Approximate Solutions of

B. D. Vujanovic
Faculty of Technical Sciences,
University of Novi Sad,
21000 Novi Sad, Yugoslavia
S. E. Jones
Department of Engineering Mechanics,
The University of Alabama,
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0278
Canonical Heat Conduction •
Equations
We consider three analytical methods for finding the approximate solutions of one-
dimensional, transient, and nonlinear Heat conduction problems based upon the
canonical equations of heat transfer. The first method can be considered as a
generalization or refinement of the integral method. The second is an iterative method
similar to that of Targ utilized in boundary layer theory. The third method is a
variational procedure introduced in the spirit of Gauss' variational principle of least
constraint.

1 Introduction
Let us consider one-dimensional transient heat transfer
problems, which are governed by partial differential equations
of the form
pcd T/dt = d/dx[k (T) d T/dx]
(1.1)
where T= T(t, x) denotes temperature, p is density, c is the
constant heat capacity, t is time, x denotes the Cartesian spatial
coordinate, and k is the thermal conductivity, which can de-
pend upon temperature. This second-order parabolic differ-
ential equation can be replaced by a pair of partial equations
of the first order in the following two ways:
dH/dt=-k(T)dT/dx
(1.2)
dH/dx= -pcT
and
Q=-k(T)dT/dx
(1.3)
dQ/dx= -pcdT/dt
where H=H(t, x) denotes the so-called heat displacement
function and Q=Q(t, x) represents a conjugated function of
H. In both pairs of these equations, the first equation repre-
sents the law of heat conduction, and the second equation
represents the law of conservation of energy of the thermal
process. We shall conditionally refer to the systems (1.2) and
(1.3) as the "canonical" differential equations of transient heat
conduction, alluding to the well-known analogy between the
Lagrangian and Hamilton differential equations of motion in
ordinary analytical mechanics. We believe that at least the
canonical equations (1.2) have been introduced by Biot (see,
for example, Biot, 1970). In fact, for two and three-dimen-
sional cases, the functions H and Q are of vectorial character.
Since we are only interested in cases having just one space
dimension, our attention is focused on the simple scalar form
of these equations. It must be noted that numerous authors
have appreciated the use of the canonical equations (1.2) and
(1.3) as an alternative to attacking the single equation of heat
transfer (1.1) directly. As pointed out by Biot (1970, p. 5),
" . . . i n many cases it is preferable to use two separate equa-
tions (1.2)." For example, Biot's variational principle, widely
used in linear and nonlinear heat transfer problems, employs
Contributed by the Heat Transfer Division for publication in the JOURNAL OF
HEAT TRANSFER. Manuscript received by the Heat Transfer Division June 12,
1989; revision received January 4,1990. Keywords: Conduction, Moving Bound-
aries, Transient and Unsteady Heat Transfer.
as a starting point both sets of canonical equations. Recently,
a new approximate method suitable for the study of phase-
transition problems with time-varying boundary conditions
was developed by Menning and Ozisik (1985) starting from
these canonical equations. A hyperbolic version of the can-
onical equations has also been employed by Glass et al. (1985)
for the numerical study of heat conduction with a finite velocity
for the thermal disturbance in a semi-infinite medium. Based
on the canonical equations (1.2) and (1.3), we discuss in this
report three new methods, which are simple but rather accurate
and can be utilized in the solution of a wide variety of transient
linear and nonlinear heat conduction problems. Before de-
scribing these methods, we suppose that in each particular
problem we are able to represent in advance the approximate
temperature field as a polynomial depending on time t, the
space coordinate x, and some finite number of unknown func-
tions #i(0> 92(0. • • • » known as generalized coordinates
T=T(t, x, qu q2, . . .) (1.4)
The physical significance of these coordinates can vary. For
example, the generalized coordinate can represent the depth
of the thermal penetration into a medium, the value of the
time-dependent surface temperature, the value of the temper-
ature flux at a given place, etc. We also suppose that the
temperature field (1.4) is selected in such a way that some of
the prescribed initial and boundary conditions are identically
satisfied. The selection process for the approximate trial so-
lutions (1.4) generally follows from numerous approximate
methods used in engineering study of linear and nonlinear heat
conduction problems, for example, the heat-balance integral
method, the partial integration method, Galerkin's method,
etc.
2 A Generalized Integral Method
The essence of this method is to take, as a basis, the mutual
product of the canonical equations (1.2) or (1.3). Supposing
for simplicity that the thermal conductivity is temperature in-
dependent, we have from (1.2) and (1.3), respectively,
pckd/dx( T2/2) = (dH/dx) {dH/dt) (2.1)
and
d/dx(^/2) = pck(dTZdx) (dT/dt) (2.2)
Each of these equations should be integrated over the space
domain, which is involved in the thermal process. The question
of which of these two equations shall be taken as a basis for
approximate analysis will depend on the initial and boundary

