Technical Reports Preperation

Technical Reports
Preperation
ENG 341
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter one: Introduction of Technical Writing _____________________ 1
1.1 Course objectives ___________________________________________ 1
1.2 Course Benefits ____________________________________________ 1
1.3 Technical writing Definitions _________________________________ 1
1.4 Some examples of technical writing ____________________________ 3
1.5 Attributes of Technical Writing ________________________________ 3
1.6 The Foundations of Effective Technical Writing __________________ 4
1.7 The Qualities of Good Technical Writing ________________________ 4
1.8 Pertains to a Technical Subject ________________________________ 5
1.9 Difference between Technical Writing and General Writing _________ 5
Chapter two: Elements of Technical Reports _______________________ 7
2.1 Common Elements of Technical Reports ________________________ 7
2.2 Cover page ________________________________________________ 7
2.2.1 Examples of cover page __________________________________ 9
2.3 Title page ________________________________________________ 12
2.3.1 Difference between the cover page and the title page of a project
report ____________________________________________________ 12
2.3.2 Examples of title page ___________________________________ 13
2.4 Abstract (Executive Summary) _______________________________ 14
2.4.1 Why write an abstract: __________________________________ 15
2.4.2 When is it necessary to write abstracts? _____________________ 15
2.4.3 What to include in an abstract _____________________________ 15
2.4.4 Types of abstract _______________________________________ 16
2.4.5 Abstract examples ______________________________________ 17
2.5 Summary ________________________________________________ 19
2.5.1 Difference between abstract and summary ___________________ 20
2.5.2 Summary example ______________________________________ 21
2.6 Dedication _______________________________________________ 21
2.6.1 Dedication example _____________________________________ 22
2.7 Acknowledgements ________________________________________ 22
2.7.1 Acknowledgements examples _____________________________ 24
2.8 Table of contents __________________________________________ 25
2.8.1 Table of contents example _______________________________ 26
2.9 List of Tables and List of Figures (List of illustrations) ___________ 26
I
2.9.1 List of Tables and List of Figures examples __________________ 27
2.10 Nomenclature ____________________________________________ 28
2.10.1 Abbreviation and Acronym ______________________________ 29
2.10.2 Nomenclature, Abbreviation and Acronym example __________ 30
2.11 Body of Text (Report Text) _________________________________ 33
2.12 Introductory chapters(s) ____________________________________ 33
2.13 Literature Review ________________________________________ 35
2.13.1 A literature review has four main objectives: ________________ 35
2.14 Central Chapters _________________________________________ 35
2.14.1 Experimental Setup ____________________________________ 36
2.14.2 Measured Results _____________________________________ 37
2.15 Microstructure ___________________________________________ 37
2.16 Conclusions _____________________________________________ 38
2.17 Recommendations ________________________________________ 38
2.18 Tables and Figures ________________________________________ 39
2.19 Appendices _____________________________________________ 41
2.20 References ______________________________________________ 41
2.20.1 When should you give a reference? _______________________ 42
2.20.2 When is a reference not needed? __________________________ 42
2.20.3 How do you define general knowledge? ____________________ 42
2.20.4 Why should you give references? _________________________ 42
2.20.5 Harvard-method ______________________________________ 42
2.21 Bibliography ____________________________________________ 44
2.22 Plagiarism ______________________________________________ 44
2.23 Style ________________________________________________ 45
2.23.1 Notes of SI unite:______________________________________ 47
2.23.2 Punctuation __________________________________________ 49
2.23.3 Comma _____________________________________________ 49
2.23.4 Colon _______________________________________________ 50
2.23.5 Layout ______________________________________________ 53
2.23.6 Equations ____________________________________________ 55
Chapter three: CV (curriculum vitae) and Letters ____________________ 57
3.1 CV (curriculum vitae) ______________________________________ 57
3.1.1 Definition of CV _______________________________________ 57
3.1.2 What to include in your CV ______________________________ 57
3.1.3 Name, professional title and contact details __________________ 57
3.1.4 Personal profile ________________________________________ 58
II
3.1.5 How to structure a personal profile _________________________ 59
3.1.6 Experience and employment history ________________________ 59
3.1.7 Education and qualifications ______________________________ 60
3.1.8 Additional sections _____________________________________ 61
3.1.9 Formatting and spacing guidelines _________________________ 61
3.1.10 Example of CV _______________________________________ 63
3.2 Letters __________________________________________________ 66
3.2.1 Informal Letter ________________________________________ 66
3.2.1.1 How Do You Write an Informal Letter?__________________ 67
3.2.1.2 Example of informal letter ____________________________ 68
3.2.2 Formal Letter (Business letter) ____________________________ 68
3.2.2.1 How to write the formal letter _________________________ 69
3.2.2.2 Example of formal letter ______________________________ 73
3.2.2.3 Types of formal letter (Business letter) __________________ 74
Chapter four: Technical Presentations _____________________________ 77
4.1 Introduction of presentation__________________________________ 77
4.2 Section of presentation _____________________________________ 77
4.2.1 Planning ______________________________________________ 78
4.2.1.1 Purpose of the presentation ____________________________ 78
4.2.2 Preparing _____________________________________________ 80
4.2.2.1 Introduction of preparing _____________________________ 80
4.2.2.2 Main body _________________________________________ 80
4.2.2.3 Question and answer session __________________________ 82
4.2.2.4 Conclusion ________________________________________ 82
4.2.3 Presenting ____________________________________________ 83
4.2.3.1 The delivery _______________________________________ 83
4.2.3.2 Personal qualities ___________________________________ 83
4.2.3.3 Nerves ____________________________________________ 84
REFERENCES _______________________________________________ 85
III
Chapter 1
Introduction of Technical Writing
1.1 Course objectives

