WELDING PROCESSES

Dr. Sanjeev Sharma

Professor
Department of Mech. Engg.
CEC, Landran
WELDING
• Welding is a materials joining process which produces

coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable

temperatures with or without the applications of pressure
or by the application of pressure alone , and with or
without the use of filler material.

• The heat may be obtained from electric arc, electric

resistance, chemical reaction , friction or radiant energy.

• Welding is used for making permanent joints.

• It is used in the manufacturer of automobile bodies,

aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames,

structural frames, tanks, frames, boilers, general purpose
repair works etc.
IMPORTANT TERMS
• Autogenous welding: The process of joining similar metals by
melting the edges together, without the addition of filler metal.
• Homogeneous welding: The process of joining similar metals
with the help of filler metal or rod of same material.
• Heterogeneous welding: The process of joining dissimilar
metals using filler rod.
• Weldability: weldability of a metal is the ease with which two
similar or dissimilar metals are joined by fusion with or without
the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler
material.
• Base metal: The metal to be joined or cut.

• Bead or weld bead: Bead is the metal added during welding.

• Weld pass: A single movement of the welding torch or

electrode along the length of the joint, which results in a bead,
is a weld pass.
• Deposition rate: The rate at which the weld metal is deposited
per unit time (kg/hr).
• Penetration: It is the depth up to which the weld metal
combines with the base metal as measured from the top
surface of the joint.
• Puddle: The portion of the weld joint that is melted by the heat of
welding .
• Root: It is the point at which the two pieces to be joined by welding
are nearest to each other.
• Tack weld: A small weld, generally used to temporarily hold the two
pieces during actual welding.
• Toe of weld: It is the junction between the weld face and the base
metal.
• Weld metal: The metal that is solidified in the joint is called weld
metal. It may be only base metal or a mixture of base metal and filler
metal.
ADVANTAGES OF WELDING JOINTS
• As no hole is required for welding, hence no reduction of area. So
structural members are more effective in taking the load.
• Welded joints are more economical as less labor and less material is
required.
• The efficiency of welded joint is more than that of the riveted joint.
• The welded joints look better than the bulky riveted/butted joints.
• The speed of fabrication is faster in comparison with the riveted
joints.
• Complete rigid joints can be provided with welding process.
• The alternation and addition to the existing structure is easy.
• No noise is produced during the welding process as in the case of
riveting.
• The welding process requires less work space in comparison to
riveting.
• Any space of joint can be made with ease.
DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING JOINTS

• Welded joints are more brittle and therefore their fatigue strength is
less than the members joined.
• Due to uneven heating & cooling of the members during the
welding, the members may distort resulting in additional stresses.
• Skilled labor and electricity are required for welding.
• No provision for expansion and contraction is kept in welded
connection & therefore, there is possibility of cracks.
• The inspection of welding work is more difficult and costlier than the
riveting work.
• Defects like internal air pocket, slag inclusion and incomplete
penetration are difficult to detect.
WELDABILITY
• The ease with which welding of a give material can be

done without producing any defect is called Weldability.

• Weldability can also be defined as the capability of a

metal to be welded under the fabrication conditions

imposed satisfactorily in the intended surface.

• The metal should not require expensive or complicated

procedures in order to produce a sound joint.

FACTORS AFFECTING WELDABILITY
Meting point of metal: Materials with medium melting point can be
welded very easily.
Thermal conductivity: Material with high thermal conductivity (K) are
treated as difficult to weld materials.
Reactivity: If the material reacts with air, water or surroundings it
become difficult to weld.
Electrical resistance: Higher the electrical resistance of the material, it
becomes difficult because it requires lot of heat energy.
Surface condition: The material with dirty surface it becomes difficult
to weld.
WELDING POSITIONS
• All welding is done in one of four positions:

➢ Flat
➢ Horizontal
➢ Vertical
➢ Overhead
The most common type of weld you will do is a Fillet weld and a
Groove weld, and you can accomplish these welds in all four
positions. But you also do surface welds in all four positions as
well, thought you will not do this type of weld very often.
• There are numbers that are used to designate the type of
welding position and weld. For example:

• 1 = Flat Position
• 2 = Horizontal Position
• 3 = Vertical Position
• 4 = Overhead Position
• In addition there are letters that designate the type of weld you
will do in that position. For example:

• F = Fillet Weld
• G = Groove Weld
GAS WELDING
• Oxy-fuel welding (commonly called oxyacetylene welding, oxy

welding, or gas welding in the U.S.) and oxy-fuel cutting are

processes that use fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut
metals, respectively.

• Gas welding also called as Oxy-Fuel gas welding (OFW).