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 conditions of the problem in question. If we take as a basis
equation (2.1), we have to solve the second partial differential
equation (1.2) first to find the heat displacement function
H=H(t,x,quq2, . . .). In doing this we suppose that the rest
of the initial and boundary conditions, which have not been
satisfied by the primary selection of the trial solution (1.4),
are identically satisfied. If we start from equation (2.2) by
supposing that all initial and boundary conditions are satisfied
by selecting (1.4), we simply substitute this into (2.2) and per-
form the integration over the given space domain. In both
cases we arrive at a single ordinary differential equation of the
first order with respect to the q's, which should be integrated
subject to the given initial conditions. If the problem contains
more than one generalized coordinate, additional differential
equations with respect to the g's must be provided by some
other means. In this respect, the method proposed is similar
to the well-known integral method, which provides only one
relation obtained by direct space integration of equation (1.1).
The practical use of this method can best be illustrated by the
following concrete examples.
Example 2.1 Consider a semi-infinite slab initially at zero
temperature whose face at x=0 is subject to the power-law
boundary temperature condition
T(t,0)=f(t)=af/2 (2.3)
where a is a given constant and n is a positive integer. Assuming
that p, c, and k are temperature independent, the temperature
profile is taken to be of the form
T=f(t)(\-x/qf (2.4)
where q = q(t) denotes the depth of the thermal penetration
into the medium. Observe that this form of the approximate
temperature field identically satisfies the boundary condition
(2.3), and also the boundary conditions
T(t,X)x=q=o, or/ax) u 9 = o (2.5)
Using equation (2.4) and integrating the second equation (1.2)
with respect to x, we find
/ /= --(V4)Pcf(t)q(\-x/q)* + K(t) (2.6)
where K(t) is an arbitrary function of time. To find K(t), we
substitute equation (2.6) into the first of equation (1.2)
-k(dT/dx) = (cfnq/8t)(l-x/q)4 + (cfq/4)
xV-x/qf + cfqix^O-x/q^ +K (2.7)
where an overdot denotes the time derivative. Using the second
boundary condition in (2.5), we conclude from the last relation
that under the condition
•-k(dT/dx) \x=0 = cfnq/8t + cfq/4 (2.8)
the function K is equal to zero. Substituting equation (2.6)
into (2.1), integrating from x= 0, taking into account (2.3) and
the first boundary condition in (2.5), we obtain
- a / 2 / 2 = -f2q[(U/224)q + nq/64t] (2.9)
where a = k/pc denotes the thermal diffusivity. This means
that q satisfies the differential equation
(\\/\\2)qq + nq2/'h2t = a. (2.10)
whose solution, subject to the obvious initial condition q(0) = 0,
is found to be
q= [224/(11 + lri)]1/2(ctt)in (2.11)
The dimensionless heat flux at the surface x=0 can be deter-
mined from equation (2.8)
£s(approx) ~
(~4f L-o *r) =m " +1)2/(22+14w)],/2(2j2)
while the exact expression for the same quantity (see Carslaw
and Jaeger, 1959) is given by
O m+n/2)
y*(exac,)-r(/!+1)/2 (2-13)
The present solution (2.12) is compared with the exact solution
in Table 2.1. Observe that the approximate solution compares
very well with the exact solution of the problem. The error
does not exceed 0.5 percent in the entire range of the expo-
nential parameter n.

N Drn o i i H ^ t i i r p
a constant coefficient
defined in text
B = given constant P - q-s
c, c0 = specific heat P = parameter p in dimen- tm = the time when the
D = dissipation function sionless form ablation process com-
At) = time-dependent surface Q = heat flow per unit time mences
temperature and area (specific rate V = constant velocity of
F(t) = time-dependent surface of heat flow); the the ablation front
heat flux function conjugate to W = spatial optimization
F = constant heat flux H complex
G = constant nonlinear pa- Qa = generalized thermal x,y, z = coordinates
rameter force z, = the surface tempera-
H = heat displacement q, Qn <?2 = generalized coordi- ture
function nates
H = heat displacement vec- R = function of tempera-
z, az == Gauss constraint
thermal diffusivity
tor ture defined by equa-
h(T) = heat constraint tion (4.19)
r ==
G
gamma function
Gaussian variation
I,
K(t),Kdt) = arbitrary functions of S = dimensionless position symbol
time of melt line M= parameter defined by
k = heat conductivity
L = latent heat
s*s boundary
= surface equation (3.10)
= position of melt line V = melting parameter de-
n = constant time expo- T = temperature fined by equation
nent T0 = constant surface tem- (2.32)
n = unit vector normal to perature = thermal potential
the boundary surface Tm = melting temperature
n
p = density
S* t = time T = dimensionless time

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 Table 2.1 Dimensionless boundary heat flux Qs for various values of Table 2.2 Dimensionless boundary temperature z for various values of
the exponential parameter n the parameter n

Q i \ * Error z Z
^s(exact) s(approx) n 1 % Error 2 » Error
I exact
(2.20) (2.21)
0 0.5642 0.5640 0.00
1 0.8862 0.8819 0.48 0 1 .1284 1.1180 0.92 1 .1339 -0.49
2 1.1284 1.1225 0.52 1 0.8862 0.8771 1 .02 0.8908 -0.52
3 1.3293 1.3229. 0.48 2 0.7523 0.7454 0.92 0.7559 -0.48
4 1.5045 1.4979 0.44 3 0.6647 0.6594 0.80 0.6676 -0.44
5 1.6617 1.6550 0.40 4 0.6018 0.5976 0.70 0.5042 -0.40
6 1.8048 1.7988 0.32 5 0.5539 0.5505 0.61 0.5559 -0.36
7 1.9386 1.9322 0.33 6 0.5158 0.5130 0.54 0.5175 -0.33
7 0.4847 •0.4822 0.52 0 .4861 -0.29

