Comput. Modelling Vol. 28, No. 3, pp.

7Q-39, 1998
Mathl.
Pergamon @ 1998 Eleevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
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Thermodynamics of Anisotropic Solids

Near Absolute Zero
V. A. CIMMELLI
Department of Mathematics, University of Basilicata
I-85100, Potenza, Italy
Cimmelli@unibae.it

(Received and accepted February 1998)

Abstract-A thermodynamic theory of thermoelastic bodies at cryogenic temperatures ia devel-

oped in the Mework of a gradient generalization of thermodynamics with internal state variables.
Compatibility of model equations with second law of thermodynamics is investigated. Finally, the
corresponding theory for rigid bodies, developed in a series of papers by Koshlski and coworkers is
obtained ea a particular cese of the present one. @ 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights nserved.

Keywords-Internd state variable, Semiempiricaltemperature scale, Hyperbolic heat conduc-

tion.

1. INTRODUCTION
Second sound, i.e., thermal wave propagation, is a typical low temperature phenomenon, which
is observed in solid He3 and He4 and in dielectric crystals like sodium fluoride, bismuth, sodium
iodide, and lithium fluoride [l-5]. Speed of propagation of heat waves has been measured with a
sufficient precision. Coleman and Newman [S] and recently, Cimmelli and Frimuth [7] obtained
a curve fitting experimental data for sodium fluoride (NaF) and bismuth (Bi). In the literature,
one can find many proposals modifying the classical Fourier’s theory of heat conduction, which
fails in describing heat waves. On that subject, let us refer the reader to the review articles
[&ll]. In a series of papers, Coleman, Fabrizio and Owen (12,131 proposed a continuum theory,
modeling second-sound phenomenon in anisotropic rigid conductors, based on a generalization
of the classical Cattaneo’s rate type evolution equation for heat flux [14]. A thermodynamically
consistent theory of thermal pulse propagation was developed by Morro and Ruggeri [15,16] in the
framework of thermodynamics with internal state variables. Recently, Cimmelli and Kosifiski [17]
proposed a phenomenological theory of heat conduction which rests upon a gradient generalization
of thermodynamics with internal state variables [18].’ The authors introduced a nonequilibrium
scalar variable, the senziemp+ical tempemttq whose gradient is related to the heat flux by a
Fourier’s type heat conduction law. The theory has been tested numerically by Wihmuth and
Cimmelli [23,24] and their results seem to be in accordance with the experiments. In spite of the
efforts by experimental%& in order to minimize crystal deformations, the observations clearly
indicate a propagation of elastic waves together with the thermal ones. In particular, a fastest
longitudinal elastic wave, a slower transverse elastic perturbation, and finally, a temperature wave

The author would lii to thank W. Kositiki, from Warsaw, for many useful diiussiona and for the precious help
in revising the paper.
lThe application of a gradient theory with internal state varlablee in studying complicated phenomena has been
pointed out recently by some authora in different frameworks (see, for instance, [lQ-221).

79
80 V. A. CIMMELLI

have been detected. Hence, in order to achieve a satisfactory comparison with experiments, it is
necessary to construct an appropriate theory of thermoelssticity. To encompass the behaviour of
thermoelastic solids, the Coleman, Fabrizio and Owen model has been generalized by &ii and
Moodie [25]. On the other hand, Caviglia, Morro and Straughan [26] extended the Morro-Ruggeri
results to thermoelasticity at cryogenic temperatures. As far as semiempirical model is concerned,
let us quote Kosir’iski’s paper [27], where only thermally isotropic bodies are considered. Indeed,
since dielectric crystals are highly anisotropic, one can expect that thermal wave propagation
depends strongly on its direction. Then, it would seem to us to be of some interest to extend the
semiempirical model to anisotropic thermoelastic bodies.
The present paper is addressed to this goal. We start by postulating an evolution equation for
a vector internal state variable A, such that
(i) vector A is irrotational;
(ii) it is related to the heat flux vector by a linear heat conduction law.
Due to (i), if the body is simply connected, there exists a scalar field /?, such that

A=Grad,& (1.1)