• Derives the heat from the combustion of a fuel gas such as

acetylene in combination with oxygen.

• This process is a fusion welding process wherein the joint is

completely melted to obtain the fusion.

• Pure oxygen, instead of air, is used to increase the flame

temperature to allow localized melting of the workpiece

material (e.g. steel) in a room environment.

• In recent decades it has been obsolesced in most all industrial

uses due to various arc welding methods offering more

consistent mechanical weld properties and faster application.

• Gas welding is still used for metal-based artwork and in smaller

home based shops, as well as situations where accessing

electricity (e.g., via an extension cord or portable generator)
would present difficulties.
• In oxy-fuel welding, a welding torch is used to weld

metals.

• Welding metal results when two pieces are heated to a

temperature that produces a shared pool of molten metal.

• The molten pool is generally supplied with additional

metal called filler.

• Filler material depends upon the metals to be welded.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
• When acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct
proportions in the welding torch and ignited, the flame is
produced which is sufficiently hot to metal and join the
parent metal.

• Temperature of flame about 31000C.

• A filler rod is generally added to build up the seam for

greater strength.
FUEL GASES
• Oxy-fuel processes may use a variety of fuel gases, the

most common being acetylene. Other gases that may be

used are propylene, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG),
propane, natural gas and hydrogen. Many brands use
different kinds of gases in their mixes.

• Acetylene (systematic name: ethane) is the chemical

compound with the formula C2H2.

• Acetylene was prepared by the hydrolysis of calcium

carbide, :

• CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2

• C2H2+O2 → 2CO+H2+Heat
• 4CO+2H2+3O2 → 4CO2+2H2O+Heat
OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING EQUIPMENT
• Oxygen Cylinder
• Acetylene cylinder
• Welding torch
GAS WELDING (OXY-ACETYLENE)

• A number of welding processes use a flame produced by

burning a mixture of fuel gas and oxygen.
• The gas usually used is Acetylene but other gases are
also used.

Separate cylinders and a

hose pipe from each
cylinder transports the
gases to a torch.
Gas and fuel mix in the
torch burns @ 3100°C.
welding torch
• During the welding, heat from the flame is concentrated

on the joint edges until the metal melts and starts to

flow. When the molten metal from both sides melts it
starts to fuse, when the metal cools down the two parts
become Permanently joined.
FLAME DEFINITION
• The neutral flame is produced when the ratio of oxygen to
acetylene, in the mixture leaving the torch, is almost exactly
one-to-one. It’s termed ”neutral” because it will usually have
no chemical effect on the metal being welded. It will not oxidize
the weld metal; it will not cause an increase in the carbon
content of the weld metal.
• The neutral gas welding flames can be weld for following
metals.
• Mild Steel
• Stainless steel
• Aluminum
• Cast iron
• Copper
• The excess acetylene flame (Carburizing flame) , as
its name implies, is created when the proportion of
acetylene in the mixture is higher than that required
to produce the neutral flame. Used on steel, it will
cause an increase in the carbon content of the weld
metal.
• Application:
• Low alloy steel rod
• Carburizing
• The oxidizing flame results from burning a mixture
which contains more oxygen than required for a neutral
flame. It will oxidize or ”burn” some of the metal being
welded.
• The oxide will reduce the weld joint strength. For this
reason only possible for following metal to be welded.
• Zinc based alloy
• Cast iron
• Copper based alloy (Brass)
• Manganese steels
Types Of flame
Applications of Gas Welding
• Oxy-acetylene gas welding is widely used in practical
field.
➢For joining most ferrous and non-ferrous metals, carbon
steels, alloy steels, cast iron, aluminium and its alloys,
nickel, magnesium, copper and its alloys, etc.
➢For joining thin metals.
➢For joining metals in automotive and aircraft industries.
➢For joining metals in sheet metal fabricating plants.
➢For joining materials those requires relatively slow rate of
heating and cooling, etc.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING
• Advantages of Oxy-Acetylene Welding
➢It's easy to learn.

➢The equipment is cheaper than most other types of welding

(e.g.TIG welding)
➢Oxy-acetylene can be used on sites which have no power
supply
➢The equipment is more portable than most other types of
welding (e.g. TIG welding)
➢Oxy-acetylene equipment can also be used to "flame-cut" large
pieces of material.
• Disadvantages of Oxy-Acetylene Welding

➢ Oxy-acetylene weld lines are much rougher in appearance than other

kinds of welds, and require more finishing if neatness is required.
➢ Oxy-acetylene welds have large heat affected zones (areas around
the weld line that have had their mechanical properties adversely
affected by the welding process).
➢ Flame temperature is less than the temperature of arc.

