kashmir. A proxy
war broke out between the Indian and Pakistani armies in Kashmir during 1947 itself. But
this did not turn into a full war. The issue was then referred to the UN. Pakistan soon
emerged as a critical factor in India’s relations with the US and subsequently with China.

2:1965: A more serious armed conflict between the two countries began in 1965. As you
would read in the next chapter, by then Lal Bahadur Shastri had taken over as the Prime
Minister. In April 1965 Pakistan launched armed attacks in the Rann of Kutch area of
Gujarat. This was followed by a bigger offensive in Jammu and Kashmir in
August-September. Pakistani rulers were hoping to get support from the local population
there, but it did not happen. In order to ease the pressure on the Kashmir front, Shastri
ordered Indian troops to launch a counter-offensive on the Punjab border. In a fierce battle,
the Indian army reached close to Lahore. The hostilities came to an end with the UN
intervention. Later, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan’s General Ayub
Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement, brokered by the Soviet Union, in January 1966.
Though India could inflict considerable military loss on Pakistan, the 1965 war added to
India’s already difficult economic situation.

3: Bangladesh war 1971( page 74-76)

4: Kargil confrontation In the early part of 1999 several points on the Indian side of the LoC
in the Mashkoh, Dras, Kaksar
and Batalik areas were occupied by forces claiming to be Mujahideens. Suspecting
involvement of the Pakistan Army, Indian forces started reacting to this occupation. This led
to a confrontation between the two countries. This is known as the Kargil conflict. This
conflict went on during May and June 1999. By 26 July 1999, India had recovered control of
many of the lost points. The Kargil conflict drew attention worldwide for the reason that only
one year prior to that, both India and Pakistan had attained nuclear capability. However, this
conflict remained confined only to the Kargil region. In Pakistan, this conflict has been the
source of a major controversy as it was alleged later that the Prime Minister of Pakistan was
kept in the dark by the Army Chief. Soon after the conflict, the government of Pakistan was
taken over by the Pakistan Army led by the Army Chief, General Parvez Musharraf.

Q: Which war was known as proxy war and why

Ans: 1947 war as Pakistan infiltrators invaded Kashmir. Indian army fought against these
infiltrators helped by Pakistani army
Q: Who singed the Tashkent Agreement ?

Ans: The hostilities came to an end with the UN intervention. Later, Indian Prime Minister Lal
Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan’s General Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement,
brokered by the Soviet Union, in January 1966.

Q: Explain the reason for Bangladesh war 1971

Ans: Beginning in 1970, Pakistan faced its biggest internal crisis. The country’s first general
election produced a split verdict – Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s party emerged a winner in West
Pakistan, while the Awami League led by Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman swept through East
Pakistan. The Bengali population of East Pakistan had voted to protest against years of
being treated as second class citizens by the rulers based in West Pakistan. The Pakistani
rulers were not willing to accept the democratic verdict. Nor were they ready to accept the
Awami League’s demand for a federation. Instead, in early 1971, the Pakistani army arrested
Sheikh Mujib and unleashed a reign of terror on the people of East Pakistan. In Response to
this, the people started a struggle to liberate ‘Bangladesh’ from Pakistan. Throughout 1971,
India had to bear the burden of about 80 lakh refugees who fled East Pakistan and took
shelter in the neighbouring areas in India. India extended moral and material support to the
freedom struggle in Bangladesh. Pakistan accused India of a conspiracy to break it up.
Support for Pakistan came from the US and China. The US-China rapprochement that
began in the late 1960s resulted in a realignment of forces in Asia. Henry Kissinger, the
adviser to the US President Richard Nixon, made a secret visit to China via Pakistan in July
1971. In order to counter the US-Pakistan-China axis, India signed a 20-year Treaty of
Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union in August 1971. This treaty assured India of
Soviet support if the country faced any attack.

(Learn : Awami League - Major Political party of East Pakistan and its leader, Mujib-ur
Rahman.
Henry Kissinger, the adviser of the US President Richard Nixon.
20 years Peace Treaty signed between India and USSR)

Q: Who signed the Shimla agreement and why?

Ans: Between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on 3 July 1972 to restore peace.

Q: How Bangladesh war enhanced Indira Gandhi's popularity

Ans: Write last para of page 76 and 77

Q: Explain India's Nuclear Policy

Ans: Another crucial development of this period was the first nuclear explosion undertaken
by India in May 1974. Nehru had always put his faith in science and technology for rapidly
building a modern India. A significant component of his industrialisation plans was the
nuclear programme initiated in the late 1940s under the guidance of Homi J. Bhabha. India
wanted to generate atomic energy for peaceful purposes. Nehru was against nuclear
weapons. So he pleaded with the superpowers for comprehensive nuclear disarmament.
However, the nuclear arsenal kept rising. When Communist China conducted nuclear tests
in October 1964, the five nuclear weapon powers, the US, USSR, UK, France, and China
(Taiwan then represented China) – also the five Permanent Members of the UN Security
Council – tried to impose the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 on the rest of
the world. India always considered the NPT as discriminatory and had refused to sign it.
When India conducted its first nuclear test, it was termed as peaceful explosion. India
argued that it was committed to the policy of using nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.
India has opposed the international treaties aimed at non-proliferation since they were
selectively applicable to the non-nuclear powers and legitimised the monopoly of the five
nuclear weapons powers. Thus, India opposed the indefinite extension of the NPT in 1995
and also refused to sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
India conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998, demonstrating its capacity to use
nuclear energy for military purposes. Pakistan soon followed, thereby increasing the
vulnerability of the region to a nuclear exchange. The international community was extremely
critical of the nuclear tests in the subcontinent and sanctions were imposed on both India
and Pakistan, which were subsequently waived. India’s nuclear doctrine of credible minimum
nuclear deterrence professes “no first use” and reiterates India’s commitment to global,
verifiable and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament leading to a nuclear weapons free
world
, Add additional information from CBSE material

(Learn NPT from this page and Lesson: Cold War Era)( Learn CTBT- Fast forward box)

Q: Explain role of Nehru in Nuclear Policy

Ans: Nehru had always put his faith in science and technology for rapidly building a modern
India. A significant component of his industrialisation plans was the nuclear programme
initiated in the late 1940s under the guidance of Homi J. Bhabha. India wanted to generate
atomic energy for peaceful purposes. Nehru was against nuclear weapons. So he pleaded
with the superpowers for comprehensive nuclear disarmament.

Q: Explain Indo - Russia relation

Ans: Write- Russia and India share a vision of a multipolar world.... collaborated on various
scientific projects( page 27,last para upto 29 page, book World)

Q: Which international system is supported by India and Russia . Explain it

Ans: Multipolar world order. Multipolar world order ..... democratised and
empowered(page27 -28, book World)( Learn -India is the second largest arms market for
Russia)

Q: Explain relation between India and US

Ans: Write entire topic - India's relation with the US page - 45- 46 , book - World.) ( Learn
three strategies given to maintain relation with US in same topic)