Almie M.

Tuto

Components in Language Learning

Language

 Language is a means of communication consisted of sounds, words,

symbols, and grammar used by the people in a particular country,
region, or group.
 It is a system of communication based upon words and the combination
of words into sentences.
 Language is a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length,
and constructed out of a finite set of elements (Chomsky, 1957).
 Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of voluntarily
produced symbols (Edward Sapir, 1921).
 A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a
social group cooperates (B. Bloch and G. Trager, 1942).

Language is divided into the 3 major components: form, content, and use
which is further broken down to syntax, morphology, phonology, semantics,
and pragmatics. 

 Form
o Phonology
o Morphology
o Syntax
 Content
o Semantics
 Use
o Pragmatics

 Phonology
The study of speech structure within a language, including both the patterns of
basic speech units and the accepted rules of pronunciation, is known as
phonology. The smallest units of sound that make up a language are called
phonemes. For example, the word “that” contains three phonemes the “th”
represents one phoneme /th/, the “a” maps to the short a sound /ă/, and the
“t” to its basic sound /t/.

 Morphology
Moving to the next level of language, we find the study of the smallest units of
meaning, morphemes. Morphemes include base words, such as “hat,” “dog,” or

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“love,” as well as affixes, such as “un-,” “re-,” the plural “s” or “es,” and the past
tense “ed.” Knowledge of the morphology of our language is critical to
vocabulary development and reflects the smallest building blocks for
comprehension.

 Syntax
The study of how individual words and their most basic meaningful units are
combined to create sentences is known as syntax. As words are grouped
together when we communicate, we must follow the rules of grammar for our
language, in other words, its syntax. It is the knowledge of syntax that allows
us to recognize that the following two sentences, while containing different
word order and levels of complexity, have the same meaning.

 The boy hit the ball.

 The ball was hit by the boy.

Syntax also allows us to accept “I went to the store” as a meaningful

(grammatical) sentence while “To store went I” would not be acceptable
English.

 Semantics
Not only does the grammatical structure of our language provide the needed
clues for understanding, we also have a wealth of figurative language and rich
description that adds color and nuance to our communication. Semantics
refers to the ways in which a language conveys meaning. It is our
understanding of semantics that allows us to recognize that someone who is
“green with envy” has not changed hue, or that “having cold feet” has less to do
with the appendage at the end of our legs and more to do with our anxiety
about a new experience.

Because semantics moves beyond the literal meaning of words and is culture-
dependent, this is among the most difficult aspects of language for individuals
who are not native speakers and even those who speak the same language but
come from different cultures and convey meaning using words in unique ways.
Anyone who has attempted to converse with a teenager in his own vernacular
can appreciate the importance of sharing a semantic base for communicating
clearly.

 Pragmatics
“‘Pragmatics’ refers to the ways the members of the speech community achieve
their goals using language.”4 The way we speak to our parents is not the same
as the way we interact with a sibling, for example. The language used in a
formal speech may bear little resemblance to what we would hear at a lunch

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with five friends. The conversational style of day-to-day interactions is quite
different from the language used even when reading a storybook to a toddler.
Knowing the difference and when to use which style is the essence of
pragmatics.

Facility with language is critical to social interactions. Our ability to effectively

communicate with others through spoken and written language is considered
one of the ultimate goals of our educational system, with reading receiving
much-needed emphasis. “Reading is essential to success in our society. The
ability to read is highly valued and important for social and economic
advancement.”5 In the following section the components identified by experts
as critical to developing reading skills are reviewed.

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 Language Culture Connection

Language comes with meanings and different types of references depending on

its origin. The culture of a particular social group represents the meanings of a
particular language. To interact with a language means to do so with the
culture which is its reference point. Without having direct access to its
language, we could not understand a culture because of their intimate
connection. Within a social community, culture and language share human
beliefs, realities, and actions. As a result, there is a relationship between
culture and language. Whether it’s national folklore or everyday conversation,
language and culture go hand in hand.

Paralanguage is the non-lexical portion of any culture’s language. Things like

body language and voice pitch or sound encompasses a broad word. The
paralanguage will be different depending on where you grew up, . We pick up
on those behaviors, expressions, and intonations from the people around us.
Body language that conveys conflict in one country sometimes views as
supportive in another. To that reason, paralanguage can trigger
miscommunication between ethnic groups while talking.
Some examples of paralanguage are pitch, intonation, speech rate, facial
expressions, and hesitation noises are. These examples had a significant
influence on the language you use. A particular language points to the culture
of a particular social group. Thus, learning a language is not only knowing the
alphabet, the definition of the words, the grammar rules and the arrangement
of words, but it is also learning the behavior of the society and its cultural
customs. Therefore, language teaching should always contain some explicit
reference to the culture, entirely from which the particular language is taken.