➢ Refractory metals (W, Mo, Ta etc.) and reactive metals (Ti, Zr ) cannot
be gas welded.
➢ Storage of gas is not safe. More safety is needed.

➢ Gas flame takes a long time to heat up the metal than an arc.
OXY-HYDROGEN WELDING
• Oxy-hydrogen is a mixture of Hydrogen (H2) and oxygen

(O2) gases.

• This gaseous mixture is used for torches to process

refractory materials and was the first gaseous mixture

used for welding.

• Theoretically, a ratio of 2:1 hydrogen: oxygen is enough to

achieve maximum efficiency; in practice a ratio 4:1 or 5:1

is needed to avoid an oxidizing flame.
• Oxy-hydrogen welding is used to weld the metals only

with low melting points (Al, Mg, Pb etc.).

• The temperature is of the order of 24000C.

• Hydrogen is available in compressed gas cylinders.

• Oxy-hydrogen welding is similar to oxy-acetylene welding

with the difference that a special regulator is required for

measuring the hydrogen gas.
FLAME CUTTING
• The oxy-fuel process is the most widely applied industrial

thermal cutting process because it can cut thicknesses

from 0.5mm to 250mm, the equipment is low cost and can
be used manually or mechanized.

• There are several fuel gas and nozzle design options that

can significantly enhance performance in terms of cut

quality and cutting speed.
• Process fundamentals

• The cutting process is illustrated in Fig.

• Basically, a mixture of oxygen and the fuel gas is used to

preheat the metal to its 'ignition' temperature which, for steel, is
700°C - 900°C (bright red heat) but well below its melting point.
• A jet of pure oxygen is then directed into the preheated area
instigating a vigorous chemical reaction between the oxygen
and the metal to form iron oxide or slag.
• The oxygen jet blows away the slag enabling the jet to pierce
through the material and continue to cut through the material.
• Purity of oxygen

• The cutting speed and cut edge quality are primarily

determined by the purity of the oxygen stream. Thus,
nozzle design plays a significant role in protecting the
oxygen stream from air entrainment.
• The purity of oxygen should be at least 99.5%. A
decrease in purity of 1% will typically reduce the
cutting speed by 25% and increase the gas
consumption by 25%.
ARC WELDING PRINCIPLE
• Arc is generated between the positive pole of DC (direct
current) called anode and negative pole of DC called cathode.
• When these two poles are brought together, and separated for
a small distance ( 1.5mm to 3mm) such that the current
continuous to flow through a path of ionized particles, called
plasma, an electric arc is formed.
• Since the resistance of this ionized gas column is high, so
more ions will flow from anode to the cathode.
• Heat is generated as the ions strikes the cathode producing a
temperature in the range of 30000C to 40000C.
ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT
• A.C. Or D.C. power supply source
• Electrode holder
• Electrode
• Cable, cable connections
• Cable plug
• Chipping hammer
• Earthling clamp
• Wire brush
• Helmet
• Safety goggles
• Hand gloves
• Aprons
POLARITY
• Polarity is defined as the type of potential given to the
workpiece or electrode.
• In case of DC power source, positive and negative
terminals are fixed whereas in case of AC power source,
positive and negative terminals are not fixed I.e. the
terminal which is positive during one half of cycle
becomes negative in another half.
• So, polarity principle is applicable only in case of DC
power source.
• Straight polarity: In straight polarity, electrodes is having

negative terminal while workpiece is connected to the

positive terminal of the DC power source.

• Reverse polarity: In reverse polarity, electrodes is having

positive terminal while workpiece is connected to the

negative terminal of the DC power source.
ELECTRODES
• The electrodes are used for providing heat input in arc welding.
1. consumable or Non-consumable electrode
2. Bare or coated electrodes
Consumable electrode:
➢ when the arc is obtained with consumable electrodes, the weld metal
and the tip of the electrode also get melted under the arc.
➢ The molten metal from the electrode and the base metal get mixed
under the arc and provides the necessary joint.
➢ The electrode is continuously consumed and serving as the
purpose of filler rod as well as heat input the joint.
➢ It is made of various materials depending on the purpose and
chemical composition of the metals to be welded.
• Non-consumable electrode:

➢This type of electrode not consumed during the welding.

➢Separate filler rod can be used if necessary to fill the gap.

➢This electrode is made of carbon, graphite, tungsten.

➢Non consumable electrodes are used in carbon arc

welding or tungsten inert gas arc welding (TIG)

• Bare electrode:

➢ if the electrode is not coated with flux, it is called the bare electrode.

➢ In that case flux will be added separately if necessary.