The objectives of this course are
 Explain how technical writing differs from general writing.
 Explain the key elements of technical writing.
 Explain the role that communication plays within an organization.
 Explain the importance of good communication skills.
 Identify the foundations of technical writing.
 Identify the qualities of good technical writing.
 Identify the foundations of technical presentation.
1.2 Course Benefits
You can expect to:
 Learn how to get your thoughts on paper
 Understand the features and differences between various types of
technical documents
 Become a more critical editor of technical documents
 Translate complex and innovative ideas into clear, logical and
technically accurate documents
 Produce technical information for non-specialist audiences
 Help your readers to take action or make decisions effectively
1.3 Technical writing Definitions

(1) Technical writing is a broad term that encompasses a wide variety of
documents in science, engineering, and the skilled trades. The major
types of documents in technical writing can be grouped into four major
categories:
1
 Reports and communications in day-to-day business
 Technical papers, magazine articles, books, and theses for purposes
of education, teaching, and the sharing of information and
knowledge
 Patents
 Operational manuals, instructions, or procedures.
(2) Technical writing is a type of writing where the author is writing about
a particular subject that requires direction, instruction, or explanation.
This style of writing has a very different purpose and different
characteristics than other writing styles such as creative writing,
academic writing or business writing.
(3) Technical writing is straightforward, easy to understand explanations

and/or instructions dealing with a particular subject. It is an efficient
and clear way of explaining something and how it works.
(4) Technical writing: the clear, concise, & unambiguous presentation and
analysis of scientific or engineering results.
 Distinct from literary, journalistic, or personal communication
styles and contents
 Differences in their respective purposes and intended audiences
 In technical writing, every statement should be based on evidence
and not on unsupported opinion.
(5) Technical writing is direct, informative, clear, and concise language

written specifically for an identified audience. The content must be
accurate and complete with no exaggerations. To deliver the intended
2
message, the text must be objective and persuasive without being
argumentative. Developing technical documents that meet these
requirements and standard guidelines is time consuming.
1.4 Some examples of technical writing
Here is a list of the documents you could be expected to write in a technical
manner:
 Technical Reports (Thesis)
 Emails conveying technical information
 Memos
 User Interface Text
 Guides and User Manuals
 Press Releases
 White Papers & Case Studies
 Executive Summaries
 Balanced Scorecards
 Product Descriptions
 Proposals
 Reports
 Websites
 letters
1.5 Attributes of Technical Writing
Ten general attributes of technical writing are listed and described in the
following sections:
 It pertains to a technical subject.
 It has a purpose.
 It has an objective.
 It conveys information/facts/data.
 It is impersonal.
3
 It is concise.
 It is directed.
 It is performed with a particular style and in a particular format.
 It is archival.
 It cites contributions of others.
1.6 The Foundations of Effective Technical Writing
 Know your reader
 Know your objective
 Be simple, direct, and concise
 Know the context in which your communication will be received and
used
 Design your communication with imperatives 1–4 as guideposts
1.7 The Qualities of Good Technical Writing
 Exemplifies effective design; makes a good impression
 Is designed so that it can be read selectively
 Has a rational and discernible plan
 Reads coherently and cumulatively throughout
 Answers readers’ questions as they arise in the readers’ minds
 Has the necessary front matter to characterize the report and
disclose its purpose and scope
 Has a body that provides essential information and that is written
clearly without jargon or padding
 When appropriate, uses tables and graphs to present and clarify its
content
 Has, when needed, a summary or set of conclusions to reveal the
results obtained
 Conveys an impression of authority, thoroughness, soundness, and
honest work
4
 Can stand alone and be understood by readers who are not part of
the initial audience
 Makes a positive statement about the writer and the organization
 Is free from typographical errors, grammatical slips, and misspelled
words
1.8 Pertains to a Technical Subject
Technical writing must pertain to some aspect of engineering or the
sciences in a given subject area such as the following:
 Philosophy, psychology, and religion
 History
 Geography and anthropology
 Social sciences
 Political science
 Law
 Education
 Fine arts
 Language and literature
 Science
 Agriculture
 Technology
 Health/medicine
1.9 Difference between Technical Writing and General Writing

 General writing and technical writing are two different styles of
writing
 Though the basics remain the same (both need to engage the reader
and must be free from spelling mistakes and grammatical errors),
technical writing is considered a little more difficult than general
5
writing as it needs to provide information in a clear cut manner that
the reader is able to assimilate and understand.
 General writing is more about arousing the interest of the reader
whereas technical writing has the sole objective of making the
reader understand a topic in an interesting manner.
 Technical writing has general guidelines to follow and it has to be
clear and concise. It has to be in first person and avoid passive voice.
6
2 Chapter 2
Elements of Technical Reports
2.1 Common Elements of Technical Reports

