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Combustion of preheated raw animal fats-diesel fuel blends at diesel engine

Article in Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry · November 2019

DOI: 10.1007/s10973-019-08972-5

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Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-019-08972-5

Combustion of preheated raw animal fats‑diesel fuel blends at diesel

engine
Alexandru Cernat1 · Constantin Pana1 · Niculae Negurescu1 · Gheorghe Lazaroiu1 · Cristian Nutu1 · Dinu Fuiorescu1 ·
Marius Toma1 · Adrian Nicolici1

Received: 12 August 2019 / Accepted: 25 October 2019

© Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary 2019

Abstract
Because of pollution problems, after the Mayors Summit 2016 takes place, certain European capital cities want to be free
from diesel engines automotive equipped with diesel engine by the year 2020. Also, the International Energy Agency affirms
that the per cent of bio energy must increase till the year of 2025 and estimates that biofuels can grow to as much as 30% of
the world’s road transport fuel mix by 2050. The global share of biofuel in total transport fuel would grow from 2% today
to 27% in 2050. According to a European Commission report on the Future Transport Fuels, the 2020 Red target could be
supported by vehicles fuelled by fuels based also on animal fats. The objective of the paper is directly related with these
worldwide aspects. The paper presents combustion aspects at a diesel engine fuelled by raw animal fats blended in per cent’s
of 5% and 10% with diesel fuel. For the same engine adjustments, the preheated raw animal fats use leads to the decrease
of in-cylinder pressure with 5% and 12%, depending on animal fats content. Even if the animal fat use provides the increase
in the combustion duration with 20 CAD and later achieving per cycle of the mass fraction burned, the heat release rate
decreases with 16% (at 5% animal fats) and 20% (at 10% animal fats) assuring the decreasing of the ­NOx emission level with
22% versus diesel fuel. The smoke opacity decreases with 22% (at 5% of animal fats in blends with diesel fuel) and with
52% at the rise of animal fats content to 10%. The novelty of the paper is assured by aspects like: an efficiently recover of
raw animal fats from the leather industry assuring an important decrease of waste stocks and of financial costs, an optimal
correlation between animal fats per cent and diesel engine combustion performance. The raw animal fats can be considered
a very good alternative biofuel for the diesel engines and can be used for fuelling without major constructive modifications
of the engine.

Keywords Raw animal fat · Diesel engine · Combustion · Heat release · Pollutant emissions · Soot

Introduction percentages, to 27% in 2050 [1]. The diesel engine can be

In order to reduce the urban pollution, certain European
capital cities want to be free from diesel engines automo-
tives equipped with diesel engine by the year 2020, agree-
ment established in 2016 at the C40 Summit. In the same
time, the International Energy Agency affirms that the per
cent of bio energy must increase till the year of 2025 and
estimates that biofuels can represent 30% of the world’s road
transport fuel mix in 2050. The global share of biofuel in
total transport fuel would grow from 2% to 0.7%, today’s
* Alexandru Cernat
cernatt@gmail.com
1
University Politehnica of Bucharest, Blvd. Splaiul
Independentei No. 313, Bucharest, Romania
maintained in exploitation if different alternative fuels are
used, like fuels based on raw animal fats which are defined
as future fuel in the report of U.E. for the transport fuels of
the 2050. Animal fats may represent a solution to develop
viable alternative fuel for diesel engines, due to their higher
cetane number, comparative to biodiesel fuel derived from
vegetable oils, lower carbon and higher oxygen contents
versus classic diesel fuel. Different researchers show that
animal fats represent an excellent energy source than can
be used as fuel in industrial generators [2]. Many current
research studies present the use of biodiesel from animal fats
or esterified fuels based on animal fats in different thermal
machines. The present study shows the use of animal fats
in raw state and analyses their influences on diesel engine
combustion process. For example, in the case of biodiesel