➢ Bare electrodes are used in carbon arc welding and tungsten arc
welding.
• Coated electrode:

➢ If the electrode is coated with flux, it is called coated electrode.

➢ One of the major concerns with the coated electrodes, is the moisture
pick up by the coating. This moisture, dissociate into oxygen and
hydrogen being absorbed by the liquid metal and subsequently
released during solidification, causing porosity.
FLUX
➢During welding if the metal is heated/melted in air, oxygen from
the air combines with the metal to form oxides which results in
poor quality, low strength welds and in some cases, may even
make welding impossible.
➢Sometimes the flux will be added separately.

➢Covering of the electrodes also called flux.

➢Sometimes the purpose of flux is also solved by inert gas.

➢The materials used for flux coating are termed as components.

➢These components may be sub divided into the following

categories:
• Gas forming: The gas forming components are organic matters such as starch,
wood pulp etc. which form gas layer, thus isolating the welding zone from the
ambient air.
• Slag forming: The slag forming components are chinaclay, felspar, manganese
and titanium ores etc. These components enhance slag formation. The slag
covering the molten metal prevents it from coming into contact with the ambient
air.
• Reducing: The reducing components are such as ferro-silicon, ferro-titanium,
ferro-manganese reduces the oxides.
• Alloys: The alloying components such as ferro-silicon, ferro-manganese, ferro-
chromium, chromium-oxide are used for rendering this metal heat proof.
• Binding: The binding components will be added so that covering should have
proper binding with bare electrode.
TUNGSTEN INERT GAS (TIG) WELDING

➢Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding or Gas Tungsten Arc

Welding (GTAW) is an inert gas shielded arc welding
process.
➢Heat is produced from an electric arc established
between the non-consumable tungsten electrode and the
job.
➢A shielding gas (argon, helium, nitrogenetc.) is used to
avoid atmospheric contamination of the molten weld pool.
➢Filler metal, if required is fed separately.
• Shielding gases:

• Argon is normally preferred over helium because it requires a lower

arc voltage, easier arc starting and provides a smooth arc action. It is
also economical heaviest.
• Helium can withstand the higher arc voltage so it is used where
higher heat input is required.
• Sometimes active gas carbon dioxide is also used as it is more
economical. It requires slightly higher current. It is normally used
with only DC .
• Helium and Argon can be used with both AC and DC welding
power source.
• Polarities:

➢DCSP: Tungsten electrode (-ve), work (+ve) used for mild

steel, stainless steel, copper and titanium.

➢DCRP: Tungsten electrode (+ve), work (-ve) used for

welding aluminum and heavily oxidized aluminum

castings.

➢ACHF: It is used for AL and Mg. High frequency also

helps in oxide cleaning actions.

ADVANTAGES OF TIG WELDING
• Works on almost all types of metals with higher melting points.

Gas tungsten arc welding is the most popular method for

welding aluminum stainless steels, and nickel-base alloys. It is
generally not used for the very low melting metals such as
solders, or lead, tin, or zinc alloys.

• It is especially useful for joining aluminum and magnesium and

also for the reactive metals like titanium and zirconium.

• Pinpoint accuracy and control. The process provides more precise
control of the weld than any other arc welding process, because the arc
heat and filler metal are independently controlled.
• Good looking weld beads

• For metals of varying thickness including very thin metals (amperage

range of 5 to 800, which is the amount of electricity created by the
welding machine). The gas tungsten arc welding process is very good for
joining thin base metals because of excellent control of heat input.
• Creates strong joints. It produces top quality welds in almost all metals
and alloys used by industry.
• Clean process with minimal amount of fumes, sparks, spatter and smoke
• High level of visibility when working due to low levels of smoke. Visibility is

excellent because no smoke or fumes are produced during welding, and there is
no slag or spatter that must be cleaned between passes or on a completed weld.

• Minimal finishing required. In very critical service applications or for very

expensive metals or parts, the materials should be carefully cleaned of surface

dirt, grease, and oxides before welding.

• Works in any position

• TIG welding also has reduced distortion in the weld joint because of the

concentrated heat source.

• As in oxyacetylene welding, the heat source and the addition of filler metal can be

separately controlled.

• Because the electrode is non-consumable, the process can be used to weld by

fusion alone without the addition of filler metal.

DISADVANTAGES OF TIG WELDING
• Brighter UV rays when compared to other welding processes

• Slower process than consumable electrode arc welding processes.

• Takes practice

• More expensive process overall. Expensive welding supplies (vs.

other processes) because the arc travel speed and weld metal
deposition rates are lower than with some other methods.
• Inert gases for shielding and tungsten electrode costs add to the total
cost of welding compared to other processes. Argon and helium used
for shielding the arc are relatively expensive.
• Equipment costs are greater than that for other processes, such as
shielded metal arc welding, which require less precise controls.
• Not easily portable, best for a welding shop

• Transfer of molten tungsten from the electrode to the weld

causes contamination. The resulting tungsten inclusion is

hard and brittle.