The elements of a technical report, in their prescribed sequence, are:
Sequence of Main Sections
 Cover page
 Title page
 Dedication
 Acknowledgements
 Abstract
 Table of contents
 Nomenclature
 List of figures
 List of tables
 List of figures
 Introductory chapters(s)
 Central chapters
 Conclusions
 References
 Bibliography
 Tables
 Figures
 Appendices
2.2 Cover page

The purpose of the cover page is to protect and identify the report. Cover
page design should draw the reader in and give them a compelling reason
7
to go deeper into the document. It may include some or all of the following
elements:
 Document Title/Subtitle
 Author’s Name
 Author’s Title
 Cover Photo/Cover Image
 Completion/Submission Date
 Document Description
The style, layout and color spread should be seamlessly blended together
in a way that accurately reflects the content inside, and is in keeping with
any other specific requirements.
8
2.2.1 Examples of cover page
9
10
The title of the report must be considered carefully. A good title is striking
and clearly reflects the contents of the report. A few guidelines for the
selection of titles are the following:
 Think about the reader’s first impression.
 Include important and distinguishing key words, for example the
words that somebody will use in a literature search.
11
 Leave out any words that are not essential. Avoid meaningless
expressions, such as “A Theoretical and Experimental Study of…”,
or longwinded descriptions, such as “Concise Practical Guide for the
Writing of Technical Reports and Papers”. Every word must count.
2.3 Title page

 The title page contains all the information given on the cover page
(except for the emblem), as well as the status of the report (terms of
reference), for example “Experimental Techniques Report: Project
1” or “Final Report for Mechanics Project 478”.
 If an individual project is done under the guidance of a lecturer (for
example a final year project or thesis), the supervisor must also be
indicated, for example “Supervisor: Prof PJ Erens”.
2.3.1 Difference between the cover page and the title page of a project
report
 A cover page is an introductory page that often goes in front of a

research paper. Most times they are hard in nature.
 A title page is the immediate page after the cover page with
contains the project topic, project writer and purpose of the
report.
12
2.3.2 Examples of title page
13
2.4 Abstract (Executive Summary)
 An abstract is a concise summary of a research paper or entire thesis.
It is an original work, not an excerpted passage. An abstract must be
fully self-contained and make sense by itself, without further
reference to outside sources or to the actual paper. It highlights key
content areas, your research purpose, the relevance or importance of
your work, and the main outcomes.
14
 It is a well-developed single paragraph of approximately 250 words
in length, which is indented and single spaced. The function of the
abstract is to outline briefly all parts of the paper.
 Although it is placed at the beginning of your paper, immediately
following the title page, the abstract should be the last thing that you
write, once you are sure of the conclusions you will reach.
2.4.1 Why write an abstract:
Abstracts are important for both selection and indexing purposes.
 Selection: Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in the
paper to quickly decide whether it is relevant to their purposes and
whether they need to read the whole paper.
 Indexing: Most academic journal databases accessed through the
library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval
by users. Abstracts must incorporate the key terms that a potential
researcher would use to search.
2.4.2 When is it necessary to write abstracts?
Abstracts are usually required for:
 submission of articles to journals
 application for research grants
 completion and submission of theses
 submission of proposals for conference papers
2.4.3 What to include in an abstract
The format of your abstract will depend on the discipline in which you are
working. However, all abstracts generally cover the following five
sections:
a) Reason for writing:
What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested
in the larger work?
15
b) Problem:
What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the
project? What is the main argument, thesis or claim?
c) Methodology:
An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches
used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence
used in the research.
d) Results:
An abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the
results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more
general way.
e) Implications:
How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic? Are there
any practical or theoretical applications from your findings or implications
for future research?
2.4.4 Types of abstract
 Informative
The informative abstract, also known as the complete abstract, is a
compendious summary of a paper's substance including its background,
purpose, methodology, results, and conclusion. Usually between 100 and
200 words, the informative abstract summarizes the paper's structure, its
major topics and key points. A format for scientific short reports that is
similar to an informative abstract has been proposed in recent years.
Informative abstracts may be viewed as standalone documents.
 Descriptive
The descriptive abstract, also known as the limited abstract or
the indicative abstract, provides a description of what the paper covers
without delving into its substance. A descriptive abstract is akin to a table
of contents in paragraph form.
16
2.4.5 Abstract examples
17
18
2.5 Summary
 An overview of content that provides a reader with the overarching
theme, but does not expand on specific details. A summary describes
a larger work (such as an entire book, speech, or research project),
and should include noticeably less content then the original work.
 Summaries can save a reader time because it prevents the reader
from having to actually go through and filter the important
information from the unimportant.
19
 A summary of the whole report should include important features,
results and conclusions.
2.5.1 Difference between abstract and summary
The terms summary and abstract are often used interchangeably resulting
in some confusion. This problem arises because there are two distinct types
of Abstracts:
 The informative abstract is another name for a summary; the
descriptive is not.
 The descriptive abstract is usually only 2 or 3 sentences in length,
hence it is not a summary or very informative.
 An informative abstract (summary) is an abbreviated version of
the most significant points in a book, article, or report. It is
usually about 5:15% of the original length. It is useful as it
condenses material, informing the reader of the original’s most
important points.
20
2.5.2 Summary example
2.6 Dedication
This is a short sentence, in the middle of a separate page, in which the
report is dedicated to a family member, friend or acquaintance. It may be
left out and is seldom included in short technical reports. It is more suited
to theses.
21
2.6.1 Dedication example
2.7 Acknowledgements
 Provide a statement of gratitude to the project sponsor and
academic or technical advisors that contributed to the project
success.
 Acknowledgements enable you to thank all those who have
helped in carrying out the research. Careful thought needs to be
given concerning those whose help should be acknowledged and
in what order. The general advice is to express your appreciation
in a concise manner and to avoid strong emotive language.
 Note that personal pronouns such as 'I, my, me …' are nearly
always used in the acknowledgements while in the rest of the
project such personal pronouns are generally avoided.
22
 The following list includes those people who are often
acknowledged.
Note however that every project is different and you need to tailor
your acknowledgements to suit your particular situation.
o Main supervisor
o Second supervisor
o Other academic staff in your department
o Technical or support staff in your department
o Academic staff from other departments
o Other institutions, organizations or companies
o Past students
o Family
o Friends
23
2.7.1 Acknowledgements examples
24
2.8 Table of contents
 The table of contents must begin on a new page. The page is
provided with a heading, such as “Contents” or “Table of Contents”,
followed by a list of the three main levels of headings and their page
numbers. Journal papers do not have a table of contents.
25
 The first item in the table of contents should be the first heading that
appears after the table of contents, for example List of Figures. Front
matter that precede the table of contents are not listed. Appendices
must be listed, each with their title and starting page.
 Prepare this section after the report is complete.
2.8.1 Table of contents example
2.9 List of Tables and List of Figures (List of illustrations)