Then, because of (1.1) and (ii), a Fourier’s type heat conduction law holds for the additional
scalar field ,0. We call fi nonequilibrium semiempirical temperature scale. Our analysis will
be pursued by postulating that constitutive quantities depend on the absolute temperature 8,
the deformation tensor C, and the vector state variable A. In Section 3, we discuss the main
properties of model equations. Section 4 is devoted to determining the restrictions due to second
law of thermodynamics on constitutive equations. These are summarized by the Dissipation
Theorem, which constitutes our main result. In Section 5, we shall analyze some meaningful
consequences of this theorem, in particular, we prove that the principle of maximum entropy at
the equilibrium is fulfilled. Compatibility of the present theory with the principle of material
frame-indifference is examined in Section 6. Finally, in Section 7, we consider an anisotropic rigid
heat conductor and prove that the isotropic theory developed in [17] and [7] is contained in the
present one ss a particular case.

2. NOTATION AND MAIN DEFINITIONS

Let B denote a continuum body and let B occupy a compact and simply connected iixed
region C,, reference configuration, of a three-dimensional Euclidean space Es. Moreover, let the
position of the points of C, be denoted by a vector X of the associated vector space Es. A
motion x(X, 7) of B is a continuous and almost everywhere invertible function of C, x [0, oo[
into Es. For a fixed instant t, function x(X,t) maps C, into a compact and simply connected
region Ct c Es called actual configuration. The position of points of C, will be identified by the
vector position x = x(X, t). A positive mass measure is assigned on C, by setting

m(c*>=
s C.
P* dc,

where m(~) is the mass of the subpart of B which occupies a subset c,, of C, and p. : C, -+ [0, co[
(2.1)

is the referential mass density. The deformation gradient F at X, at time t, is given by

F = Grad x(X, t), (2.2)

where Grad denotes the gradient operator made with respect to X.2 The condition J = det F > 0
will ensure the motion is invertible and orientation preserving. The velocity v of X at time t is
given by
v(X, t> = k(X, Q, (2.3)
21n what follows, the symbols Grad, Div, and Curl will indicate the standard differential operators calculated with
respect to referential coordinates.
 Anisotropic
Solids 81

where a superposed dot denotes the time derivative when the position X of the material point
X E C, is kept f&d. After the localization procedure, under suitable smoothness assumptions,
balance laws of mass, linear momentum, angular momentum, and energy yield

P* = JP, cw
p.+ = Div S + p+b, (2.5)
FST = SFT, (2.6)
p,e=S:@-DivQ+p,r, (2.7)
where p is the actual mass density; S the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor; b the specific body
force; E the specific internal energy; r the radiative heat supply per unit of mass, and Q the
referential heat flux vector. Besides the previous equations, we postulate the following phe-
nomenological evolution equation for the internalvector state variable A:

TA+TAC=G-EA, (2.3)
where T and E are nonsingular, positive definite, second-order tensors, G = Grade is the
absolute temperature, and C = FTF is the right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor. We require
that vector A satisfiesthe additional kinematicconstraint

Curl A = 0. (2.9)
Since B is simply connected, by (2.9), there exists a scalar field /3(X, t) such that

A=Grad& (2.10)

We shall analyze the meaning of (2.8)-(2.10) in the next section.

Finally, the second law of thermodynamics, i.e., Clausius-Duheminequality,takes the form

(2.11)

with function 77representingthe specific entropy. Legendre’s transformation

$=c-811, (2.12)

which defines the specific free energy $, together with (2.7), allows us to rewrite C-D inequality
in the form
p.(~+ple)-~Y:c+~Q.G~O, (2.13)

where Y = F-‘S is the second PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor.