• Exposure of the hot filler rod to air using improper welding

techniques causes weld metal contamination.

APPLICATIONS OF TIG WELDING
• Welding of carbon steel, SS, nickel, aluminum,
magnesium, brass, copper, bronze, titanium etc.
• Welding of sheet metal and thinner sections.
• Used in aircraft, rocket motor chamber.
EXAMPLE OF TIG WELDING
METAL INERT GAS (MIG) WELDING
➢Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by
its subtypes metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active
gas (MAG) welding, is a welding process in which an
electric arc forms between a continuously fed consumable
wire electrode and the workpiece metal(s), which heats
the workpiece metal(s), causing them to melt and join.
➢Argon, helium, carbon dioxide or a gas mixture shields
the arc and molten metal from atmospheric
contamination.
➢MIG welding is a commonly used high deposition rate

welding process.

➢Wire is continuously fed from a spool.

➢ MIG welding is therefore referred to as a semiautomatic

welding process.
WELDING PARAMETERS & TECHNIQUES

• Welding current

• Wire electrode extension

• Welding voltage

• Arc travel speed

WELDING CURRENT
• The welding current is the electrical amperage in the

power system as the weld is being made.

• welding current is directly related to wire- feed speed (if

the wire extension beyond the guide tip is constant). As

the wire-feed speed is varied, the welding current will vary
in the same direction. In other words, an increase (or
decrease) in the wire-feed speed will cause an increase
(or decrease) of the current
WIRE ELECTRODE EXTENSION

• Wire extension or ”stick-out” is the distance between the

last point of electrical contact, usually the end of the

contact tip, and the end of the wire electrode.
• Controlling tip-to-work distance is important. Long
extensions result in excess weld metal being deposited
with low arc heat. This can cause poor bead shape and
low penetration. In addition, as the tip-to-work distance
increases, the arc becomes less stable.
WELDING VOLTAGE
• voltage setting directly controls the arc length.

• In addition, a certain range is required to maintain arc

stability at any given welding current level.

ARC TRAVEL SPEED
• As the material thickness increases, the travel speed

must be lowered.

• For a given material thickness and joint design, as the

welding current is increased, so is the arc travel speed.

The converse is also true.

• Higher welding speeds are attainable by using the

forehand welding technique.

ADVANTAGES OF MIG WELDING
• The ability to join a wide range of metals and thicknesses

• All-position welding capability

• A good weld bead

• A minimum of weld splatter

• Easy to learn

• Higher deposition rates than SMAW

• Less operator skill required

• Long welds can be made without starts and stops

• Minimal post weld cleaning is required

DISADVANTAGES OF MIG WELDING
• MIG welding can only be used on thin to medium thick

metals

• The use of an inert gas makes this type of welding less

portable than arc welding which requires no external

source of shielding gas

• Produces a somewhat sloppier and less controlled weld

as compared to TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas Welding)

APPLICATIONS
• Structural steel
• Aluminum sections
• Stainless steel and nickel alloys
• Ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
• Welding tool steels and dies.
• Metal fabrication industries, ship building, automobiles,
pressure vessel industries etc.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MIG AND TIG WELDING
S.No. MIG Welding TIG Welding
1 This welding is known as This is known as tungsten inert
metal inert gas welding. gas welding.
2 Metal rod is used as Tungsten rod is used as electrode.
electrode and work piece
used as another electrode.
3 It is gas shielded metal arc It is gas shielded tungsten arc
welding. welding.
4 Continuous feed electrode Welding rods are used which are
wire is used which are fast slow feeding.
feeding.
5 Generally no water is cooling TIG welding torch is water cooled
is necessary.
 MIG Welding TIG Welding
6 MIG requires consumable It used non consumable tungsten
metallic electrode. electrode
7 MIG can weld materials such as TIG weld things like kitchen sinks
mild steel, stainless steel and and tool boxes. Pipe welding and
aluminum. A range of material other heavier tasks can also be
thicknesses can be welded performed, you just need to have
from thin gauge sheet metal a unit that is capable of putting
right up to heavier structural out the amount of power that you
plates. need.
8 No so much skill is required for Requires a skilled operator.
an operator
9 MIG uses both types of TIG welding usually uses DCSP,
polarities. Generally DCRP is but in case of thin sheets DCRP
used. is used.
 MIG Welding TIG Welding
10. Electrode is feeded It does not require electrode
continuously from a wire feed.
reel.
11. Filler metal is compulsory Filler metal may or may not
used. be used.
12. It can weld up to 40 mm Metal thickness is limited
thick metal sheet. about 5 mm.

