Experiment No.

2
Measurements using various measuring equipment:

1) CRO
a) Set up CRO and function generator for measurement of voltage, frequency
b) Obtain the phase shift between to signals using CRO with the help of
Lissajous pattern.

2) Signal Generator: -To study various controls of a signal generator

a) To study of controls of Signal or function generator

3) Digital Multimeter
a) Measure voltage, resistance using digital multimeter. Also use
multimeter to check diode, BJT

AIM: To study measurements using various measuring different equipment

a) Set up CRO and function generator for measurement of voltage frequency

b) Obtain the phase shift between to signals using CRO with the help of
Lissajous pattern
c) Measure voltage, resistance using DMM. also use Multimeter to check
diode BJT

1) To study the CRO

1) To study of controls of CRO

2) To measure amplitude, time period and frequency of time varying signals.

APPARATUS: Signal Generator, CRO, probes, AC/DC sources, connecting Wires, etc.

THEORY:

a) Cathode Ray Oscilloscope:

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides

accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of
frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable purpose
laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray as a general tube shown.
schematically in Fig. 1. The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by

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the heated cathode (negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent
screen.

Figure 1. (a) Cathode Ray Tube schematic (b) details of deflection plate

The assembly of the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode
(positive electrode) is called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron
beam and control its intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent
screen are two pair of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of
the beam and one pair oriented to give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates
are thus referred to as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination
of these two deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent
screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light
is emitted from that point. This conversion of electron energy into light allows us to
write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened screen.

Front Panel Controls of Cro:

1. POWER ON: Puts the instrument to main supply with LED indication.
2. INTENSITY: Controls the brightness of the display.
3. FOCUS: Controls the sharpness of the display
4. TIME BASE :18 step switch enable selection of 18 calibrated sweep. From
0.1usec/div to 0.2 S/div in 1, 2, 5... sequence.
5. TIME BASE VARIABLE: In calibrated position (CAL the selected sweep speed
holds indicated calibration clockwise. It extends the Sweep. Speed by 2.5 times approx.,
with LED indication.: Provides 4:1 Hold-Off to enhance HF & Complex Signal
Triggering.
6. HOLD-OFF; signal triggering

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 Figure 2. Front Panel of CRO

7. LEVEL: Variable control, Selects the trigger point on the displayed On the
displayed waveform
8. AUTO/NORM: Controls the horizontal position of the display. When this control
is pulled, it magnifies the sweep 5 times with LED Indication.
In Auto mode trace is displayed in absence of any input Signal. The display is then
automatically triggered for Signals above 30 Hz depending upon correct setting of
Trigger LEVEL control.
9. INT/EXT
INT: Display triggers from signals derived from CHI, CH2 or line. EXT: Triggering
from any other External source fed through EXT TRIG BNC Socket
EXT: Selects trigger point on either positive or negative slope of The displayed
waveform.
10. CHI/CH2: Selects trigger signal in INT mode derived from either CHI Or CH2
inputs.
11. ac/dc ; Selects trigger signal coupling.
12. SWP/X-Y : Selects trigger signal coupling : When pressed, converts CH2 input into
X-channel and Enable use of the scope as on x-y 200mv p-p 1 KHz square wave
calibration signal. 0.2V. 1 KHz 200mv-p 1 khz square wave calibration signal POSITION
/XS Controls the vertical position of the display. When this Control is pulled, it
magnifies the sweep 5 times with LED indication.

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Measurement of Different Parameters:

i) Frequency Measurement:

1. Connect the signal from the signal generator to the Y-input/X-input.

2. Adjust the time base generator switch (time/div) to get a steady pattern of the
signal on the CRO screen.
3. Measure the time interval T for one cycle.
4. Determine the frequency F of the signal (F-L/T)
5. Repeat the same procedure for different frequencies.

ii) AC voltage measurement:

1.Adjust the beam to certain reference level

2.Keep AC/DC selector switch on DC position.
3.Apply test voltage to CRO input.
4.Measure the shift of beam from reference level.
5.Calculate D.C. Voltage → No. of divisions on y-axis x Volts/Div.
6.Note down the reading.

iii) DC voltage measurement:

1. Keep AC/DC selector switch on AC position.

2. Apply AC voltage from signal generator to CRO input.
3. Measure no. of divisions on y-axis.
4. Calculate A.C. Voltage → No. of divisions on y-axis x Volts/Div.