Example 2.2. Consider a semi-infinite slab initially at zero

t,„ when the surface temperature attains a fixed value q2= Tm.
temperature whose face at x = 0 is subject to the boundary
This will be especially important for « = 0 and F = a = const.
condition
From equations (2.18), (2.19), and (2.20), we have
-k(dT/dx)\x=0 = FU)=at"/2 (2.14)
gdtm) = W\l1)(atm)U2 = (.\6/5)T,„k/F (2.23)
where a, k, and n are given constants. We again take the trial
where
solution in the form of a cubic polynomial
tm= (4/5)T2mk2/aF2 (2.24)
T=q2{l-x/ql)3 (2.15)
and where Tm is the time at which T(0, tm) = tm occurs.
where q2{f) denotes the surface temperature at x = 0, and q^t)
is the penetration depth. Since the temperature gradients are Example 2.3. To conclude this section, consider a semi-
prescribed at x = 0 and x=qu it is suitable to use as a basis infinite solid slab initially at zero temperature. The solid has
equation (2.2) (although the use of equation (2.1) as a basis been heated by a constant heat flux F at the boundary x = 0.
is quite possible and would produce slightly better results). At time t=0, the constant melting temperature Tm is reached
Substituting equation (2.15) into (2.2) and integrating with on the boundary and at that time, the depth of thermal pen-
respect to x from x = 0 to x= qu and taking into account that etration q is given by equation (2.23). For positive time the
Q\x=0=F(t) andQ\x=q = 0, we arrive at the differential equa- solid melts and all the melted material is removed from the
tion ' boundary as soon as the melting begins (ablation). Let us
denote by x=s{t) the unknown position of the melting line
ipckqlq2q2 + 3pckqxq\ =_5F2qi (2.16)
(which is at the same time the location of the boundary of the
To find another differential equation for qx and q2, we sub- body). Let us denote the thermal penetration depth by q(t)
stitute (2.15) into the second canonical equation of the system measured from x = 0. The boundary condition at the melting
(1.3) and integrate with respect to x over the same range. Thus, line is prescribed by
we obtain
F+k(dT/dx)=pLds/dt, x = s(t) (2.25)
pc(q1q2+qiq2)=4F(t) (2.17)
The solution of equations (2.16) and (2.17), subject to where L denotes the coefficient of latent heat of melting. We
<7i(0) = ?2(0) = 0, is suppose that the coefficients p, c, and k are constant. Let us
approximate the transient distribution by the cubic polynomial
qi=A(at)in, q2=(B/k)F(t)(at)i/2 (2.18)
T=Tm[l-(x-s)/(q-s)]3 (2.26)
where the constant coefficients A and B are
Integrating the second canonical equation in (1.2) and selecting
X = [(40H + 6 4 ) / 5 ] 1 / 2 , 5=[10/(5« + 8)] 1/2 (2.19) the function of integration in such a way that the first canonical
The surface temperature in dimensionless form is, therefore, equation in (1.2) is satisfied at x = s, we find the heat displace-
ment function to be
Zi = [T(0, t)k/F(t) (at)1'2} = [10/(5« + 8)] 1/2 (2.20)
H= (U4)pcTm(q-s)[l-(x-s)/(q-s)]'i (2.27)
Note that if we take as the basis of approximation equation
(2.1), by using the same temperature profile (2.15), the ap- and the heat flux at x = s is given by
proximate surface temperature is found to be -k{dT/dx)\x=s=(l/4)cTm(q + 3s) (2.28)
+ 36)/7(« + 2) 2 ] 1/2
Z 2 =[(14« (2.21) Substituting (2.27) into (2.1), integrating fromx = stox=q-s,
The exact expression for the surface temperature is also avail- and using the boundary conditions T\x=s = Tm and 7 , l Jr=? = 0,
able (see Carslaw and Jaeger, 1959) and is given by we obtain
r ( l + w/2) [(ll/224)p + (l/7)i]/? = a / 2 (2.29)
Zexac.-r(w/2+3/2) (2-22)
where
The present solutions are exhibited in Table 2.2 and compared p = q-s (2.30)
with the exact solution. It is seen that the solutions obtained
To find another differential equation, we integrate the second
by the method presented here are in very good agreement with
canonical equation in (1.3) over the same space interval, using
the exact solutions of the same problem.
the temperature field (2.26). Since Q\x=q = § and
Both problems treated here have been solved by Zien (1976) Q\x=s = F-pLs, we obtain
by employing an exponential temperature profile and using
another integral method. The results obtained by Zien are also (l/4)p + s(l + v)=F/cTm (2.31)
in excellent agreement with the exact solution. However, the where
results obtained by means of equation (2.21) are in better
agreement with the exact solution for small n than those ob- v = PL/cTm (2.32)
tained by Zien. For subsequent considerations, it will be useful The initial conditions are 5(0) = 0 and (according to (2.23))
to know the value of the penetration depth qx at the instant p(0) = (l6/5)Tm k/F. Note that the system of equations (2.29)

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 Table 2.3 Dimensionless position of the ablation front S(T) and its ve- problem. We illustrate the application of the method by the
locity dS/dr versus the melting time T for V = \ITTI2 following concrete example.

