18/11/2023, 05:28 An Introduction to Communication: Verbal issues in intercultural communication | ecampus-flsh

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12. Verbal issues in intercultural communication

Verbal issues in intercultural communication

In this chapter, we consider the important role of language in intercultural communication. We examine language-related issues in
intercultural communication.

Knowledge of language

What kind of knowledge of language do we need in order to interact properly in intercultural encounters? What does it consist of?

A distinction is often made between Competence and performance.

Competence is the language system stored in a speaker’s head. It is a person’s unconscious knowledge of the system of rules
underlying his/her language. It is knowledge of phonology, morphology, lexicon, syntax, and semantics.

Performance is the speech and writing that language users produce, which may contain all kinds of ‘mistakes.’ Performance is
language seen as a set of specific utterances produced by language users.

Sociolinguists extend the scope of study to Communicative Competence, which is the underlying knowledge that additionally
accounts for appropriate language use or pragmatic competence. Communicative Competence may be defined as knowledge of not
only if sentence is grammatically or formally possible in a language, but also whether it is appropriate or done in a particular
community.

Communicative Competence includes:

1. Grammatical Competence (also called formal competence), i.e., knowledge of the grammar, vocabulary, phonology, and
semantics of a language,

1. Sociolinguistic Competence (also called sociocultural competence), i.e., knowledge of the relationship between language
and its sociolinguistic context, knowing how to use and respond appropriately to different types of speech acts (such as
requests, apologies, invitations, offers, refusals), knowing which address forms should be used with different persons one
speaks to and in different situations, and how to use style according to whether the situation is formal or informal,

1. Discourse Competence, knowing how to begin, conduct, and end conversations, through the appropriate use of discourse
markers. It also involves knowing how to create cohesion and coherence in written texts

In a nutshell, communicative competence includes knowledge of how and when to use utterances appropriately.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

A proposition that is relevant to any discussion of the relation of language and culture is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. This hypothesis
is also related to the extent to which language determines perception? The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a view about the relationship
between language and thought, proposed by US linguist Edward Sapir (1884-1939) and his pupil Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941).
It combines two principles:

Linguistic determinism: language determines the way we think; and

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Linguistic relativism: the distinctions encoded in one language are not found in any other language; languages are structurally
different.

How close is the relationship between language and perception? Do we see reality and the world through the lens of our language?
Probably, not as close as suggested by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. For example, even though cultural groups may have different
words for colors, most can identify a particular color when asked. Another example is the distinction between the pronoun tu and the
pronoun vous in French, which is not found in English. Does this mean that English speakers cannot perceive this distinction? The
answer is clearly ‘no’. An additional example is that English includes many cultural references (such as Black Friday, Thanksgiving,
Halloween, Christmas eve, impeachment) that are not found in Arabic. Does that mean that speakers whose native language is
Arabic cannot understand these concepts? Of course, they are able to do so. This clearly indicates that, contrary to the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis, language is not required to think about or perceive the world in a particular way. Thus, a more moderate view, in which
language is a tool to communicate rather than a mirror of perceptions is probably more accurate.

Cultural differences in verbal communication

Is it preferable to be effective at speaking or to remain silent? Is it better to be direct and to the point in communicating or indirect?
Is it more important to tell the truth or to make others feel good even if it means being deceptive? Different cultural groups have
different answers to these questions. There are cultural differences in how language is used: differences in attitude toward speech
and silence and differences in communication styles.

Attitudes toward speaking and silence

In some cultural groups, including many US speech communities, speaking is highly valued. It’s also important to be articulate in
many contexts (interpersonal, small-group, public speaking). For example, being a good political, business or religious leader often
depends on the ability to express oneself well. Silence is viewed negatively. For example, people may feel bad or embarrassed if there
are too many pauses or quiet moments in conversations. Silence can be interpreted as a sign of hostility or rejection, as when people
are given “the silent treatment.”

By contrast, many cultural groups place a primary emphasis on silence and a secondary emphasis on speech. These groups may
actually distrust speech, particularly public speech. Many East Asians not only distrust speech but also see the skilful use of silence
as an important aspect of competent conversation. This emphasis on silence is based partly on religious teachings and partly on
other cultural beliefs.

Variation in slang and humor

Another cultural variation in language use is slang. Slang is generally wittier and more creative than standard language and serves an
important function – it establishes a sense of community identity among its users. Slang is particularly important for youth cultures;
it’s almost imperative to invent slang that belongs to each generation, unintelligible to parents and other adults.

International students struggle to learn slang as well as parents and grandparents. Outsiders need to use just the right amount when
learning the slang of another culture. Using too much slang, or in inappropriate contexts, can sound awkward to the “native” listener.

Humour can be another cultural language variation that presents challenges. Trying to use humour can be really challenging because
the basis of humour is often linked to particular cultural experiences (or history) or cultural references. The best advice to cultural
outsiders or language learners is to use humour and slang sparingly, if at all.