 These lists, arranged according to the table and figure number, each
begin on a new page and indicate the relevant page number in the
right-hand column.
26
 The titles of tables and figures must be descriptive enough so that a
specific figure or table can be identified in the list and must
correspond to the title used for the figure or table in the text.
 Prepare this section after the report is complete.
2.9.1 List of Tables and List of Figures examples
27
2.10 Nomenclature
 The list of the symbols that are used must begin on a new page.
 The list is arranged in the following sequence: All the ordinary
symbols are listed first, followed by the superscripts and then the
subscripts. Finally, the auxiliary symbols.
 The following order must be used within each of these groups:
o Firstly all the Roman letters (in alphabetical order, with the
capital letter of each symbol before the small letter, for
example “A” followed by “a”, followed by “B”);
28
o Then all the Greek symbols (in the order of the Greek
alphabet, capital letters before small letters);
o Finally, the symbols that begin with numbers, in numerical
order.
 Units should preferably not be given in the nomenclature section, as
the symbol represents a physical property that is independent of the
system of units.
 In a short document that contains only a few equations and symbols,
the nomenclature section may be omitted, as long as the symbols are
explained in the text.
 Symbols should not be explained in both the text and the
nomenclature.
 A consistent set of symbols should be used (for example do not use
V, C and W for velocity, unless there is a consistent difference, such
as V for relative flow velocity, C for absolute flow velocity and W
for blade velocity).
 If equations are taken from sources that use other symbols, the
symbols should be “translated” into the set that has been selected for
the report.
2.10.1 Abbreviation and Acronym
 Abbreviations and acronyms are shortened forms of words or

phrases.
 An abbreviation is typically a shortened form of words used to
represent the whole (such as Dr. or Prof.) while an acronym
contains a set of initial letters from a phrase that usually form
another word (such as radar or scuba(.
 Abbreviations and acronyms are often interchanged, yet the two
are quite distinct. The main point of reference is that
29
abbreviations are merely a series of letters while acronyms form
new words.
 Each one allows writers to make large blocks of text easier to
read. Beware that both abbreviations and acronyms are typically
considered informal and should be carefully considered before
including them in more formal writings.
 There's a great deal of overlap between abbreviations and
acronyms. It's worth pointing out that an acronym is a type of
abbreviation because acronyms are shortened forms of words and
phrases.
2.10.2 Nomenclature, Abbreviation and Acronym examples
30
31
32
2.11 Body of Text (Report Text)
 Include the Background, Problem Statement and Objectives,
Alternative Selection, Project Design, Results, Economic Analysis
of Alternatives, Conclusions and Recommendations, and References
sections in the technical report text. The details of each section are
explained below.
 Number the report text pages with Arabic numerals in the bottom
center of each page (1, 2, 3…). Restrict handwritten information,
such as sample calculations, to the appendix. Provide context below
each heading for subordinate subheadings.
2.12 Introductory chapters(s)