13. MIG is comparatively faster TIG is a slow welding

than TIG. process.
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
• Submerged arc welding (SAW) process uses heat generated
by an electric arc established between a bare consumable
electrode wire and the work piece.
• Since in this process, welding arc and the weld pool are
completely submerged under cover of granular fusible and
molten flux therefore it is called so.
• During welding, granular flux is melted using heat generated by
arc and forms cover of molten flux layer which in turn avoids
spatter tendency and prevents accessibility of atmospheric
gases to the arc zone and the weld pool.
• The submerged arc welding are used for doing faster
welding jobs.
• It is possible to use large welding electrodes (12 mm),
number of electrodes and very high current (4000A) so
that very high deposition rates of the order of 20 kg/hr or
more can be achieved with this process.
• Also, very high welding speeds (5m/min) are possible.

• These machines are able to weld plates of thickness as

high as 75 mm in butt joint in a single pass but it is more
economical for larger welds only.
• The molten flux reacts with the impurities in the molten weld metal to
form slag which floats over the surface of the weld metal.
• Layer of slag over the molten weld metal results:

➢ Increased protection of weld metal from atmospheric gas

contamination and so improved properties of weld joint
➢ Reduced cooling rate of weld metal and HAZ owing to shielding of the
weld pool by molten flux and solidified slag in turn leads to
• (a) smoother weld bead and

• (b) reduced the cracking tendency of hardenable steel

EQUIPMENTS USED IN SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

• Welding head
• Flux Hooper
• Flux recovery unit
• Welding power sources (AC transformer or DC generator)
• Flux
• Electrodes
• Controls
ADVANTAGES OF SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

➢Molten flux provides very suitable conditions for high

current to flow. Great intensities of heat can be generated and
kept concentrated to weld thicker sections with deep
penetrations.
➢Because of high heat concentration, considerably higher
welding speeds can be caused.
➢Because of high heat concentration and high welding speeds
weld distortion is much less.
➢ High metal deposition rates can be achieved. Single pass
welds can be made in thick plates with normal equipment.
➢Welding is carried out without sparks, smoke, flash or spatter.

➢Weld metal deposit possesses uniformity, good ductility,

corrosion resistance and good impact strength.

➢Very neat appearance and smooth weld shapes can be got.

➢The submerged process can be used for welding in exposed

areas with relatively high winds.

➢Practically, no edge preparation is necessary for materials

under 12 mm in thickness.
DISADVANTAGES OF SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

➢ Since the operator cannot see the welding being carried out, he cannot judge the progress of

welding accurately. Therefore accessories like jigs and fixtures, pointers, light beam focusing
devices or roller guides may be used for proper welding at the joint.

➢ The flux needs replacing of the same on the joint which is not always possible.

➢ The progress is limited to welding in flat position and on the metal more than 4.8 mm thick. In

small thicknesses burn through is likely to occur.

➢ The process requires edge preparation and accurate fit up on the joint. Otherwise the flux

may spill through the gap and arc may burn the workpiece edges.

➢ Flux is subjected to contamination that may cause weld porosity.

➢ Weld metal chemistry is difficult to control. A change in welding variables especially when

using alloyed fluxes may affect weld metal composition adversely.

➢ Cast iron, Al alloys, Mg alloys, Pb and Zn cannot be welded by this process.

APPLICATIONS
• Welding of bridge girders, railroads, structural shapes,

pressure vessels, pipes and structure of railway coaches

and locomotives.

• Shipbuilding, automotive industries, nuclear power

industries etc.

• Welding metals like mild steel, low alloy steel etc.

RESISTANCE WELDING
• Resistance welding is a joining process in which heat is

obtained from resistance of the work flow of electric current and

by the application of pressure.

• No filler metal or flux is added.

• The current density and pressure must be sufficient to produce

a weld nugget, but not so high as to expel molten metal from

the weld zone.

• It is used for welding thin sheets of similar metallic materials

• The current passing through the two overlapping work pieces causes

local heating and temperature of the metallic pieces raises to the

fusion point due to resistance offered by the work pieces to flow of
current

• Subsequent application of pressure results in permanent joining of the

work pieces by the formation of weld without the use of filler material

• Work pieces are placed between two rods or wheels(rolls), which

serve as conductor for producing welds.