13
Vol.:(0123456789)

fuels based or not on animal fats, Singh fuel a compression
ignition engine with oil fatty acid methyl ester (Mesua fer-
rea methyl esters (FAME)) in blend with diesel fuel and
achieve the reduction of the N ­ Ox emission level [3]. Singh
presents the influence of FAME in diesel fuel on thermal
efficiency of the diesel engine [3]. Lapuerta uses 50–100%
animal fat in blends with diesel fuel and with soybean oil
to fuel a DI (Direct Injection) diesel engine [4]. The engine
efficiency remains unchanged [4]. The smoke opacity and
particle emissions were decreased [4]. The ­NOx emission
was decreased for 100% animal fat, but rise for 50% animal
fat or soybean oil [4]. Lapuerta affirms that at the use of
animal fats, with higher cetane number, the amount of fuel
burnt in the premixed fraction of the combustion process is
reduced, fact that leads to the reduction of the combustion
noise, soot, particle and ­NOx emissions levels [4]. Lapuerta
also shows that at the increase in the engine load, longer
combustion duration may appears [4]. Kleinovál shows the
decrease of diesel engine power and torque at the use of ani-
mal fat, but the performance is related also with the engine
type. The smoke opacity was decreased at animal fat use
only for the engine with a higher injection pressures compar-
ative to low pressure injection engine, based on tests carried
on a fleet of diesel automotives fuelled with fat-diesel fuel
blends [5]. Sáez makes a prediction on exhaust emission at
the use of animal fat as fuel for diesel engine and affirms that
lower concentration of ­NOx, particle number was achieved
at animal fat use [6]. Rajak uses fuel based on the waste
animal fats to fuel a single cylinder diesel engine, at full load
and speed, constant injection timing [7]. Also, Rajak uses
a Diesel-RK model for numerical analysis of some tested
fuels [7]. The ­NOx emission decreases at chicken fats (ani-
mal fats) used with 31.2% [7]. The PM (Particulate Matter)
emission was reduced with 93.78% for poultry fats and the
soot emission with 89.14% [7]. Hancsók shows that the use
of waste animal fat and of the fuels with lower carbon con-
tent in combustion process will leads to the reduction of the
pollutant emissions [8]. Kumar shows that the use of animal
fat in different blends with diesel fuel leads to the reduction
of the smoke, ­NOx and to the increase in autoignition delay
[9]. Alptekin uses animal fat fuel type to fuel a DI diesel
engine at the speed of 1400 min−1 and different engine loads
(150–600 Nm) [10]. At animal fat fuelling, the maximum
pressure increases with 1.2%, the N ­ Ox emission is reduced
and the combustion start occurs later on cycle [10]. Barrios
uses diesel fuel and different fuels based on six animal fats
and soybean oil to fuel a Euro 4 diesel engine during urban
driving cycle tests [11]. As a result, comparative to diesel
fuel, the ­NOx emission increases, and the PM emission was
decreased [11]. Comparative to soybean fuel, the animal fat
fuel type offers lower PM emission level [11]. Shahir uses
per cents of 10–50% animal fat in blend with diesel fuel
in order to fuel a CRDI (Common Rail Direct Injection)
13
A. Cernat et al.
diesel engine [12]. For 30% animal fat content in diesel fuel,
the ­NOx emission levels remain unchanged comparative to
diesel fuel [12]. For higher or less per cents of animal fat in
blend with diesel fuel, the pollutant emissions levels were
decreased [12]. Behçet shows that the use of biodiesel based
on animal fats leads to the N­ Ox concentration increase, ver-
sus diesel fuel, for an air-cooled diesel engine [13].
Generally, the raw animal fats are formed from triglyc-
erides of saturated monocarboxylic fatty acids with carbon
even-numbered, palmitic acid ­(CH3(CH2)14COOH) and
stearic acid (­ CH3(CH2)16COOH). The raw animal fat of
beef contains ~ 12% oxygen, so the reduction of pollutant
emissions level, especially soot, is possible. Versus diesel
fuel the animal fats are environmental friendly, in almost
20 days a 98% of it are totally degraded comparative to clas-
sic fuels [1, 14–16]. Because at ambient conditions, the raw
animal fats are in solid state their use in raw state as fuel
for diesel engine requires their preheating at temperatures
above 45 °C. The raw animal fat of beef is composed from
37 mass% (mass per cent) of saturated acids, defined by
27 mass% palmitic, 7 mass% stearic and 3 mass% myristic,
and 61 mass% of unsaturated acids constituted from oleic
(48 mass%), palmitoleic (11 mass%) and linoleic (2 mass%)
[1, 4, 14–16].
The main properties of diesel fuel and beef raw fat are
shown in Table 1.
The paper presents in-cylinder combustion aspects at a
diesel engine fuelled by raw beef animal fats-diesel fuel
blends. One novelty aspect of the present study versus simi-
lar experimental investigations is the use of animal fats is
raw state, without chemical modifications, in order to fuel
a diesel engine.
This is an efficient recover solution of animal fats from
the leather industry resulting an important decrease of waste
stocks and of financial costs, especially for fuelling with ani-
mal fats of diesel engine—electrical generators that are used
in leather industry. The effects of preheated raw animal fats
Table 1  Properties of diesel fuel and raw animal fats of beef [14, 15]
Propertiesa Diesel fuel Phillips 66 Raw animal
fats of beef
Density/kg m−3 849.5 929
Viscosity at 40 °C/mm2 s−1 2.96 46.37
Ignition point/°C 74 96
Sulphur/mass% 0.036 0
Cetane number CN/− 49.2 40–45
Heating value H­ i/MJ kg−1 42.90 38.9
Composite/mass% 86.67 of C 73 of C
12.96 of ­H2 12.3 of ­H2
0.33 of ­O2 12.5 of ­O2
a
According to ASTM D613
Combustion of preheated raw animal fats‑diesel fuel blends at diesel engine