A good technical report/thesis Introduction does four things:
I. It introduces the problem and motivation for the study.
 Tell the reader what the topic of the report is.
 Explain why this topic is important or relevant.
33
II. It provides a brief summary of previous engineering and/or
scientific work on the topic.
 Here you present an overview what is known about the
problem. You would typically cite earlier studies conducted on
the same topic and/or at this same site, and in doing so, you
should reveal the yawning void in the knowledge that your
brilliant research will fill.
 If you are writing a thesis, you’re going to need a full-blown
literature review with very specific details of all of the scientific
or engineering work done on the topic to date.
 This literature review is usually contained in its own chapter,
particularly for PhD theses. In the introduction, just present a
brief overview, sufficient to establish the need for your research.
III. It outlines the purpose and specific objectives of the project.
 These are linked to solving the problem or filling the knowledge
gap identified above.
 Often, the specific objectives are listed in point form. Sometimes
a numbered list is used.
IV. It provides a ‘road map’ for the rest of the report.
 This is so that the reader knows what’s coming and sees the logic
of your organization.
 Describe (in approximately one sentence each) the contents of
each of the report/thesis chapters.
Note: Never put any results or decisions in the Introduction. Just because
you are writing it last doesn’t mean you should give away the story. After
all – it’s called the “Introduction” for a reason
34
2.13 Literature Review
If you have to write an undergraduate dissertation, you may be required to
begin by writing a literature review. A literature review is a search and
evaluation of the available literature in your given subject or chosen topic
area. It documents the state of the art with respect to the subject or topic
you are writing about.
2.13.1 A literature review has four main objectives:
 It surveys the literature in your chosen area of study

 It synthesises the information in that literature into a summary
 It critically analyses the information gathered by identifying gaps in
current knowledge; by showing limitations of theories and points of
view; and by formulating areas for further research and reviewing
areas of controversy
 It presents the literature in an organized way
2.14 Central Chapters
The structure of the central chapters depends on the contents of the
report. Typical contents of the central chapters for various cases (for
example design reports, experimental reports, etc.) are given in the
appendices.
The following are general guidelines for the central chapters:
 Every chapter should be focused on one topic, i.e. it should have a
clear purpose. The title of the chapter normally reflects the purpose.
 The contents of the central chapters must remain strictly linked to
the purpose of the report. Contents that are only of marginal
importance should preferably be placed in the appendices.
 The central chapters do not usually follow the chronological
sequence of the project.
35
 Each conclusion drawn in the conclusions must be corroborated in
the central chapters.
 The following structure of chapters or within chapters can usually
be followed and corresponds to a scientific approach:
1) Introduction: the purpose of the chapter, and how it links to
the purpose of the report;
2) Underlying or simplified assumptions;
3) Analytical or numerical theory used, or the procedure for the
investigation;
4) Measured results, results of the analysis or observations
(verifiable results);
5) Processing of results: method and answers (objective);
6) Interpretation of results (subjective, but critical and well-
motivated);
7) Conclusions: usefulness and importance of results; how the
results contribute to achieving the purpose of the report.
2.14.1 Experimental Setup
 Drawings of purpose-built apparatus, including:

1) Detailed dimensions;
2) Schematic layout drawings;
3) Positions of measuring points;
4) The environment that could have an influence on the results.
 Complete specifications for the equipment used, including:
1) Manufacturer, model no., series no.;
2) Settings for the equipment used;
3) Calibration certificates with dates and the person or
organization that carried out the calibration.
 Documentation of own calibrations.
36
2.14.2 Measured Results
 Complete raw data:

1) Sometimes included in an appendix, attachment, separate
report or on CD;
2) Units must be documented;
3) Distinguish between set, chosen or measured;
4) Environmental conditions.
 Estimation of the accuracy, reproducibility and resolution of
measurements.
2.15 Microstructure
Paragraph structure is a specialized topic in its own right and cannot be
completely dealt with in this report. Only a few guidelines for paragraphs
and sentences are given here:
 A paragraph should not be longer than 10 lines, because readers
seldom read long paragraphs.
 It is usually a good idea to begin a paragraph with a theme sentence
or to place the theme sentence prominently. The theme sentence
states the purpose or theme of a paragraph.
 It is possible to distinguish between different types of paragraphs in
terms of their purpose, for example the introductory paragraph, the
explanatory paragraph, the linking paragraph and the concluding
paragraph.
 The consecutive sentences of a paragraph, as well as the phrases in
a sentence, must be linked to one another. A communal purpose or
argument is a prerequisite for coherence. Markers (i.e. words that
indicate the direction in which an argument is moving) play a very
important role in this regard. Examples of markers are “except for”,
“therefore”, “for example”, etc.
37
 Place the main idea of a sentence in the main phrase.
2.16 Conclusions
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a summary of the whole thesis or
report. In this context, it is similar to the Abstract, except that
the Abstract puts roughly equal weight on all thesis/report chapters,
whereas the Conclusions chapter focuses primarily on the findings,
conclusions and/or recommendations of the project.
There are a couple of rules – one rigid, one common sense, for this
chapter:
 All material presented in this chapter must have appeared already
in the report; no new material can be introduced in this
chapter. (rigid rule of technical writing)
 Usually, you would not present any new figures or tables in this
chapter. (rule of thumb).
Generally, for most technical reports and Masters theses,
the Conclusions chapter would be~3 to 5 pages long (double spaced). It
would generally be longer in a large PhD thesis. Typically you would have
a paragraph or two for each chapter or major subsection.
2.17 Recommendations
 In this section, you finally have the opportunity to present and
discuss the actions that future researchers should take as a result
of your Project.
 Provide recommendations based on the results from the data
analysis.
 Caution the reader about any assumptions and limitations.
 Identify issues that remain unresolved (if appropriate).
38
2.18 Tables and Figures
Figures and tables enhance the report and explain the intended message.
Distinguish between figures (schematic drawings, photographs, charts,
graphs, etc.) and tables (tabular compilations of data or computational
results).
Follow these guidelines to assist the reader with understanding key points.
1) Make figures large enough to be easily read, generally at least one-
third of a page in size. When feasible, maintain a consistent figure
size throughout a report.
2) Select distinguishable line types and symbols, shades with
patterns, and contrasting colors rather than color alone to maintain
legibility in both color and black and white. Also use contrasting
lettering (for example, white letters on darker images) to identify
landmarks on photographs. This enables printing or copying in
black and white, which is more common due to the expense of
color.
3) Include a key if there are two or more lines, and use distinguishable
symbol shapes and line types. Label both axes and include
dimensions.
4) Use a photograph when an illustration is not adequate. When
taking photographs, step back and think about the purpose of the
photograph, take time to look at the composition and remove
objects that pose a distraction. Make sure there is a strong contrast
between objects. Take multiple photographs including close-up
views to ensure that the object is large enough to be effective as an
illustration. Use a flash or portrait setting to illuminate the target
image, even in the daytime.
39
5) Provide a short descriptive title that provides content clarity so the
figure or table will stand alone if removed from the report (e.g.,
Figure 1. Schematic of the water treatment process).
6) When a landmark, road name, or other information is referenced
in the text, this information must be provided on the figure (e.g.,
Shaw Hall, Snow Road).
7) Horizontally center, within the report margins, figures and tables
and the corresponding titles. Place figure titles below the figure
and table titles above the table. Use portrait orientation whenever
feasible. If landscape orientation is used, orient the base of the
figure or table towards the right-hand side of the page and center
within the report margins.
8) Refer to every figure and table in the text and number in the order
referenced. Place the figure or table immediately following the text
or paragraph that includes the reference. If this is not practical,
place the figure or table on the next page. When the report has
section numbers or appendices, include the section or appendix
number within the figure and table number (e.g., Figure 4.3 is the
third figure in Section 4, Table 5.1 is the first table in Section 5,
and Figure A-1 is the first figure in Appendix A).
9) The title is part of the figure or table and requires a unique format.
Use a bold font, sized 2 points smaller than the text, and format it
as a “caption” style in Word.
10) Two-dimensional graphs and charts convey information more
clearly than in three dimensions. Therefore, critically evaluate
whether a three dimensional presentation of the information is
necessary to convey the message.
40
11) Round values as needed for comprehension using Microsoft
formatting options (Appendix C), and use the correct number of
significant figures (Appendix D).
12) Use tables if there will be more than three to four entries.
2.19 Appendices
 Detail that disturbs the flow of the main text, and particularly detail
that does not form an integral part of the main text, must preferably
be provided in the appendices.
 Examples of this are complicated technical derivations, detailed
descriptions of apparatus, computer programs, lists of unprocessed
data, sample calculations and concise commercial information (data
sheets).
 Just as in a chapter, every appendix must have a descriptive title.
 The appendices are numbered “Appendix A”, “Appendix B”, etc.
Examples of numbering are: page numbers “B1”, Table A1, Figure
C2. In shorter reports, the page numbers of the appendices can
follow on from those of the main report.
2.20 References
 Referencing means that you give credit to the various sources you
have used when writing your assignment/report.
 The in-text reference must be cited in the text where you have
referred to the specific source. This citation can be given directly
where the reference is made or at the end of the sentence, paragraph
or direct quotation.
 No references may be included in the list of references to which you
have not referred in the report, and vice versa.
41
 There are various methods of referencing, although only one
alphabetical and one numerical system are discussed here.
2.20.1 When should you give a reference?
 When you quote an author's words directly

 When you use somebody else's tables, figures and/or diagrams
 When you put an author's words in your own words (paraphrase)
 When you summarise an author's ideas (summary)
2.20.2 When is a reference not needed?