How does this relate to the curriculum?

From level three onwards, the Ausvels curriculum (2014) provides the
guidelines for student achievement, with the focus placed on three strands of
learning, these being Reading & Viewing, Speaking & Listening and Writing.
The overall focus is for students to accurately read and comprehend a range of
multimodal texts, with the ability to respond in the appropriate context while
making correct grammatical choices and being able to actively listen and
participate to discussions in relation to language choices and literature.

What are the functions of language?

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The functions of language are crucial in understanding language and how it is
used in society (Halliday, 1975). Halliday (1975), a believer of the social
cultural view on learning, divided the functions of language into seven
categories, later condensed into three categories. These categories are labeled
ideational, interpersonal and textual. The ideational function caters for people
to express and share ideas, the interpersonal function is for the
communication and expression of feelings and emotions, and the textual
function is for interactions that occur within a text (Emmit et. al. 2012). For
effective learning to occur, students require an environment which includes
and involves all of the functions in order to understand language and develop
their thinking.

Paradigms
In order to accurately cover literacy, there is a requirement to engage in all
three paradigms of language. Freebody (2013) discusses the three paradigms
as the responsive, the developmental, and the heritage paradigms. These
paradigms cover a range of contexts and requirements for students to
confidently, correctly and precisely use and engage in the English language.

The responsive paradigm focuses on preparing students to be able to

confidently react with the skills to read and write, the correct use of language
in context and the ability to critically read and write when texts may be
misleading or oppressing. The developmental paradigm provides students with
the opportunity to explore their own ideas and philosophies, through a range of
guided experiences with language and texts. In conjunction, the heritage
paradigm is the most traditional, as the encounters are with valued literacy
that has been used throughout language practices for an extended period of
time.

ISSUES AROUND LANGUAGE

There are a number of issues surrounding the learning of language. Some have
been prevalent for decades, others have emerged over time due to change in
society.

1. Technology
One of the biggest current issues is that technology advances have developed
easier, often labelled 'lazier' ways of communication. People communicate via
the internet or with a mobile phone using tachygraphic language and as a
result written formal communication is beginning to diminish. The integration
of information communication technology (ICT) programs can have a range of
effects on student learning, they can be engaging in terms of interactive
activities and the ability to communicate with people around the world with the
click of a button. In the classroom there are a number of issues surrounding
the use of technology that may result in ICT programs being controlled. These

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issues are listed by Webb & Cox (2007) as being the lack of collaborative work,
the inability to control learning, and the lack of classroom resources to support
this learning.

2. Cultural and social issues

Emmit et al. suggests that ones social class can determine ones language use.
According to Bernstein, “the middle class uses a formal or ‘elaborated’ code
whereas the working class uses a public or ‘restricted’ code” (2012, p.58). This
highlights the power associated with ones language and literacy
understandings and capabilities, which can ultimately affect ones place in
society in relation to their language use. It is therefore essential that students
be exposed to a range of texts and resources in order to provide and encourage
a wide variety of language use through exposure and immersion. This is
evident in the learning objectives within the English domain of the AusVELS
curriculum.

As there are thousands of languages in the world, it is important to recognise

the diverse groups within society and the power of language in forming ones
identity. Emmit et. al. believes that “it is through language that we generally
describe and define ourselves to others. Our language enables us to belong to a
group and exclude others from the group” (2010, p.50). Each child brings his
own experiences of culture and language to the classroom. As teachers, we
need to ensure we respect individuals within our classes who have another
language as their first langue, a different culture as these students have a
different way of creating meaning and understanding reality (Emmit et al,
2010). Teachers strive to cater for these students and the learning styles in
which they may prefer.

3. Language deficit and language difference hypothesis

Towards the end of the twentieth century, extensive research about language
variation and diversity led to the evolution of two views: the language deficit
hypothesis and the language difference hypothesis (Emmit et al. 2012).

- Language deficit hypothesis holds a view that some

kinds of language can be more logical, and thus better
for further education. Bernstein (2010) explains that
the difference in language in terms of ‘restricted’ and
‘elaborated’ code and how different social structures
develop different linguistic codes. He explains how in
restricted code; is generally implicit, where as explicit
in an elaborated code. Bernstein (2010) goes on to
state that working class people have minimal use for
elaborate codes where as middle class individuals use
the two codes. An elaborated code is necessary for

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 abstract thinking and ideal for school learning,
therefore students from middle class backgrounds
have a distinct advantage in the school system, and
other students are often labeled linguistically deficient.