1 T Present Goodman Example 3.1. Consider a semi-infinite solid, which is ini-

1
I 0.0 0
S(T) dS/di

0. 1564 0
S(T) dS/d;

0.1563
tially at its melting temperature. The surface temperature is
T0 = const and the position of the melting line measured from
0.4 0.C884 0.2715 0.0875 0.2682 x = 0 is denoted by s(t). Assuming that the thermophysical
0.8 0.2090 0.3276 • .0.2066 0.3231
1.0 0.2763 0.3464 0.2730 0.3417
coefficients are temperature independent, the behavior of the
2 0.6535 0.400S 0.6453 0.3959 process can be described by
6 2.4939 0.4567 2.3796 0.4538 .
10 4.2553 0.4667 4.2229 0.4653
70 32.4364 0.4693 32.3984 0.4698
dH/dx=^pcT 0<x<s(t), t>0 (3.1)
k(dT/dx)=-dH/dt (3.2)

and (2.31) possesses a steady-state solution for f—oo. Namely, T(x,t) = Tm = 0, x>s (3.3)
by supposing that p = const, it follows from (2.31) that the
T(t, 0)=T0 = const, t>0 (3.4)
ablation front moves with a constant velocity v(s= vt), where
and
v={aF/Tmk)/(\ + v) (2.33)
k(dT/dx) = -pLs, at x=s(t) (3.5)
This value of the ablation speed is identical with the exact
asymptotic solution of the same problem given by Landau where the melting temperature Tm has been calibrated to zero
(1950). Introducing the dimensionless variables without loss of generality. We approximate the transient tem-
2 perature distribution in the liquid phase by a linear profile
P=pF/Tmk, S = sF/Tmk, T=[F /PLkTm]t (2.34)
T=T0(\-x/s) (3.6)
the system of equations (2.29) and (2.31) becomes
Thus, the boundary conditions (3.3) and (3.4) are identically
P[(l 1/224)/" + (1/7)5'] = ( l / 2 > , P(0) = 16/5 satisfied. It is clear that the generalized coordinate s(t), which
locates the interface between the solid and liquid phases, plays
(l/4)P' + (l + p)S' = v, S(0) = 0 (2.35)
the role of the depth of thermal penetration. Substituting equa-
where a prime denotes differentiation with respect to the di- tion (3.6) into (3.1), we find after integration
mensionless time r.
H=(l/2)pcToS(l-x/s)2 + K(t) (3.7)
These equations can easily be integrated. In Table 2.3 we
present the position of the ablation front and its velocity as where K(t) is an arbitrary function of time. Substituting this
functions of time. The same problem has been solved by Lan- into equation (3.2), we obtain
dau (1950), but the results are presented only in graphic form. -k(dT/dx) = (l/2)pcT 0 s (1 -x/s)2
The results obtained here compare well with those reported
+ pcT0s(x/s)(l-x/s)+K (3.8)
by Landau (1950). The problem has also been discussed by
Zien (1978) with a refinement of the integral method, and by Matching this equation with the boundary condition (3.5), we
Goodman (1964), who combined the classical integral method find K=pLs. Thus,
with Biot's variational principle. Since Goodman's approxi- dT/dx= - (T0s/a)[(l/2)-(l/2)(x/s)2 + (2//*)] (3.9)
mate solutions are available in numerical form, they are also
given in Table 2.3. The very close agreement between these where a = k/pc and
two approximate solutions is obvious. li = 2T0k/pLa (3.10)
Integrating equation (3.9), and taking (3.4) into account, we
3 A n Iterative Approximate Method Based on the Can- obtain
onical Equations T=T0-(Tosi/<x)[(U2)(x/s)
In this section, we shall discuss an iterative procedure for - (l/6)(xA) 3 + (2//*)(*/y)] (3.11)
finding approximate solutions of transient heat conduction
problems. Essentially, the method is similar to the method of Since T=0 for x=s, we arrive at the differential equation for
Targ, utilized in the solution of problems in boundary layer s
theory (see the references cited herein, especially Loitsansky, s s 7 a = 3/*/(/* + 6) (3.12)
1962). The method of successive approximation of ordinary This equation is to be integrated subject to the initial condition
differential equations, proposed by Picard (e.g., Ince, 1956), 5(0) = 0. Therefore, to a first approximation, the position of
can serve as an elementary model to which the method pre- the melting line is given by
sented here can be compared. We begin by selecting a tem-
perature profile in the same way as explained in the introduction s(t) =5,(/) = [6 / ./(^ + 6 ) ] 1 / V ) 1 / 2 (3.13)
with equation (1.4). We also use a basis, the canonical equa- Note that the incident heat flux at x=0 should be calculated
tions (1.2) or (1.3). The method is simple and consists of from (3.9). This means that
successive integration of the canonical equations (1.2) or (1.3)
( o r / t o ) ! 1^0= - ( r 0 5 / a ) ( l / 2 + 2/ft) (3.14)
with respect to the spatial coordinatex. After each integration,
matching with the initial and boundary conditions is necessary To improve these results, we substitute equation (3.13) into
in order to determine the arbitrary function of time (which (3.11) and get
appears as the result of the integration process). After each r , = r 0 - 3 n r 0 / ( j i + 6){[(M + 4)/(2 i u)]x/s-(l/6)(x/s) 3 )
"cycle" of integration we arrive at an ordinary differential
equation of the first order with respect to the generalized co- (3.15)
ordinate, which should be integrated subject to the given initial and repeat the same procedure as in the previous step starting
condition. Generally, we are able to improve the accuracy by from the new temperature profile 7V Substituting the last
repeating the process of integration, but actually the higher expression into (3.1), we have after integration,
approximations introduce very laborious and tedious calcu-
- H{ =pcToX- 3ppcTos/(p + 6) ([(/z + 4)/4/z](*:/5)2
lations. Thus, in practice, only a couple of integrations are
needed for a reasonably good approximate solution to the -(1/24)(JC/5)4)+A:I(0 (3.16)