Communication style

Communication style may be defined as:

The way in which we communicate, a pattern of verbal and nonverbal behaviours that comprises our preferred way of giving and
receiving information in a specific situation… If the message content is the what and the communicators the who, then
communication style is the how

Saphiere et al. (2005, p.5).

One’s communication style has an impact on how we behave in communicative events, including intercultural encounters. More
specifically our communication style may influence:

1. How we give praise and how we react to receiving praise (e.g. how often we give compliments, the ways in which we
compliment others, how we respond when someone compliments us)
2. The timing and manner of self-disclosure (I.e. the sharing of personal details that our listeners would not normally know about
us) and how we respond to the personal information that others reveal to us 

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3. How we express agreement or disagreement, and how we respond to the way our interlocutor communicates agreement or
disagreement to us
4. How we build interpersonal relationships (e.g. develop a close connection with others, establish intimacy with a romantic
partner, build trust with someone from another cultural background)
5. How we convey politeness (and impoliteness) (e.g. our use of discourse markers or expressions of politeness) and how we
perceive politeness (impoliteness) in the communicative actions of others
6. How we negotiate conflict situations and respond to the negotiation or conflict management style of our interlocutor (e.g. our
willingness to converge in negotiations to reach an amicable settlement
7. How we make decisions and solve problems or disputes and how we respond to the problem-solving approach of others
8. How and when we interrupt and prefer to be interrupted (and how often) as well as how we respond to being interrupted
9. How we apologize and make requests or refusals (and other speech acts) and how we respond to the speech acts of others in
various contexts and situations.

(adapted from Saphiere et al. 2005, p. 5)

Communication styles differ, in varying degrees, in diverse linguistic and cultural settings as each one of us becomes accustomed to
expressing ourselves in particular ways during the socialization process. Through enculturation, we learn norms of social discourse
and preferred ways of interacting with others, taking into account such aspects as social status, age, and gender.

High-context versus low-context communication

The American anthropologist Edward T. Hall drew attention to the influence of culture on communication styles and developed a
theory to explain communication differences across cultures in the 1930s. He examined factors that impede or enhance
communication between people from different cultural backgrounds. He categorized cultures into two broad types: high-context
and low-context. Once we understand how communication in high-context and low-context culture varies, we will be able to
appreciate these differences and take steps to reduce the communication gap instead of being trapped by the cultural differences
and causing misunderstanding and unnecessary conflict.

Let’s consider the difference in expectations when people from high-context and low-context cultures communicate. In a high
context culture:

1. Communication is indirect and implicit

2. Nonverbal cues like tone of voice, eye movements and facial expressions carry a great deal of meaning
3. True intent of the message is not communicated verbally and is often left to the interpretation of the individual which requires
contextual understanding and reading between the lines. In other words, the verbal message is indirect often talking around
the point and requires shared cultural context to carry meaning
4. Focus on long term relationships to derive meaning which makes explicitness unnecessary
5. Individuals who value high context communication find low context style of communication as extremely detailed, distrustful
and a waste of time due to repetition of message. If you are from a high context culture, you might perceive a low-context
communicator as inappropriately stating the obvious – you didn’t have to say it!

Low context culture requires stating what you mean as you mean it. In a low context culture,

1. Communication is concise, straightforward, explicit, simple and clear

2. Requires attention to the literal meanings of words than to the context surrounding them
3. With emphasis on sending and receiving accurate messages, nothing is left to interpretation and actual intent is conveyed in
words. Repetition is often used to provide the necessary clarity
4. The purpose and outcome of the communication takes precedence over interpersonal relationships. Focus on following
standards and procedures requires that more value be placed on logic, facts and directness of the message
5. Summarising the key takeaways from a meeting and nailing things down in writing are expected to avoid confusion and set
clear expectations
6. Individuals who value low context communication find high context communicator as lazy, undisciplined, secretive, lacking
transparency, unable to communicate effectively
7. Low context cultures do the opposite; direct verbal communication is needed to properly understand a message being
communicated and relies heavily on explicit, direct, and elaborate formulation because individuals are not expected to have
knowledge of each other’s histories or background, and communication is not necessarily shaped by long standing
relationships between speakers. Because low context communication concerns more direct messages, the meaning of these
messages is more dependent on the words being spoken rather than on the interpretation of more subtle unspoken cues.

What are the implications for intercultural communication? In a low-context culture, much of the information in interactions is
expressed verbally, as directness, precision, clarity and lack of ambiguity are valued. To someone from a high-context culture,
receiving very detailed information may make the individual feel as if she is being treated as a child. Conversely, when interacting
with someone from a high-context culture, individuals who have been socialized in a low-context culture may fail to understand 

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subtle messages that are being transmitted (e.g. through tone of voice, silence) initially, interactions between low-context and high-
context communicators may be frustrating and lead to mistrust and anxiety until individuals develop more understanding of
variations in communication styles.

Saphiere, D. H., Mikk, B. K. and Ibrahim DeVries, B. 2005. Communication highwire, leveraging the power of diverse communication
styles. Yarmouth: Intercultural Press.

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