You do not need to reference if you consider the information or
viewpoints that you give to be general knowledge.
2.20.3 How do you define general knowledge?
 If the same information appears in several sources (at least 5)

without any references.
 If you think that your reader will easily be able to find the
information in a general information source.
2.20.4 Why should you give references?
 Avoid plagiarism
 Give credibility to your work
 Help your readers to find the articles, books or electronic sources
that you have used
 Show that your research is up to date
2.20.5 Harvard-method
Steps for referencing:
1) Write down the complete biographical data for any source when you
use it for the first time.
42
 If it is a book: author/editor, year of publication, title, edition,
volume number, place of publication and publisher.
 If it is a journal article: author of the article, year of publication,
title of the article, title of the journal, volume and issue number
of the journal and the page numbers.
 If it electronic information: in addition to the above also the date
on which you accessed the information, the name of the database
or the web address (URL)
2) Include in the reference list at the end of your document all the
references that you have used in your text. The reference list includes
only the books, articles, etc.
Type In-text citation Reference list
Winsor, D.A. 1988. Communication

failures contributing to the Challenger
As discussed by accident: an example for technical
Journals
Winsor (1988: 101) communicators. IEEE Transactions on
Professional Communication 31.3:
101-107.
Norback, JS, Llewellyn, DC & Hardin,

The communication
JR. 2001. Shop talk 101. Integrating
skills of engineers are
workplace communication into
WWW as important today as
undergraduate engineering curricula
ever (Norback et al.
[Online]. Available:
2001).
http://www.lionhrtpub.com/orms/orms-
43
8-01/norback.html. [2005, Augustus
31].
... investigated the Smith, G.J. 2005. Personal interview.