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 where K{(t) is an arbitrary function of integration. Substi- Table 3.1 Dimensionless position of the melt line sl(a f )1'2 for various
tuting this into (3.2), and matching with (3.5), we obtain values of the melting parameter n

d T/dx = - [3ix T2 s /a (/t + 6)] ( - [(ji + 4)/4/t] (x/s)2 Exact First approx. Second approx
li s/Ut)1/2 S^lat)1/' "i Error Sg/tat)1/2 % Error -.
+ (1/8)(JCA) 4 ) - (3/8)(T0s/a)
0.5 0.6802 0.6794 -0.12 0.6302 0.001
x[(iJ. + 8)/(ii. + 6)]-2T0s/aii. (3.17) 1 .0 0.9296 0.9258 -0.40 0.9296 0.000 !
1 .5 1 .1042 1 .0954 -0.80 1.1043 0.012
Integration of this equation, taking (3.4) into account, leads 2.0 1.2401 1.2247 -1 .20 1 .2403 0.020 !
2.5 1.3517 1.3284 -1 .70 1.3520 0.020
to 3.0 1.4464 1 .4142 -2.2 1.4467 0.020

T= T0- [3/xrosi/a( At + 6)]( - [(ii + 4)/12n](x/s)3

+ (1/40)(JC/S) 5 ) - (3/8)(ToSS/a)[(n + 8)/(ix + 6)](x/s)
Table 3.2 Values of the dimensionless incident temperature flux - (377
-2[ToSs/iia](x/s) (3.18) Bx)\x=0 (at)mIT0 for various values of the melting parameter n
By using the boundary conditions (3.3), we arrive at the dif-
First approx Second app rox
ferential equation for * p Exact % Error % Error
(3.14) (3.21)
ss (ii2 + 20/* + 60) = 5aix(ii + 6) (3.19) 1 .5271
0.5 1.5257 1 .5286 -0.70 -0.02
Integrating subject to 5(0) = 0, we find the improved approx- 1 .0 1.1533 1 .1573 -0.34 1 .1537 -0.04
1 .5 0.9986 1.0042 -0.55 1.9985 -0.01
imate solution 2.0 0.9109 0.9186 -0.84 0.9136 -0.30
2.5 0.8536 0.8635 -1 .20 0.8539 -0.04
s(t)=s2(t) = [(lQ^ + 60fi)/(fi2 + 20^. + 60)]l/\cxt)U2 (3.20) 3.0 0.8136 0.8250 -1 .40 0.8138 -0.02

The improved heat flux at x = 0 is obtained from equation

(3.17).
to be a constant. Following the rules suggested by Biot (1970),
O7Vdx) 2 i x = 0 = - ( r o i / a ) [ ( 3 / 8 ) 0 t + 8)/0i + 6) + (2//*)] (3.21) we introduce the heat content quantity