content in blends with diesel fuel on diesel engine in-cyl-
inder combustion are shown. Thus, another novelty aspect
of the study is the optimal correlation established between
raw animal fats per cent and engine operating parameters in
order to assure engine high performance.
blend per cent-fuel injection timing- temperature of exhaust
gases. Thus, the highest engine performance at animal fat
use can be assured.
Results and discussions

Methodology Important modification of the in-cylinder pressure dia-

A D2156 MTN-8 diesel engine, with 188 kW power output
at 2200 rev min−1, is fuelled with blends of raw animal fats
and diesel fuel. The fuelling system is equipped with an
electric resistance heated fuel reservoir, in order to maintain
the diesel fuel—animal fats blends above 45 °C temperature.
In the setup temperature interval of 45–50 °C, the raw ani-
mal fat of beef becomes liquid and forms a homogeneous
and stable blend with diesel fuel. The experimental test bed
schema is presented in Fig. 1.
The experimental test bed contains the following main
parts: 1. AVL gas analyser, 2. dyno controller cabinet, 3.
Hoffman eddy current dyno, 4. dyno coupling shaft, 5. diesel
engine D2156 MTN8, 6. inlet air flowmeter, 7. Kubler angle
grams, Fig. 2, appears because of influence of heat release
rate at animal fats-diesel fuel blends fuelling, Fig. 4, the
value of the in-cylinder maximum pressure being decreased
with ~ 5% at xc = 5% and with 12% at maximum animal fat
quantity, xc = 10% [14].
This issue is related with the fuel atomization worsening
at animal fat use and is in correlation with the fact that the
angle of maximum pressure (in °CA crank angle degree)
appears later on combustion cycle, Fig. 3. For xc = 5%,
the angle of maximum pressure remains at the same level
80
xc = 0% xc = 5%
70
In-cylinder pressure/bar

encoder, 8. fuel mass flowmeter, 9. fuel tap, 10. diesel fuel

reservoir, 11. raw animal fat-diesel fuel blend reservoir, 12. 60

fuel thermometer, 13. electrical resistance, 14. PC with AVL 50

data acquisition board, 15. AVL Indimodul 621, 16. AVL
charge amplifier, 17. Kistler in-cylinder pressure transducer, 40
xc = 10%
18. supercharging pressure manometer, 19. temperature indi-
30
cators. The investigated regime was 1450 min−1 speed and
40% engine load. The content of raw animal fats in blend 20
with diesel fuel was 5% and 10%, defined by an energetic – 10 10 30 50
substitute ratio, xc [%]. A novelty aspect of the experimen- α /°CA
tal investigation is the combustion process control thru an
optimal adjustment of parameters: engine load-animal fat Fig. 2  Pressure diagrams for different xc values

19 18 17 16 15 14

13 12

11

10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Fig. 1  The experimental test bed

13
 A. Cernat et al.

Angle of maximum pressure/°CA

14.50 The increase in animal fat content affects the moment per
cycle when the maximum heat release is achieved, Fig. 4.
14.00
Comparative to diesel fuelling, at the combustion of animal
13.50 fat-diesel fuel blends, the angle of maximum heat release
rate occurs later per cycle, Fig. 4, fact that is related with
13.00
the tendency registered for the angle of maximum pressure,
12.50 Fig. 3. The angle of maximum heat release rate appears
12.00 6 CAD later on combustion cycle at maximum xc versus
xc = 0. All these aspects are in correlation with variation
11.50
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
of the combustion laws, Fig. 5, which are defined by lower
xc/% maximum values at the rise of xc. Comparative to diesel
fuelling at animal fats-diesel fuel blend use, for xc = 10, the
Fig. 3  The angle of maximum pressure for different xc values heat release decreases with 7%.
The described phenomena’s directly influence the posi-
tion of angular moments at which per cents of 5, 10, 50 and
250 90% of combustion heat is release per cycle versus Top Dead
xc = 0% xc = 5% Centre (TDC), defined as mass fraction burned (MFB). The
Heat release rate/J/°CA