• AC electric current is supplied through copper electrodes or rolls

connected to the secondary coil of a welding transformer.
PRINCIPLE OF RESISTANCE WELDING
• In resistance welding, a low voltage (typically 0.5 to 10 volt) and very
high current (typically 15000A) is passed through the joint for a very short
time (typically 0.25 sec).
• This high ampere heats the joint because heat generated in resistance
welding can be expressed as:
H = I2RT
H = Amount of heat generated at the contacting area of the elements to be welded
( Joules)
I = current ( Amperes )
R = resistance of the circuit at contacting area ( ohms)
T = time for which electric current passes through the joint. ( sec ) ( 0 . 25 sec )
MATERIALS TO BE WELDED
• The following metals may be welded by Resistance

Welding:

• Low carbon steels - the widest application of Resistance

Welding

• Aluminum alloys

• Medium carbon steels, high carbon steels and Alloy steels

(may be welded, but the weld is brittle)

• Advantages of Resistance Welding:
• High welding rates;
• Low fumes;
• Cost effectiveness;
• Easy automation;
• No filler materials are required;
• Low distortions.
• Disadvantages of Resistance Welding:
• High equipment cost;
• Low strength in case of discontinuous welds;
• Thickness of welded sheets is limited - up to 1/4” (6 mm);
SPOT WELDING
• Resistance spot welding (RSW) is a process in which contacting metal surfaces

are joined by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current.

• Work-pieces are held together under pressure exerted by electrodes.

• Typically the sheets are in the 0.5 to 3 mm (0.020 to 0.118 in) thickness range.

• The process uses two shaped copper alloy electrodes to concentrate welding

current into a small "spot" and to simultaneously clamp the sheets together.

• Forcing a large current through the spot will melt the metal and form the weld.

• The attractive feature of spot welding is that a lot of energy can be delivered to

the spot in a very short time (approximately 10–100 milliseconds).That permits the
welding to occur without excessive heating of the remainder of the sheet.
• The amount of heat (energy) delivered to the spot is determined by
the resistance between the electrodes and the magnitude and
duration of the current.
• The amount of energy is chosen to match the sheet's material
properties, its thickness, and type of electrodes.
• Applying too little energy will not melt the metal or will make a poor
weld.
• Applying too much energy will melt too much metal, eject molten
material, and make a hole rather than a weld.
• Another feature of spot welding is that the energy delivered to the
spot can be controlled to produce reliable welds.
▪Typical car body has about 10,000 spot welds
PROJECTION WELDING
• Projection welding is a modification of spot welding. In this process, the weld is
localized by means of raised sections, or projections, on one or both of the
work pieces to be joined.
• Heat is concentrated at the projections, which permits the welding of heavier
sections or the closer spacing of welds.
• The projections can also serve as a means of positioning the work pieces.

• Projection welding is often used to weld studs, nuts, and other screw
machine parts to metal plate.
• It is also frequently used to join crossed wires and bars.

• Projection welding uses small projections, embossments, or intersections on one

or both components of the weld to localize the heat and pressure. By doing so,
weld current and force is focused into the small area of the projection, and heat is
obtained from the resistance to the flow of the welding current. Due to this heat,
the projections collapse and the parts are weld together.
• Advantages of Projection Welding

➢ Easier to obtain satisfactory heat balance for welding difficult combinations

➢ Results in increased output per machine because several welds are being
made simultaneously
➢ Easier to place more welds closely, together
➢ Parts are more easily welded in an assembly fixture
➢ Better surface appearance/finishing is achieved since filler metals are not used
➢ Can be applied to large number of combinations of metals, of various
thicknesses
• Limitations of projection welding

• There are limitations to some material weldability but proper settings and
process control can solve most of these problems. The main issues that
might be associated with projection welding technique are

➢ Costlier Equipments
➢ Projections cannot be made in thin work pieces as they cannot
withstand the electrode pressure
➢ Additional work is required to form projections apart from welding
➢ Chances of harmful fume emission while welding coated steels or
when oil or organic materials are present
RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING
• The seam welding process is an adaptation of resistance spot
welding and involves making a series of overlapping spot welds
by means of rotating copper alloy wheel electrodes to form a
continuous leak tight joint.
• The electrodes are not opened between spots. The electrode wheels
apply a constant force to the workpieces and rotate at a controlled
speed.
• The welding current is normally pulsed to give a series of discrete
spots, but may be continuous for certain high speed applications
where gaps could otherwise occur between individual spots.
• Seam welding equipment is normally fixed and the components being
welded are manipulated between the wheels.
• Unlike spot welding the disc shaped electrodes are not separated
after each weld, but maintain continues pressure over the work
pieces.
• The electrode current is timed to flow in pulses so that a row of welds
is produced along the interface.
• Copper alloy electrodes are used to keep the heat at the electrode
contact surface to a minimum.
• The motion of the electrodes and current impulses are so arranged
that the weld nuggets overlap forming a gas or liquid pressure tight
weld.
• After the welding is over the electrodes and work pieces are flooded
with water to dissipate the heat.
• Advantages of seam welding:

• A continuous overlapping weld produced by the process

makes it suitable for joining liquid or gas tight containers
and vessels
• Efficient energy use

• Filler metals are not required. Hence no associated fumes

or gases. This results in clean welds.
• Roll welding simply joins two work pieces whereas stitch
welding produces gas tight and liquid tight joints.
• Disadvantages of seam welding:

• Requires complex control system to regulate the travel speed of

electrodes as well as the sequence of current to provide satisfactory
overlapping welds. The welding speed, spots per inch and timing
schedule are all dependent on each other
• Difficult to weld metals having thickness greater than 3mm

• Relatively higher current is thus required for seam welding than for
spot welding.
• The work pieces to be welded are over lapped sufficiently to prevent
metal flowing out from the edges of the pieces during welding under
pressure.
• Applications of seam welding:

• Used to fabricate liquid or gas tight sheet metal vessels

such as gasoline tanks, automobile mufflers and heat

exchangers.

• The production of seam welded pipes and tubing (Butt

seam weld).
Upset welding (UW)
• Upset-welding (UW) is a form of resistance welding process.

• It uses both heat and pressure to perform quickly a weld, even

with relatively large joint areas.
• Heat is produced from the resistance to the passage of electric
current at the contact interface of those surfaces.
• Pressure is applied before heating is started and is
maintained throughout the heating period.
• An example of a progressive process is that used in the
manufacture of pipes or tubes.
• Control of the weld is maintained by selection of optimized

current, force, and time.

• The entire area to be joined is welded at one time.

• Equipment is relatively simple, easy to operate, maintain

and control.

• It is used for producing butt joints in tubes, pipes,

rods etc.
FLASH WELDING
• Flash welding (FW) is a resistance welding process that

produces a weld at the faying surface of a butt joint by a

flashing action and by the application of pressure after heating
is substantially completed.

• The flashing action, caused by the very high current densities

at small contact points between the workpieces, forcibly expels

material from the joint as the workpieces are slowly moved
together.

• The weld is completed by a rapid upsetting of the workpieces.

• Two parts to be joined are clamped in dies (electrodes) connected to
the secondary of a resistance welding transformer.
• Voltage is applied as one part is advanced slowly toward the other.
When contact occurs at surface irregularities, resistance heating
occurs at these locations. Initially, one or several current pulses may
be applied to preheat the parts. There after, the force is
instantaneously removed before entering a flashing cycle. The
preheat may not be used in all cases. Thereafter, the parts are
brought back together. High amperage causes rapid melting and
vaporization of the metal at the points of contact, and minute arcs
form. This action is called “flashing”.
• As the parts are moved together at a suitable rate, flashing continues
until the faying surfaces are covered with molten metal and a short
length of each part reaches forging temperature. A weld is then
created by the application of an upset force to bring the molten faying
surfaces in full contact and forge the parts together. Flashing voltage
may be terminated at the start of upset. Or, an upset voltage and
current may continue during upset. If so, this is called upset voltage.
All current flow is then ceased and the parts allowed to cool. The
solidified metal expelled from the interface is called “flash”. This is
often removed by a scarfing machine.
BASIC STEPS IN A FLASH WELDING SEQUENCE

(1) Position the parts in the machine.

(2) Clamp the parts in the dies (electrodes).
(3) Apply the flashing voltage.
(4) Start platen motion to cause flashing.
(5) Flash the normal voltage.
(6) Terminate flashing.
(7) Upset the weld zone.
(8) Unclamp the weldment.
(9) Return the platen and unload.
Advantages of Flash Welding
• Flexible cross sectioned shapes

• Flexible positioning for similar cross section parts

• Impurities can be removed during upset acts

• Faying surface preparation is not critical except for large

parts

• Can weld rings of various cross sections

• Narrower heat-affected zones than those of upset welds

Limitations of Flash Welding
• The ejected molten metal particles present a fire hazard

• Require special equipment for removal of flash metal

• Difficult alignment for workpieces with small cross

sections

• Require almost identical cross section parts.

• Flashes may cause eye trouble.

• The shapes of the workpieces should be similar which is

not always possible.

• Applications of flash welding:
• Welding of complex and large sections.
• It is used for the welding of bars, rods and tubes.
• It is also used for the welding of saw blades into
continuous loops, taps and reamers to alloy steel shanks.
• Wide range of component shapes and sizes from bicycle
wheel rims to rails.