The position of the melt line and the incident heat flux at x = 0 h(T) = \0 pc(T)dT, p = const (4.1)
obtained by the iterations (3.13) and (3.20), and (3.14) and
(3.21), are presented in Tables 3.1 and 3.2 for various values Let us consider a three-dimensional temperature field T= T( t,
of the melting parameter /x. These results are compared with x, y, z), and introduce the heat displacement vector H = H(r,
the exact solution of the problem given by Carslaw and Jaeger x, y, z). The canonical equations can now be written in the
(1959). It is observed that even for a relatively poor approx- form
imate temperature field (3.6), the results to the first approx-
imation are very satisfactory. However, the improvement due h(T) =-divH (4.2)
to the calculation of a higher approximation can clearly be
grad r = - ( l / f c ) H (4.3)
observed. In fact, as demonstrated in both tables, the error is
practically negligible for the second approximation for a wide Recalling some of the general results of Vujanovic (1976),
range of the melt parameter it. Vujanovic and Baclic (1976), and Vujanovic et al. (1990), we
The reader will also note that a very remarkable improve- form the following Gauss "constraint" in the form of a space
ment upon Goodman's approximate solution has been integral combined with the differential equation (4.3):
achieved. By applying the integral method and starting with a
quadratic temperature profile, Goodman (1964) reports that Z=(l/2)J K Ar[grad T- (l/k)U]2dV (4.4)
for the position of the melt line the percentage error is about
7 percent. where V denotes the volume of a body whose boundary surface
is S*. By n we denote the unit vector pointing outward from
the boundary surface.
We define the Gaussian variations in the following two ways,
4 A Variational Approach Based on the Canonical Heat which constitute the possible modes of optimization of the
Conduction Equations Gauss constraint Z:
The remainder of this paper will be devoted to some vari- First possibility:
ational aspects of nonlinear heat conduction theory based on
the canonical equations. More specifically, we shall employ 5 G H*0, 6
G
r=0, °(grad 7) = 0 (4.5)
the general ideas of Gauss' differential variational principle Second possibility:
of least constraint and exploit its optimal properties as a tool G
(grad 7 ) * 0 , G
H = 0, G
H = 0, G
r=0 (4.6)
for finding approximate solutions. Using the heat conduction G
equation (1.1) as a basis, Gauss' variational principle has been where the symbol denotes the Gaussian variations. Gauss'
established and used in linear and nonlinear heat conduction principle of least constraint states that subject to the prescribed
analyses (see Vujanovic, 1976, Vujanovic and Baclic, 1976, or variational rules, under the condition that the canonical equa-
Vujanovic, 1990). Here we try to confirm that the Gaussian tion (4.2) is identically satisfied, the Gauss constraint attains
method can also be applied to the canonical heat conduction its absolute minimum, whose value is equal to zero, "along
equations. In addition, in this paper as in a previous one the actual trajectory" of the process. Namely, the minimum
(Vujanovic et al., 1990), we demonstrate that Biot's variational is achieved along the exact solution of the problem. In practical
principle, widely used in thermal engineering and mathematical applications of the Gauss principle, we perform the minimi-
physics, can be fully interpreted in light of Gauss' variational zation of the Gauss constraint (4.4) with respect to the com-
principle. In the framework of the theory presented here, Biot's ponents of the vectors H or grad T, which can be stated by
principle represents just one of two possibilities for minimizing the following two variational equations:
the Gauss constraint. G
Z(H) = 0 (4.7)
Let us consider a nonlinear problem in which the heat ca-
pacity is a given function of the temperature c = c(T), while or
for the sake of simplicity the thermal conductivity k is taken 8G(grad7)Z=0 (4.8)

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 To employ Gauss's principle as a direct method, we first in- tion, the thermal potential, and the generalized forces of the
troduce the approximate temperature field thermal process, defined by
T=T{t,x,y,z,qi,q2,...) (4.9)
D= \v(l/2m-HdV, K=\VR dV, ' R=\jdh,
in terms of properly selected generalized coordinates. Also,
we assume that the heat displacement vector
H = H(t,x,y, z,ql,q2, . . .) (4.10) Q*a=
• = -- ! \Tn.(dH/dqa)dS* (4.19)
is found as a solution of the differential equation (4.2), and
However, equations (4.18) are identical with Biot's variational
the prescribed initial boundary conditions are satisfied.
principle (see Biot, 1970, pp. 86-88), which confirms our state-
According to the variational rules (4.5) and (4.6), we must
ment.
identify the characteristic complex of parameters (which de-
The optimization equation dZ/dqa = 0 is equivalent to Biot's
pend solely on the generalized coordinates) that represent H
variational principle for the case k = k(T), which can be easily
or grad T, and minimization of Z must be performed with
demonstrated. It is also important to emphasize that according
respect to those complexes. For example, since
to our experience, in practical situations it is easier to form
H = (.dH/dqa)qa + dH/dt (a= 1, 2, . . . ,) (4.11) the simple equations (4.14) than to calculate the functions D,
Gauss' variation of this quantity is n , and Qa separately as demanded by Biot's theory. Finally,
the second possibility for optimization of Z, indicated by (4.8),
(H = m/dqaWqa (4.12) frequently generates a more accurate approximate solution as
pointed out by Vujanovic (1990).
with
G
n (4.13) Example 4.1. As an illustration, we consider a semi-infinite
?qa^0, =0
solid initially at zero temperature. Let the surface x = 0 be
Thus, if we wish to minimize Z in accordance with the first suddenly raised to temperature T0 = const at time t = 0. We
possibility (4.5), the variational equation (4.7) implies that assume the heat capacity is a linear function of the temperature
fZm = {dZ/dqa)dqa = 0 , or simply,
c = c0{l + G[(T/T0)-l]} (4.20)
dZ/3qa = 0 ( a = l , 2, . . . ,) (4.14) where G is a given constant. The thermal conductivity k is
since the aqa are completely arbitrary. This result stipulates assumed to be constant. The temperature distribution in the
that the minimization of the Gauss constraint is performed body is assumed to take the form
with respect to the generalized velocity. In equation (4.11) and T=T0(l~x/q)2 (4.21)
in the subsequent text, repeated Greek indices are summed.
A similar situation arises by applying the second possibility where q = q(t) denotes the penetration depth. From equations
for minimization of Z indicated by (4.6). Since the selection (4.1) and (4.2) we find, respectively,
of the optimization parameters is simple and depends mainly h = pc0[T(l-G) + (l/2)GT2/T0] (4.22)
on the form of the temperature profile, we will explain this and
selection afterward by means of a concrete example.
It is important to note that the optimization of Z, in light H=pc0T0qHl/3)(l - G)(l - x / q ) 3
of the first possibility (4.14), is identical with the relevant + (l/10)G(l-*/tf) 5 ] (4.23)
equations that stem from Biot's variational principle. To see
this we substitute (4.9) and (4.10) into (4.4) and from (4.14) The temperature gradient at x=Q follows from equation (4.3)
we find (dT/dx) U 0 = - ( l / £ ) / / U o =
-(Va)(l/30)(10-7G)g (4.24)
dZ/dqa = d/dqc ,(l/2k)H>HdV Let us solve the problem by minimizing the Gauss constraint