3. DISCUSSION OF MODEL EQUATIONS

Let us assume the following constitutive equations:

Y = Y*(0, A, C), (3.1)

Q = Q*(6’, A, C) = -K(B, C)A, (3.2)
e = c*(k),A, C), (3.3)
$ = $*(@, A, C), (3.4)
where the heat conductivity tensor K(8, C) is nonsingular. As far as the material functions T
and E are concerned, we suppose that

T = T’(8, C), (3.5)

x = c*(e, c), (3.6)
 82 V. A. CIMMELLI

Constitutive equations (3.1)-(3.4) represent a very special case of a gradient theory with internal
state variable, because function p does not enter constitutive equations and only its gradient
appears as an independent thermodynamic variable. The same point of view has been applied
by Kosixiskiand Cimmelli [28], in modeling the behaviour of liquid helium below 2.7K. Since
K(B, C) representsheat conductivity, then equation (2.9) and dimensional analysis allow us to
conclude that p plays the role of a temperaturefield. Indeed, the main idea underlyingthe present
approach assumesthat absolute temperatureis well defined only at the thermal equilibrium, and
hence, it fails in describing highly nonequilibriumphenomena like second sound propagation. To
overcome thii discrepancy,we introduce a nonequilibriumtemperature,but conserve the classical
proportionality law between heat flux and gradient of temperature. If we let T --t 0, then

A = E-‘G (3.7)

and

Q = -KY’G. (3.8)

We define the Fourier’s heat conductivity,

KF = K!E-‘. (3.9)

Then, the classical Fourier’s law,

Q = -KFG (3.10)

is recovered. In such a case, A is nothing but a resealedgradient of absolute temperature. The

above considerationsallow us to call tensor

K = KFE, (3.11)

the dynamicalheat conductivity. Let us remarkthat the requirementCurl A = 0 is in accordance

with the experimentalresults,since there is not evidence of rotation of the gradientof temperature
in second sound propagation.
As far as the isotropic ont+dimensionalcase is concerned, it may be easily proved that the
speed of propagation of a wave travellingin a rigid conductor at the thermal equilibrium (Q = 0)
is given by

(3.12)

where k(8) means the heat conductivity, c(e) the specific heat, and T(8) the relaxation time.
Equation (3.12) led some authors to admit that T cannot physically tend to zero. From the
experimental point of view, second sound propagates in a very narrow range of temperatures,
outside of which the diffusiveregimeis recovered. There is a given criticul tempemtwe, depending
on the material at hand, at which thermal waves appear. If the temperature increases, then a
progressive broadening of the pulses is noted and, lastly, the signal is no longer a wave (see,
for instance, [24]). Commonly, thii fact is interpreted by admitting that outside the critical
range of temperature,thermal perturbationinstantaneouslyreachesany point of the body, i.e., it
propagates with inilnite speed. Heat conductivity, which is very high at the critical temperature,
now decreases toward standard values, while relaxation time tends to zero. Our point of view is
that a general theory of second sound should include that phenomenology, and hence, it is better
to avoid any constraint limiting T(B) from below.
 Anisotropic Solids a3

4. DISSIPATION PRINCIPLE
Our aim here is to develop a thermodynamic theory of thermoelastic materials near absolute
zero. To this end, let us characterizethe thermodynamic states and processes. A thermodynamic
state is defined by the following functions of X and t:
(1) a motion x = x(X, t);
(2) the referentialmass density p*;
(3) the absolute temperature 8;
(4) the internal vector variable A;
(5) the first Piol&Kirchhoff stress tensor S;
(6) the specific body force b;
(7) the referentialheat flux vector Q;
(8) the radiative heat supply r;
(9) the specific internal energy c;
(10) the specific entropy q;
(11) the relaxation tensor T;
(12) the resealingtensor EC.
Such a set of fields, defined for all X in C, and all t in some interval of amplitude 7, will be
called a thermodynamicprocess of duration T if it is compatible with local balance laws of mass,
linear momentum, and energy, together with the kinetic equation (2.8), the additional kinematic
constraint (2.9), and the constitutive equations (3.1)-(3.6). Further,a thermodynamic process is
said to be admissible if it satisfiesthe Clausius-Duheminequality (2.13) for all X in C, and all t
in some interval [to, to + T]. Let us suppose for a while, we are given some fields r and b, an initial
time to, and some initial conditions x,JX, t), v,(X,t), po.(X, t), A,(X, t), and 0,(X, t), which
are smooth enough to ensure the existence of a unique solution of (2.4)-(2.9) for all X in C, and
all t in some interval [to, to +T]. Then, from the constitutiveequations, we can compute the fields
S, Q, q, e, T, and El. We conclude, that to any sufficientlysmooth initial condition and exterior
fields b and T, there corresponds a unique thermodynamic process in [to, to + T].
Moreover, if the Clausius-Duheminequality is satisfied,such a process is admissible.
Let us now investigate the conditions under which our constitutive equations are compatible
with the second law of thermodynamics. To this end, we follow a classicalprocedure introduced by
Koshiski and Perzyna [29] and by Coleman and Gurtin [30]. In order to get a clearer symbology,
in what follows, we will use the indicial notation with summation over repeated indices. Hence,
we rewrite (2.8) and (2.13) as follows:

TijAj + TijAlCij = Gi - CuAj, (4-i)

-p*($ + 74) + aYj,C,, - ~Q~G~10. (4.2)

Taking into account constitutive relations, together with (4.1), the previous inequality yields

Piially, by grouping the terms in front of 8, Aj, C;j, we rearrange (4.3) as follows:

(4.4)
- p*$ + fQiTij Aj - $QiCijAj > 0.
3 >
 84 V. A. ClMMELLl

Now, let so = (00, Ao, CO) be an arbitrary point of the domain of the response functions
$,, q,Y, Q. Moreover, for a given point X, and initial time to, let x(X,t), p,(X, t), e(X,t),
A(X, t) be a solution of field equationssuch that @(Xc, to) = t90,C(X,,, to) =Cc, A@,,, to) = Ao.
Taylor’s expansion of this solution around the initial point (Xc, to) yields

p*(X, t) = P*c + crO@- to) + r” * (X - X0) + * * + , (4.5)

e(x, t) = e. + +p(t - to) + Go *(X - Xc) + *** ) (4.6)
C(X, t) = Co + Lo@ - to) + MO . (X - Xc,) + . . . , (4.7)
A(X,t)=&+@(t-to)+No~(X-X,,)+~~~, (4.8)

where the meaning of symbols is obvious. Note that, at the point X, and time to, we get

4 (x0, to) = r”, C(Xo,to) = LO, A (X0, to) = Ho, (4.9)

hence, for the process under consideration, the Clausius-Duheminequality at the point Xs and
time to leads to

In (4.10), the downscript so means that the response functions are evaluated at the point SOof
their domain of definition. Owing to the arbitrarynessin the choice of the points (Xc, to) and SO,
the relation above must hold for any value of TO,Lo, and Ho. In turn, this is true if and only if

rl =--
a+ (4.11)
ae’
(4.12)

(4.13)

QiCijAj 5 0. (4.14)

Furthermore,due to constitutive equation

&i = -KijAj, (4.15)

we rewrite (4.13) as follows:

(4.16)

where

By integrating (4.16), we obtain

1/,= A(4 C) + &zjlAjA-

* (4.18)

Then, from (4.11), it follows:

7)= -w + IMj,AjA,, (4.19)
Be P+
 AnisotropicSolids 85

(4.20)

with

(4.21)

(4.22)

Finally, from (4.12), we get

W
Yjl= 2p* w - iZj&mA - (4.23)

So, we have proved the following theorem.

DISSIPATION THEOREM. Constitutive equations (3.1)-(3.6) are compatible with the Clausius-
Duhem inequality (2.13) if and only if functions 111,17,E, and the second Piola-Kirchhoffstress
tensor Y satisfy the thermodynamic restrictions (4.18)-(4.23). Moreover, the reduced entropy
inequality
KmlLjAlAj > 0 (4.24)
must be fulfilled.
Let us notice that Debye’s theory of specific heat of crystals at low temperature yields for E,
the following expression:
E(e,C) = eo(C)04 + e(C). (4.25)
Of course, equation (4.25) has some very restrictive consequences in our theory. First of all,
from (4.20) and (4.25), it follows that
Wl
$1 - Bae = foe4 + e(C), (4.26)

a
Owing to (4.26), we conclude that
z
( >=o.
Zjl
82 (4.27)