OBSERVATION TABLE

1) Frequency measurement

Sr no Applied frequency T sec Hz

1
2
3

2) AC voltage measurement

Sr no Applied Voltage Measured Voltage (Vp-p)

1
2
3

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3) DC voltage measurement

Sr. No Applied Voltage Measured Voltage

1
2
3

b) Obtain the phase shift between to signals using CRO with the help of
Lissajous pattern Phase measurement:

1. Phase difference α between two signals (same frequency) is obtained

by feeding
the signals to two inputs X and Y of a dual trace CRO.
2. Set the CRO to XY mode. Keep Dual /Mono on Mono Position.
3. A Lissajous pattern is produced on the screen when two sine wave
voltages are Applied simultaneously to both pairs of deflection plates of a CRO

4. The phase difference between two sinusoidal signals of same

frequency can be Calculated from the amplitudes Y1 and Y2 of the Lissajous

pattern. Phase difference is given by α = Sin-1 (Y1/Y2)

(a)

(b)
Figure 3. a) Phase difference between two signals b ) Lissajous pattern for
measurement of phase difference

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OBSERVATION TABLE

Phase Measurement

Phase Angle
Sr. No Y1= Y2=

1
2
3

2) Signal Generator: -To study various controls of a signal generator

a) To study of controls of Signal or function generator

APPARATUS: Signal Generators, Connecting Wires, Probes

THEORY:

Signal Generator provides various signals like sine wave, square wave for different
test circuits. Its frequency range varies from HHz to 1MHz with adjustable
amplitude, for sine wave 0 to 10V, for square wave 0 to 20V peak to peak. The
output impedance of generator is 60012 at output level of IV & below. The front
panel of signal generator is shown in figure 4.

Figure 4: From panel of Signal Generator Front Panel Controls of Signal Generator:

1. Power On indication: Red LED glows when power is on.

2.Frequency Multiplier Switch: used to select the range of frequency.

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 3. Frequency Select Dial: Used to select the desired frequency.
4.Waveform Selection Switch: Select desired waveform.
5.Amplitudé Selection Potentiometer. Amplitude of selected waveform is adjusted.
6.Output Terminals Provides output signal elected by user

Study of front panel controls of function generator

FRONT PANEL

1) POWER Switch - Pressing this push switch turns on power.

2) POWER Lamp LED Lights up when power is on.
3)Frequency Dial. The variable potentiometer varies output frequency within the
selected range with the frequency rang selector. SWEEP WIDTH/Release on Control.
4) Releasing the switch selects internal sweep and rotating variable potentiometer
controls sweep width Rotate it counterclockwise to get a minimum sweep width (1:1)
and rotate clockwise to get maximum sweep. (100: 1). To get a maximum sweep
width, set the frequency dial to minimum scale (below 0.2 scale). Pushing the knob
selects external sweep, which is implemented, when external sweep voltage is applied
to the VCF input connector.
5) SWEEP RATE Control - This controls sweep rate (sweep frequency) of internal
sweep oscillator.
SYMMETRY Control (Release ON) This controls symmetry (duty cycle) of output signal
waveform within range of 10:1 to 1:10.
6) DC OFFSET Control (Release ON) The DC offset control can be provide up to ± 10V
open circuit, or ± 5V into 500. Clockwise rotation admixes positive voltage and
counter. Clockwise rotation admixes negative voltage.
7) AMPLITUDE/Release -20dB, -40dB, -60dB Control Amplitude of output signals can
be controlled by this potentiometer. Maximum attenuation is -60dB when both (-
20dB & - 40dB) switches are released. So the output signal can be attenuated by -80dB
when both are released & potentiometer rotated fully counterclockwise.
8) FREQUENCY RANGE Selector Select one of the following seven ranges of oscillation
frequency as desired.

Frequency ranges Frequency ranges

1 0.2Hz~2Hz
2 2Hz~20Hz
3 20Hz~200Hz
4 200Hz~2KHz
5 2kHz~20kHz
6 20kHz~200Hz
7 200Hz~2MHz
9)FUNCTION Selector Push one of three knobs to get a desired waveform out of sine
wave, triangle wave and square wave.

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 10) VCF IN Connector - Frequency of output signal can be varied by applying voltage
to this connector. Application of voltage from 0 to + 10V provides frequency variation
up to 100: 1.
11)TTL-Level square waves output from here TTL-OUTPUT Connector.
12) OUTPUT Connector (50) This is the main output connector for sine wave, triangle
wave and square wave selected with the FUNCTION Selector. (DO NOT SHORT)

3) Measure voltage, resistance using DMM. also use Multimeter to check diode
BJT

a) Measurement of AC and DC voltages and Measurement of Current

b) Measurement of resistance
c) Measurement of parameters of diodes and transistors.