-\vgradT>(dH/dqa)dV=0 (4.15) Z= \n(l/2)k[(dT/dx)- (Wk)H]2dx (4.25)

•-1
where we have used the functional relation dH/dqa = d H / in accordance with the two possibilities indicated by equations
dqa, which follows from (4.11). The integration by parts of (4.7) and (4.8). As pointed out earlier, to optimize Z according
the last term yields to the first possibility, we must use equation (4.14). Substi-
tuting equations (4.21) and (4.23) into (4.25), we find
.grad T-(dH/dqa)dV=\v- Tdiv(dH/dqa)dV
Z=(Z/p2ciTl)=qq2[( 13/315)0 - G ) 2 + ( 7 1 / 3 7 8 0 ) G ( 1 - G )

+ (23/9900)G2] - a«7[(7/15)(l - G)
I Tn-(dWdqa)dS* (4.16) + (ll/105)G] + (4/3)a2/<5r
To minimize (4.25) in the spirit of the second possibility (4.8),
(4.26)

Employing the commutative property of the operators div and

we find from (4.21)
d/dqa and using the identity (4.2), equation (4.15) can be writ-
ten as 3T/dx= - 2TQW( l-x/q) (4.27)
where
dZ/dqa = d/dqa jL\/2k)H*HdV + \T(dh/dqa)dV
W= l/q (4.28)
is the "complex" representing dT/dx, by means of which the
}s*Ta-(dH/dqa)dS* = 0 (4.17) optimization of Z should be performed. Thus, we find
Z = (Z/p2ci0T20)=qq2[(13/315)(l-G)2+ (71/3780)G(1 - G)
2
dZ/dqa = dD/dqa + 3U/dqa - Qa + (23/9900)G ] - aqq W[(7/15)(l - G)
=0 ( « = 1 , 2, . . - . ) (4.18) + (ll/105)G] + (4/3)a 2 ?l^ 2 (4.29)
where D, H, and Qa denote, respectively, the dissipative func- Minimizing (4.26) with respect to q, i.e., 8Z/dq = 0, we arrive