200 significance of mass fraction burned values is a measure

150
100
xc = 10%
50
0 5% MFB is reached later on cycle, for all xc value, com-
– 10 10
α /°CA
Fig. 4  Heat rate release diagrams for different xc values
comparative to classic fuelling, but for xc = 10, the angle of
maximum pressure is registered later on combustion, with a
difference of 2 CAD (Crank Angle Degree). As advantage
appears, the reduction of the combustion noise due to 31.5%
decrease in rate of maximum pressure rise at animal fats use,
at maximum xc value [14].
The influences of the animal fat use are clearly high-
lighted by the heat release rate characteristics, Fig. 4. The
maximum rate of heat release decreases by 12% for the die-
sel fuel-5% animal fat blend and by 14% for the diesel fuel-
10% animal fat blend, Fig. 4. The maximum heat release rate
of the fraction of thermal energy released during the com-
bustion process. The values of MFB show the position of
the combustion process during an operating cycle and are
related with the duration of the combustion.
At raw animal fats use, because the fuel atomization is
aggravated the first stage of heat release, the conventional
30 50 parative to classic fuelling, Fig. 6. Versus diesel fuelling the
difference between angles of 5% MFB is 1 CAD for xc = 5
and xc = 10.
For the 10% MFB also appears a similar tend between
the rise of xc and later 10% MFB versus TDC, Fig. 7. But
the differences in the 5% MFB for classic and raw animal
fats fuelling are not significant, a difference of 1 CAD being
registered for the begin of the combustion. For 10 MFB,
the differences are in the area of 2–3 CAD at raw animal fat
combustion.
Comparative to classic fuelling, a lower heat release
during the main stage of combustion at raw animal fat use,
9000
8000
xc = 0%
7000
Heat release law/J

decreases with the rise of xc which is in correlation with the 6000

xc = 5%
decrease tendency registered for maximum pressure, Fig. 2, 5000
and for maximum pressure rise rate. The decrease in heat 4000
xc = 10%
release rate at animal fats-diesel fuel blends is related with a 3000
lower heating value of animal fats (38.9 MJ kg−1) compara- 2000
tive to diesel fuel (42.90 MJ kg−1). Thus, with the increase in 1000
animal fat ratio in blend with diesel fuel, the heat release rate 0
maximum value is reduced with 16% and 20%, the reduc- – 10 10 30 50
tion being more important for higher animal fat quantities, α /°CA
xc = 10%.
Fig. 5  Combustion laws for different xc values

13
Combustion of preheated raw animal fats‑diesel fuel blends at diesel engine

Mass fraction burned – 5%/°CA –6

Mass fraction burned – 90%/°CA

– 6.1 59
– 6.2
– 6.3 54
– 6.4
– 6.5
49
– 6.6
– 6.7
– 6.8 44

– 6.9
–7 39
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
xc/% xc/%

Fig. 6  Mass fraction burned of 5% for different xc values Fig. 9  Mass fraction burned of 90% for different xc values

8 250 100
Mass fraction burned – 10%/°CA

240 NOx/ppm 95
7.5
230 NOx/%
90
7 220
NOx/ppm

NOx/%
85
6.5 210
80
200
6 75
190
5.5 180 70

170 65
5
0 5 10
0 2 4 6 8 10
xc/% xc/%

Fig. 7  Mass fraction burned of 10% for different xc values Fig. 10  The ­NOx emission level for different xc values

same way the end of combustion. Thus, the end of combus-

17 tion appears with 4 CAD later on cycle for animal fats-die-
Mass fraction burned – 50%/°CA

16.5 sel fuel blends comparative to xc = 0. The total duration of

16
combustion process rises from Δ5–10% = 46 CAD (for xc = 0)
to Δ5–10% = 65.5 CAD and Δ5–10% = 66 CAD (xc = 10), the
15.5
increase in combustion duration at animal fats use being
15
around 20 CAD.
14.5 This influence, shown in Figs. 8 and 9, is in correlation
14 with the decreasing tendency registered for maximum pres-
13.5 sure rise rate, for the maximum pressure and of the heat
13 release, Fig. 4. This issue can be eliminated thru the adjust-
0 2 4 6 8 10 ment of the injection timing value. Similar results were
xc/% achieved by others researchers [4, 9, 10].
The ­NOx emissions level for different xc values is pre-
Fig. 8  Mass fraction burned of 50% for different xc values sented in Fig. 10. At animal fat use, the reduction of the
quantity of preformed mixture of diesel fuel that burns in
Figs. 4 and 5, leads to a later achievement per cycle of 50 the preformed combustion phase leads to the ­NOx emissions
and 90% of MFB, Figs. 8 and 9, the combustion duration level decrease. Also, the decrease of flame temperature in
being increased. The main heat release stage appears with animal fat combustion contributes to the decrease of the N
­ Ox
23% (for xc = 5) and with 30% (for xc = 10) later on cycle, emissions level [14]. At diesel fuelling the ­NOx emission
reflected in 50% MFB angles increased from 13 CAD to 16 level is higher also because the heating value of diesel fuel
CAD and 17 CAD, respectively. This aspect influences in the is higher comparative to animal fat heating value, thus the