Q(C) 4
h(e, c> = el(c)e - - 3 8 + e(C), (4.28)

while (4.27) allows us to write

z(e, c) = z”(c)e2. (4.29)
Due to (4.29), the specific entropy 1) takes the form
ah
-- $Z,4A,Al. (4.30)
q=-ae *
In the next section, we will prove that Z”(e, C) is positive semidefinite, and hence, by equ&
tion (4.30), the principle of maximum entropy at the equilibrium is fulfilled. As a consequence,
the states of thermal equilibrium of the system are asymptotically stable (see [30]).
The question of accepting constitutive equation (4.25) or to generalize it by including a nonequi-
librium term is still open. Some authors consider (4.25) to be convenient and not severely restric-
tive (see [26]), while some others consider its consequences too restrictive, so that they sssume P
different from zero (see [25]). In the present paper, we accept the first point of view, because of
the following consideration. For nonvanishing P, function

c(e, c, A) = g, (4.31)

representing the specific heat of the body, could assume negative values in some range of temper-
ature, against the physical evidence. Then, the theory should be restricted to the interval of 8
where E is increasing. Fkischmuth and Cimmelli [31] tested numerically a model of a rigid heat
conductor with internal energy depending on the heat flux. Their results show that the condition
c > 0 is too severe and reduces drastically the interval of applicability of the theory.
 86 V.A. CIMMELLI

5. SOME CONSEQUENCES OF DISSIPATION THEOREM

We showed in Section 4 that our constitutiveequationsobey the second law of thermodynamics
if and only if some restrictions are fulfilled. On the other hand, those relations imply some
meaningful consequences on the material functions K, T, and E. Now we point out these
consequences.

THEOREM 1. Tensor K is positive semidefinite.

PROOF. F’romthe reduced entropy inequality(4.24), it follows that KTE is positive semidefinite.
Our thesis is a consequence of the positive definitenessof EC.

THEOREM 2. Tensor Z is symmetric and positive semidefinite.

PROOF. From (4.13), it fbllows that

(5.1)

(5.2)

Inverting the position of i and j, we get

a=+ 1 z
(5.3)
aAjaAi = p+B ji*

Symmetry of Z is now a trivial consequence of (5.2), (5.3), and Schwa&s theorem on the sym-
metry of second partial derivative of +. Fmally, the positive semidefinitenessof Z follows from
the positive definitenessof T and Theorem 1.

Z”(C) is positive semidefinite.

THEOREM 3. Tensor
PROOF. It is a consequence of Theorem 2 and of (4.29).
We say that B is in a state of then& equilibtium at the instant t* if Q(X, t*) = OVX E C,.
Since K is positive definite, B is in a thermal equilibrium state if and only if A(X, t*) =
OVX E C.. Finally, B is said to be in a Fourier’s stute atthe instantt* if T(X, t’) = OVX E C,.

COROLLARY 1. PRINCIPLEOF MAXIMUM ENTROPY. The specific entropy q 8thhS 8 local

maximum when the body is in a state of thermal equilibriumor in a Fourier’s state.
PROOF. It is a consequence of (4.30) and Theorem 3.
COROLLARY 2. GIBBS PRINCIPLE.The specific f&e energy $J attains a local minimum when
the body is in a state of thermal equilibriumor in a Fourier’s state.
PROOF. It is a consequence of (4.18) and Theorem 3.
REMARK. Let us notice that our responsefunctionscontain a classicalterm plus a nonequilibrium
one, which vanishes in some particular conditions. Fist of all, it vanishes when A = 0, i.e., in
the absence of heat flux. However, it is zero also when T vanishes. In such a case, although A is
diierent from zero, our theory reduces to the Fourier’s one. Finally, vector A is in a stationary
state if
EJA
- = 0. (5.4)
at
Let us notice that now A and G are still related by an evolution equation. Neither T nor A
is zero and still a nonequilibrium term appears in the response functions. This is a typical
example in which equilibriumof internalstate variable and equilibriumof the system have to be
distinguished(see [22]).
 Anisotropic Solids 87