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 Table 4.1 Values of the dimensionless incident temperature flux at 5 Concluding Remarks
x = 0: Qlk= -@T/dx)\x=a (atyl2IT0 obtained by the two methods for op-
timization of Z a n d the numerical values given by Aziz and Na (1981). The primary aim of this paper has been to demonstrate that
The values of G are taken from Aziz and Na. the canonical equations of heat transfer can serve as a useful
First possibil Second p o s s i b i l basis for establishing various methods for approximation. To
G Numerical I Error ' iiError
Q/k(q,) Q/.k(q 2 ) be specific, we have presented the following three methods:
9
0 0.5645 0.5664 -0.34 0.5634 0.19 A generalization of Goodman's integral method, dis-
0.0913 0.5476 0.5441 0.64- 0..5472 0.07
0 . t 890 0.5295 0.5260 0.67 0.5292 0.06 cussed in Section 2;
9
0.2951 0.5084 0.5091
0.4819
-0.13
0.47
0.5091
0.4858
-0.14
-0.33
An iterative approximate procedure, similar to the method
0.4131 0.4842
0.5501 0.4546 0.4529 0.37 0.4576 -0.66 , of Targ, developed in Section 3; and finally
-1.53 ! 9
0.7272
0.8613
0.4126
0.3774
0.4120
0.3776
0.15
-0.05
0.4189
0.3883 -2.89 ;
A variational method based generally on the ideas of
0.9021 0.3568 0.3662 -0.11 0.3788 -3.55 Gauss' differential variational principle of least con-
-0.0863 0.5795 0.5755 0.69 0.5784 0.18
0.35
straint, presented in Section 4.
-0.7321 0.6830 0.6776 0.79 0.6306
-1.3096
-2.2691
0.7636
0.8814
0.7574
0.8741
0.81
0.83
0.7607
0.8341
0.38
-0.31
It was shown that the minimization of the corresponding
-3.0901 0.9709 0.9628 0.83 0.9670 0.40 Gauss constraint Z with respect to the generalized velocities is
equivalent to the well-known Biot variational method. How-
ever, the second possibility for optimization of the Gauss con-
straint with respect to the spatial complex also produces very
good results in many instances. Illustrative examples have been
at a differential equation, whose solution subject to <?(0) = 0 selected to exemplify the various aspects of each particular
is found to be method. Agreement of the results obtained by these methods
<?, = [(97,020 -75,240G)/(8580 with the known solutions of the various problems is quite
satisfactory.
- 13,255G + 5158G2)]1/2(a01/2 (4-30)
As discussed earlier in this section, the same result follows by Acknowledgments
applying Biot's variational principle (4.18).
Similarly, the second possibility for optimization, i.e., This investigation has been supported by the United States-
dZ/d W= 0, leads to a solution of the form Yugoslavia Joint Board on Technological Cooperation under
grant No. JF 805. The award was recommended to the Board
q2 = [560/(49- 38G)] 1/2 (CY0 1/2 (4.31) by the National Science Foundation. The computer work, ably
by employing (4.28). done by Professor Dragon Spasic, is very much appreciated.
Before proceeding to present the results for the nonlinear
case G^O, we note that for the linear case G = 0, the surface References
temperature gradients obtained by means of equation (4.24) Aziz, A., and Na, T. Y., 1981, " A Noniterative Numerical Solution for Step-
are: Heated Semi-infinite Solid With Temperature Dependent Thermal Properties,"
Computers and Chemical Engineering, Vol. 5, pp. 115-117.
(dT/dx)\x=0(ql)= -0.5664T0(at)~in (4.32) Biot, M. A., 1970, "Variational Principles in Heat Transfer," Oxford Math-
and ematical Monographs, Clarendon, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Carslaw, H. S., and Jaeger, J. C , 1959, Conduction of Heat in Solids,
(dT/dx) Uofez) = -0.5634To(cvO1/2 (4.33) Clarendon, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Citron, S. J., 1960, " A Note on the Relation of Biot's Method in Heat
Both agree very well with the exact numerical value of this Conduction to a Least-Squares Procedure," Journal of the Aerospace Sciences,
quantity: -0.5645 T0 (at)~ul. However, substituting equa- Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 317-318.
tions (4.30) and (4.31) into (4.26), we find that the square Glass, D. E., Ozisik, M. N., and Vick, B., 1985, "Hyperbolic Heat Conduction
With Heat Surface Radiation," Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol. 28, No. 10,
residuals are, respectively, pp. 1823-1830.
Goodman, T. R., 1964, "Application of Integral Methods to Transient Non-
Z(/) ( , l ) = 0.0164a3/2/-1/2 (4.34) linear Heat Transfer," Advances in Heat Transfer, T. Irvine and J. Hartnett,
eds., Academic Press, New York.
Ince, E. L., 1956, Ordinary Differential Equations, Dover, New York.
and Landau, H. G., 1950, "Heat Conduction in a Melting Solid," Quarterly of
Z(O (92 ) = 0.0042a 3/2 r 1/2 (4.35) Applied Mathematics, Vol. 8, pp. 81-91.
Loitsansky, L. G., 1962, Laminar Boundary Layer, GOSIZDAT F.-M., Mos-
cow [in Russian].
Thus, if we take the least value of Z to be a measure of the Mennig, J., and Ozisik, M. N., 1985, "Coupled Integral Equations for Solving
quality of the solution (as proposed, for example, by Citron, Melting or Solidification," Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol. 28, No. 10, pp.
1960), then the second type of optimization is better. The 1823-1830.
problem discussed here has been solved numerically by Aziz Vujanovic, B., 1976, "The Practical Use of Gauss' Principle of Least Con-
straint," ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 43, pp. 491-496.
and Na (1981), and the surface heat flux has been calculated Vujanovic, B., 1989, " A Variational Approach to the Problem of Solidifi-
for some values of the nonlinear parameter G. In Table 4.1, cation of a Metal Semi-infinite Thermally Nonlinear Body," Acta Mechanica,
we present the surface heat fluxes obtained by means of the Vol. 77, pp. 231-240.
two methods of optimization of Z. The numerical values of Vujanovic, B., and Baclic, B., 1976, "Applications of Gauss' Principle of
Least Constraint to the Nonlinear Heat Transfer Problems," Int. J. Heat Mass
the same quantity are given for comparison. It is evident that Transfer, Vol. 19, pp. 721-730.
the agreement of both approximate solutions with the nu- Vujanovic, B., Jones, S. E., and Kawaguchi, T., 1990, "On Certain Gaussian
merical solution is satisfactory for a rather wide range of the Aspects of Biot's Canonical Equations in Heat Transfer Theory," Tensor, in
nonlinear parameter G. It is also observed that the results press.
obtained by means of the second method of optimization are Zien, T. F., 1976, "Approximate Calculation of Transient Heat Conduction,"
AIAA Journal, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 404-406.
in slightly better agreement with the numerical solution for Zien, T. F., 1978, "Integral Solution of Ablation Problems With Time-De-
negative values of the nonlinear parameter G. pendent Heat Flux," ,47,4,4 Journal, Vol. 16, No. 12, pp. 1287-1295.

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