- Language difference hypothesis suggests that

deficiencies do not exist within the child or their
families, rather are found in the educational
environment. A common example is schools not
understanding Aboriginal English or other languages
and as a result these students are seen as deficient in
their abilities to learn and communicate. Parents need
to be aware that not all teachers will be knowledgeable
of all cultures and languages, however they strive to
understand these differences and provide the
appropriate teaching strategies for each child.

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 Reading Fluency

Fluency is defined as the ability to read with speed, accuracy, and proper
expression. To understand what they read, children must be able to read
fluently whether they are reading aloud or silently. When reading aloud, fluent
readers read in phrases and add intonation appropriately. Their reading is
smooth and has expression.

Children who do not read with fluency may have problems in terms of sounds
and proper pronunciation. Those students may have difficulty with decoding
skills or they may just need more practice with speed and smoothness in
reading. Fluency is also one of the most significant factor in motivating
children who finds reading boring and time consuming, for this reason children
tend not to want read! Fluency becomes increasingly important to readers head
into upper elementary grades. The volume of reading required in the upper
elementary years escalates dramatically. Students whose reading is slow or
labored will have trouble meeting the reading demands of their grade level.

Why is reading Fluency Important?

Reading fluency is important because it is one of the most reliable determiners

of a student’s ability to comprehend text. In fact, reading fluency has been
called the bridge between decoding and comprehension (Chard & Pikulski
2005). If you’re neglecting to incorporate meaning fluency instruction within
your reading program (don’t worry, you’re not alone), I have some pretty
staggering statistics I would like to share with you!

It’s not easy for teachers who work with older students to fit fluency practice
into their already tight schedules. Here are a few fluency activities that you can
easily work into your day according to an educational source.

1. Audio-Assisted Reading

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Audio-assisted reading is when you have a student follow along in a text while
listening to an audio recording (audio CD, audiobook, or iPod). After the
student gains confidence using the audio version, he/she can then transition
to reading the text independently.

This is such an effective way for improving word recognition, as well as

building proper phrasing and expression. This is also a great strategy to use in
content areas such as science and social studies; oftentimes, publishers
include the audio version of the textbook for teachers to use. You can also
record your own audio-versions of close reading passages or short stories for
your students to use. If you’re doing a novel study, check your public library
for audio CDs for the title you are using. You can also make a listening center
in your classroom using jack extenders so that multiple students can read
along at the same time.

2. Poetry Performances
Holding “poetry slams” is a perfect disguise for fluency practice. Find relatively
long poems (haikus might not be the best choice:-) from your favorite authors
that are age-appropriate for your students. I love using work from Shel
Silverstein or Jack Prelutsky for younger students. If you teach middle school
students, you may want to look into poems by Langston Hughes or Edgar Alan
Poe. Poetry offers smaller, non-threatening text for students to work with, and
more reluctant readers may be more motivated by the creativity and
playfulness that the genre offers. The assonance and alliteration of poetry also
make this medium perfect for fluency practice.

Gather a large selection of poems and have your students choose one they
would like to practice and eventually “perform”. Performances can take the
place as simple readings in front of the class, in a small group, or with a
partner. Students can also make a PowerPoint presentation that they narrate
by reading the poem. Presenting options are endless; the most important thing
is to get them reading and rereading the poem in order to improve fluency.

3. Readers’ Theater
Students LOVE readers’ theater. They get so excited by the idea of performing
in a play, even though this activity does not require students to memorize any
text. Unlike a real play, there are no costumes, props, or sets needed.

There are several free resources if you’re looking for scripts. Dr. Chase Young
has written several for younger students, and Aaron Shepard has some great
scripts for older students. You can also write your own scripts, or even have
your students write their own, based on picture books or a chapter from a
novel. BONUS: Aaron Shepard’s site has a video of The Chamber Readers

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reading one of his scripts; what a perfect way to provide a model for your
students!

4. Partner Reading
This strategy pairs two readers together with the same piece of text. You can
pair your students by listing your class in order from highest to lowest
according to reading ability. Then divide the list in half. Place the top student
in the first list with the top student in the second list. Continue until all
students have been paired up.

Students in the pairs will take turns reading the text, by dividing it into
paragraphs, subheadings, pages, etc. The students can also read the text
simultaneously (choral reading). I really like this strategy for reading within
science and social studies books, which can be particularly difficult for
students. However, you can use parter reading for any text.