13
 A. Cernat et al.

390 in blends with diesel fuel the smoke opacity decreases with
22% for xc = 5 and with 52% for xc = 10.
Exhaust gas temperature/°C

385

380

375
Conclusions
370

365 The essential conclusions of the effect of preheated raw

360 animal fat use, in blends with diesel fuel, on combustion
355 process in diesel engine are:
350
0 2 4 6 8 10 • the deterioration of fuel atomization and the autoigni-
xc/% tion delay increase at the rise of animal fat per cent in
blend with diesel fuel leads to the reduction of the in-
Fig. 11  The exhaust gas temperature for different xc values cylinder maximum pressure with 5% and 12% for xc = 5
and xc = 10, respectively;
13 100 • because of lower heating value of animal fats versus
Opacity/%
12 diesel fuel, the maximum per cycle of the heat release
Relative smoke opacity/rel.%
90
Opacity/rel.% rate decreases once with the rise of animal fat content,
11 80
the decreases being around 16% at xc = 5 and 20% at
Smoke opacity/%

10 70 xc = 10;
9 60 • because of a lower heat release during the raw animal
8 50 fats combustion, the mass fraction burned (MFB) of 50
and 90% are achieved later on the cycle with 3 and 4
7 40
CAD at xc = 5 and xc = 10, respectively, in correlation
6 30 with decreasing tendency of maximum pressure and
5 20 maximum pressure rise rate; these issues lead to the
0.00 5.00 10.00 increase in the total duration of combustion with 19.5
xc/% CAD for xc = 5 and 20 CAD for xc = 10;
• the level of the ­NOx emission is reduced with 22% by
Fig. 12  The opacity of the smoke at different xc values the lowers gas temperature values achieved at the ani-
mal fat combustion, the decrease being proportional
combustion temperature registered for xc = 0 is higher. For with animal fats per cent in blend;
xc = 10, the decrease of fuel blend heating value leads to • at the animal fat use, due to the rise of fuels blend
the reduction of the maximum temperature during combus- oxygen content versus diesel fuel, the smoke opacity
tion in relation with the decrease of ­NOx emissions level. is decreased with 22% and 52% at xc = 5 and xc = 10,
Finally, comparative to diesel fuelling the N ­ Ox emissions respectively;
level decreases with 22% at animal fats use. • the use of small per cents of preheated raw animal fats
The ­NOx emissions level reduction is also in correlation in blend with diesel fuel to fuel the diesel engine does
with the reduction tendency of the exhaust gas temperature, not require major design modification of the engine,
as Fig. 11 shows. Comparative to diesel fuelling, the com- only an electrical resistance in fuel reservoir being rec-
bustion of animal fats-diesel fuel blends leads to the reduc- ommended for use in order to establish the liquid state
tion of exhaust temperature with 4% for xc = 5 and with 6.7% of beef animal fat in blend with diesel fuel;
for xc = 10. • future researches will be developed to evaluate the
The smoke emission level was evaluated by the opacity effect of the animal fats use on fuelling system reli-
value, Fig. 12. ability on long-term.
The raised oxygen content of animal fats assures the
reduction of the smoke opacity, which was decreased with
24% at xc = 5% and with 52% for xc = 10% animal fat, com- Acknowledgements The authors address special thanks to AVL GmbH
Graz Austria for providing the necessary equipments. This work has
parative to diesel fuel, Fig. 12. The reduction of the smoke been funded by University Politehnica of Bucharest, through the
emission at raw animal fats-diesel fuel blends use is related “Excellence Research Grants” Program, UPB—GEX 2017. Identifier:
with the reduction of carbon content and the rise of oxygen UPB- GEX2017, Ctr. No. TR 27-17-06/2017”. Grant of the Roma-
content in the final fuels blend ones with rise of animal fat nian Ministry of Research and Innovation, CCCDI-UEFISCDI, project
number PN-III-P1-1.2-PCCDI-2017-0404, within PNCDI III. Sectoral
per cent. Thus, versus diesel fuelling at the use of animal fats

13
Combustion of preheated raw animal fats‑diesel fuel blends at diesel engine
Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007–2013
of the Ministry of European Funds through the Financial Agreement
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/134398.
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