6. MATERzIAL FRAMEINDIFFERENCE
The principle of material frameindifference states that the constitutive equations characteriz-
ing the response of a material must be invariantunder a change of frame or observer [32]. The
same is true for the phenomenologicalevolution equations of internal state variables. Indeed, if
these reflect some inelastic properties of the material at hand, their form cannot depend on the
frame of reference. Hence, the frame-indifferenceof the kinetic equation (2.8) and the additional
kinematic constraint (2.9) seem to be a necessary property of our theory. In order to prove it,
let us consider a rigid transformationof coordinates of the form

x’ = c(t) + O@)x, (6.1)

where x representsthe vector position of a point in the actual configuration C, and 0 belongs
to the proper orthogonal group C(3). It is straightforwardto prove that, from (6.1), we get

A' = A, G’ = G, C’=C, Q’=Q, Y’=Y. (6.2)

The invariance of the kinematic constraint is a direct consequence of equation (6.2)i. Further-
more, (6.2)i and (6.2)4, together with the constitutive relation (3.2) imply

K’ (e’, C') = K(8, C). (6.3)

Let us observe that when the diisive (Fourier’s) situation is recovered, then vector A reduces
to G. Hence, (6.2)4 and (6.3) lead to

KIF (O’,C') = KF(O, C). (6.4)

As a consequence, from (6.4) and (3.11), we get

12 (et, c’) = qe, c), (6.5)

while (4.12), (6.2) 4, and (6.2)s yield

T’ (e’, C’) = T(8, C). (6.6)

We have now all the elementsto conclude that, under (6.1), kinetic equation (2.8) becomes

T’A’ + T/A’@ = G’ - E’A’, (6.7)

i.e., it is invariant under a change of frame of reference.

7. REDUCTION TO RIGID BODY THEORY

A semiempiricalheat conduction theory for isotropic rigid bodies has been developed in a series
of papers by Koshiski and coworkers[7,17]. Of course, presenttheory should include the previous
one as a particular case. To prove that this is true, let us introduce the Green-Saint Venant
deformation tensor
&= +-I), (7.1)

where I is the identity tensor. Due to the one to one correspondence between e and C, we can
rewrite free energy function $.Jas follows:

(7.2)
88 V. A. CIMMELLI

Lagrange’s mean value theorem assuresthat there exist two scalarser and ~2,in the interval]O,l[,
such that

(7.3)

(7.4
Let us define
ql(e) = &(e, O), (7.5)
Zjl(t9) = 2jl(0,0). (7.6)
Since & vanishesfor rigid motions, we conclude that, in such a case, free energy takes the form
.
t,b(e, A) = +@) + &,~j~Ce)Apk (7-V
*
Analogously, for the internalenergy e, we get

(7.8)

e,,(c) = &, (&) = &J(O)+ V-9)

and hence, for a rigid motion, equation (4.25) yields
e(e) = toe4 + e>. (7.10)
Finally, for an isotropic rigid conductor,
Kij = k(O)Sij, (7.11)
Tij = T(e)&,, (7.12)
and, as a consequence,

t,b(e,A) = $l(e) + ‘~~~‘Gr~P2,

* (7.13)

Qi = -k(e)$ (7.14)
t

Equations (7.10), (7.13), and (7.14) represent the semiempiricalmodel of isotropic rigid heat
conductor proposed by Cimmelli and Kosifiski [17] and by Cimmelli and Friichmuth [7].

8. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, we proposed a model of a thermoelsstic heat conductor which describes the
thermomechanicalbehaviour of dielectric crystals at low temperatures. It generalizesthe model
proposed by Kosiliski and coworkersfor isotropic rigid conductors, which seems to be in accor-
dance with experimental results. The model lies on a given evolution equation for the internal
vector variable A, together with the hypothesisthat heat flux is a linear function of A (Fourier’s
heritage). The evolution equation is invariant under a change of frame of reference. The re-
sponse functions depend on vector A, beside the classicalstate variables. Compatibility of given
constitutive equations with the principle of material frame indifferenceand second law of ther-
modynamics has been investigated. Finally, the theory of anisotropic rigid heat conductors has
been obtained as a particular case of the general one. A numericaltest of the model, for linear
governing equations, has been performed by Frllchmuth and Cimmelli [33]. Their results are
in accordance with the experiments. A numericalcomputation for the fully nonlinear system is
under preparation and will be presentedin a forthcoming paper.
 Anisotropic Solids 89

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