5. Repeated Readings
Timed repeated readings are a systematic way for students to work on fluency,
and it offers a great opportunity for students to monitor their own progress.
Students are given a passage they have never read before. They will complete a
“cold reading”, where they read for exactly one minute. The total words read
(minus certain errors) are counted and this is their “cold score”, which they
graph on a chart. They then practice reading the passage and have
opportunities to listen to it read by a fluent model. Following practice and
modeling, the students will then complete a “hot reading”, which is another
one-minute session. Again, they count the total words read (minus miscues) to
find their “hot score”. Their hot scores are then graphed above their cold
scores.

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 Reading Comprehension Strategies

Comprehension, or extracting meaning from what you read, is the ultimate goal
of reading. Experienced readers take this for granted and may not appreciate
the reading comprehension skills required. The process of comprehension is
both interactive and strategic. Rather than passively reading text, readers must
analyze it, internalize it and make it their own.

In order to read with comprehension, developing readers must be able to read

with some proficiency and then receive explicit instruction in reading
comprehension strategies (Tierney, 1982).

The process of comprehending text begins before children can read, when
someone reads a picture book to them. They listen to the words, see the
pictures in the book, and may start to associate the words on the page with the
words they are hearing and the ideas they represent.

In order to learn comprehension strategies, students need modeling, practice,

and feedback. The key comprehension strategies are described below.

1. Using Prior Knowledge/Previewing

When students preview text, they tap into what they already know that will
help them to understand the text they are about to read. This provides a
framework for any new information they read.

2. Predicting
When students make predictions about the text they are about to read, it sets
up expectations based on their prior knowledge about similar topics. As they
read, they may mentally revise their prediction as they gain more information.

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 3. Identifying the Main Idea and Summarization
Identifying the main idea and summarizing requires that students determine
what is important and then put it in their own words. Implicit in this process is
trying to understand the author’s purpose in writing the text.

4. Questioning
Asking and answering questions about text is another strategy that helps
students focus on the meaning of text. Teachers can help by modeling both the
process of asking good questions and strategies for finding the answers in the
text.

5. Making Inferences
In order to make inferences about something that is not explicitly stated in the
text, students must learn to draw on prior knowledge and recognize clues in
the text itself.

6. Visualizing
Studies have shown that students who visualize while reading have better
recall than those who do not (Pressley, 1977). Readers can take advantage of
illustrations that are embedded in the text or create their own mental images
or drawings when reading text without illustrations.

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 Phonetic Awareness

Phonetic is a related term of phonemic. Phonemic is a related term of

phonetic.

In context|linguistics|lang=en terms the difference between phonemic and

phonetic is that phonemic is (linguistics) relating to a difference between
sounds that can change the meaning of words in a language while phonetic is
(linguistics) in such logographic writing systems as the chinese writing system,
the portion of a character (if any) that provides an indication of its
pronunciation; contrasted with radical.

As adjectives the difference between phonemic and phonetic is that phonemic

is (linguistics) relating to phonemes while phonetic is relating to the sounds of
spoken language.

As a noun phonetic is (linguistics) in such logographic writing systems as the

chinese writing system, the portion of a character (if any) that provides an
indication of its pronunciation; contrasted with radical.

Before children learn to read print, they need to become aware of how the
sounds in words work. They must understand that words are made up of
individual speech sounds, or phonemes. A child's skill in phonological and
phonemic awareness is a good predictor of later reading success or difficulty.

Phonemic awareness is the ability to focus on and manipulate phonemes in the

spoken word (Ehri, Nunes, Willows, & Schuster, 2001). Phonemes are the
smallest units in the spoken language, with English containing approximately
41 phonemes (Ehri & Nunes, 2002). Young students often have difficulties
letting go of the letters and just concentrating on the sounds in the spoken
word. Yet research indicates that phonemic awareness and letter knowledge
are key predictors to students’ success in learning to read (National Reading
Panel, 2000). In fact, predictive studies show that when children enter
kindergarten with the ability to manipulate phonemes and identify letters, they
progress at a faster pace in learning to read (Ehri & Roberts, 2006).

Students must also be able to complete phonemic awareness tasks such as the
following:

• Phoneme isolation: Isolate phonemes; for example, “Tell me the first sound
in cat.”
• Phoneme identity: Recognize common sounds in different words; for
example, “Tell me the same sound in rug, rat, and roll.”

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• Phoneme categorization: Identify the word with the odd sound in a
sequence; for example, “Which word does not belong in sat, sag, rug?”
• Phoneme blending: Combine separate sounds to form a word; for example,
[b-a-t] for bat.
• Phoneme segmentation: Break out the word into separate sounds; for
example, “What are the sounds in bag?” (Ehri et al., 2001)

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