APPARATUS: Digital multimeter, Diode, resistor, transistor, wires etc.

THEORY: A multimeter or a multimeter, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is

an electronic measuring instrument that combines several functions in one unit. A
standard multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage,
current and resistance.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service
work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy.
They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a industrial and
household devices such as batteries, motor controls, appliances, power supplies,
and wiring systems.

PROCEDURE:

a) Measurement of AC, DC voltage & current.

1) Voltage Measurement

I. Connect red test lead to “V-V” input terminal and black test lead to
“COM” input terminal.
II. Set Function/Range switch to desired voltage type (DC or AC) and range. If
magnitude of voltage is not known, set switch to the highest range and
reduce until a satisfactory reading is obtained.
III. Turn off power to the device or circuit being tested.
IV. Connect test leads to the device or circuit being measured.
V. Turn on power to the device or circuit being measured. Voltage value will
appear on the digital display along with the voltage polarity.
VI. Turn off power to the device or circuit being tested prior to disconnecting
test leads.

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 b) Current Measurement

I. Connect red test lead to the “mA” input terminal for current measurements up
to 200 mill amperes. Connect black lead to the COM input terminal.
II. Set Function/Range switch to desired current type (DC or AC) and range. If
magnitude of current is not known, set switch to the highest range and
reduce until a satisfactory reading is obtained.
III. Turn off power to the device or circuit being tested.
IV. Open the circuit in which current is to be measured. Now securely connect test
leads in series with the load in which current is to be measured.
V. Turn on power to the device or circuit being tested.
VI. Read current value on digital display.
VII. Turn off all power to the device or circuit being tested.
VIII. Disconnect test leads from circuit and reconnect circuit that was being tested.
IX. For current measurement of 200mA or greater, connect the red test lead to “20
A” input terminal & black test lest lead to the “COM” input terminal.

c) Resistance Measurements

1. Connect red test lead to V-V input terminal and black test lead to terminal.
2. Set Function/Range switch to desired V position. If magnitude of resistance is not known,
set the switch to highest range and reduce until a satisfactory reading is obtained.
3. If the resistance being measured is part of a circuit, turn off power to the circuit.
4. Connect test leads to the device or circuit being measured.
5. Read resistance value on digital display.

d) Diode and Transistor Test Measurements on Multimeter

The special Diode Test Function allows relative measurements of forward

voltage drops across diodes and transistor junctions.

1) Diode Tests

a) Forward Bias Test

1. Connect red test lead to “V-V” input terminal and black test lead to
COM input terminal.
2. Set Function/Range switch to the diode test position.
3. Connect test leads to the device
4. Read forward voltage drop value on digital display.

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 b) Reverse Bias test

1. Connect red test lead to “V-V” input terminal and black test lead to
COM input terminal.
2. Set Function/Range switch to the diode test position.
3. Connect test leads to the device
4. Read reverse voltage drop value on digital display.

2) Transistor Junction Tests

1. Bipolar transistors can be tested in the same manner as diode, junctions formed
between the base and emitter and the base and collector of the transistor.
Measurement between the collector and emitter also should be made to
determine if a short is present.

2. Transistor hFE Measurements

Transistor must be out of circuit. Set the function/range switch to the hFE
position. Plug the emitter, base and collector leads of the transistor into the
correct holes in either the NPN or the PNP transistor test socket, whichever is
appropriate for the transistor being checked. Read the hFE (beta, or DC
current gain) in the display.

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3) Continuity Test

1. Set Range Switch to “V Ω mA” and Black lead to COM input terminal.
2. Set Range Switch to “:)))” position.
3. Connect test lead to Two points of Circuit to be tested.
4. If the resistance is lower than 30Ω + or – 20 Ω the buzzer will be sound.

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 Result

1) Frequency measurement:

Sr. No Applied T F=1/T

Frequency sec Hz
1

2) AC voltage measurement:

Sr. No Voltage (Vp-p) Voltage (Vp-p) on

on CRO Multimeter

3) DC voltage measurement:

Sr. No Applied Voltage from DC Measured Voltage on

Supply multimeter

5) Phase measurement:

Phase Angle
Sr.No Y1 = Y2 = α = Sin-1 (Y1/Y2)
(degree)

2.

CONCLUSION:

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