Interview
method (Smith, 2005) 31 August, Stellenbosch.
(Smith & Carpenter

1995: 36) OF Smith Smith, A.D. & Carpenter, C.P. 1995.
Books en Carpenter (1995: Tool quality and tool life. London:
36) discuss it in detail Longman.
...
2.21 Bibliography
 A bibliography is a list of sources, usually books, that provide a
broad background on the topic, but to which no specific reference is
made.
 Only comprehensive technical reports, such as some theses, have a
bibliography.
2.22 Plagiarism
 Plagiarism can be defined as follows: To use another person's words
or ideas as if they were your own.
 But plagiarism can also occur unintentionally: when you rewrite
another person's ideas or words in your own words or use small
sections of another person's writings without acknowledging it as a
source.
 The guidelines that examiners use when they evaluate theses:
 Scope: The subject should be suitable for a thesis in the sense that it
should be confined to an appropriate field
44
 Objectives: The thesis should have clearly stated research questions
or objectives.
 Logical approach: There should be a logical approach to, or
methodology for, addressing the objectives or central research
questions of the thesis. This should be evident from:
1. The literature review
2. The analytical or numerical approach
3. The experimental set-up, if applicable.
 Data evaluation and interpretation: The thesis should demonstrate
the ability of the candidate to evaluate and interpret data, whether
cited, measured, calculated or deduced.
 Presentation: The thesis should be presented clearly in the
appropriate form and style, whether written, tabular or graphical.
2.23 Style
Some of the important guidelines for style in technical reports are:
 Only use the third person. If unavoidable, the authors can be referred
to as “the authors”.
 Each sentence must be a complete sentence, i.e. must contain at least
a subject and a verb, and often also an object.
 Do not link two sentences by means of a comma. Use commas
sparingly.
 Active sentence construction is usually more striking that the passive
construction.
 Use the present tense for something that is still valid, but the past
tense for something that happened in the past or is no longer valid.
 Use the right word, not its second cousin (Mark Twain). This
statement is of particular importance in relation to technical
terminology. The reader’s confidence in the technical ability of the
45
author will be greatly impaired if the author does not use the correct
terms.
 Sweeping statements must be avoided, since they indicate that the
author is uncertain or not knowledgeable.
 Waffling and irrelevant appendices are not at all permissible. The
reader’s time is precious and, the thicker the report, the less positive
his/her initial attitude will be to the report. De Stadler (undated a)
provides a few guidelines for maintaining the correct information
density in a text.
 It is important that the author keep the reader and his/her interests in
mind. Remember, engineers are interested in results, not excuses:
what was done, how was it done, and what does it mean?
Nevertheless, it sometimes is necessary to briefly mention the
problems that were experienced and the methods that did not work,
but only if this will prevent the mistakes from being repeated. When
in doubt, leave it out.
 The technical level of the language used must be adapted to the
target reader. The target reader of undergraduate reports is a final
year student in Mechanical or Mechatronic Engineering at another
university.
 Avoid the extremes of banal expressions and pompousness.
 A writing style in which the author gives his/her reader instructions,
for example “Add eq. (3) and (4)” should be avoided.
 Explain less known abbreviations, for example “Coherent Anti-
Stokes Raman Spectroscopy (CARS)” when they are used for the
first time.
 Common abbreviations should preferably be written out (“for
example” rather than “e.g.”).
46
 Bulleted lists are seldom used in technical reports. They may only
be used when all the items in a list are of equal importance and when
the sequence is not important.
 Use SI units if possible, SI units are written in normal letters (not
italics). The SI has 6 basic units: metre, kilogram, second, ampere,
degrees kelvin and candela.
 Abbreviations: lower case letters, unless derived from a proper
name. No full stop after the abbreviation, unless at the end of a
sentence.
 Written in full: lower case letters, unless the first word in a sentence.
 Combination of abbreviations:
1) N m or N·m (space or half-high dot)
2)
m/s or m·s-1
3) m·kg/(s3·A) or m·kg·s−3·A−1
 Prefixes: become part of the symbol (J kg-1) and are never used on
their own (correct: 106/m3; incorrect: M/m3). The following are the
preferential prefixes in The International Metric System SABS
M33a: tera (T), giga (G), mega (m), kilo (k), milli (m), micro (μ),
nano (n), pico (p), femto (f) and atto (a)
 Leave a space between the number and the unit, for example 3,4 km
and not 3,4km.
 The decimal comma must be used, and a small space between
thousands, for example 123 456,23.
2.23.1 Notes of SI unite:
Derived units that are permitted by SI
plane angle Radian Rad
Frequency Hertz Hz
47
Force Newton N
stress, pressure Pascal Pa
energy, work Joule J
Power Watt W
electrical charge or flux Coulomb C
magnetic flux Weber Wb
electrical potential Volt V
electrical resistance Ohm Ω
inductance Henry H
capacitance Farad F
conductance siemens S
magnetic induction Tesla T
luminous flux Lumen Lm
illumination Lux Lx
Non-SI units that are accepted for use together with SI units
Minute min 60 s
Hour h
Day d
Degree ° (π/180) rad
Litre L 10-3 m3
metric ton t 1000 kg
48
2.23.2 Punctuation
Punctuation is used to clarify the sentence structure and prevent
misreading. A comma is used to prevent reading “general errors” in the
following sentence.
In general, errors fall into two categories …
In the following example, simple words run together and cause confusion.
In this experiment error could have been introduced…
Adding a comma prevents confusion.
In this experiment, error could have been introduced…
Eliminate punctuation that clutters the text or detracts from the content. If
lack of punctuation hurts the meaning, then add punctuation.
2.23.3 Comma
Commas are the smallest break in sentence structure and indicate a slight
pause. They clarify the meaning of a sentence and are used:
1) To separate items in a series. The Chicago Manual of Style requires a
comma after each item in a series, including before the conjunction,
including both “and” and “or.”
The experiment was conducted quietly, quickly, and satisfactorily.
Please contact Dr. Jones at his office, laboratory, or home.
However, other style guides require a comma before the “and” but not the
“or.” When preparing documents, check with the publisher, professor, or
company for the required form and be consistent.
2) In a series of clauses.
Included within this report are theory and methods of analysis,
equipment and experimental setup, procedure guidelines, results, a
discussion of results, and conclusions.
49
3) Before a coordinate conjunction (and, or, but, nor, for, so) that joins two
equal elements) clauses in a compound sentence,
do not use a comma if the second part of the sentence cannot stand
alone.
The final session ended, and the students went home.
John saw the car coming towards the bike, so he started to scream.
The students counted the proceeds and are pleased with the results.
4) To separate the items in a date or an address.
On May 15, 2005, we moved.
5) After an introductory adverb clause.
If we advertise our product, our sales will increase.
6) To set off nonrestrictive (not necessary) clauses and phrases.
The four articles, all of which were published in important journals,
explained the details of her work.
7) To set off parenthetical elements: as a result, for example, however, if
necessary, indeed, it seems, of course, therefore, nevertheless.
8) To clarify the meaning of a sentence.
The book My Life, written by Mr. Smith, was a best seller.
(Nonrestrictive)
The book written by Mr. Smith was a best seller. (Restrictive)
9) When they are needed to secure emphasis.
It may be a long, long time before we can reconvene.
2.23.4 Colon
Colons link related thoughts, but one of those thoughts must be able to
stand alone as a sentence. The series of elements following the colon
amplifies what precedes the colon.
The lab needed two more pieces of equipment to fulfill the contract: a
vise and a drill press.
50
When a colon precedes a complete sentence, capitalize the first word after
the colon.
The faculty board made a final decision: Students’ submitted work
must meet technical writing standards throughout their curriculum.
Colons are also used to introduce lists.
Professor Smith’s qualifications include:
a. Designing machinery systems
b. Evaluating financial markets
c. Working with students
When used in text with equations, colons are used after the words follow,
follows, and following.
Equation (7) is transformed into the following:
x + y = 32.7
When used in a URL address, no space precedes or follows the colon.
http://www.egr.msu.edu
Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotes.
Use a single quotation mark when a quote is inside another quote.
Place periods and commas inside quotation marks.
He said, “I will review and edit my documents carefully.”
“I will always ask my peers to review my papers before turning them
in,” said the student.
A question mark goes outside the quotation marks when the entire sentence
is a question and inside when the quoted phrase is a question.
When Joe asked the question, “Did you see the roach cross the room?”
the roach appeared before our eyes.
Did the delivery person say, “I left the package in the basement”?
An exclamation point is placed inside the quotation mark only when it is
part of the quoted material.
51
The student cried, “The power is on!”
Parentheses
At the end of a sentence, the punctuation is placed inside the parentheses
only when a complete sentence is enclosed within the parentheses.
The new fee schedule is effective September 1, 2005. (All students have
been notified.)
Hyphens and Dashes
Hyphen (-) separates characters (when spelling out a word) or separating
groups of numbers (telephone).
“My name is p-r-i-n-c-e-s-s and my number is 555-5555,” she told the
boy in the club.
En dashes ( – ) connect numbers and words, and signify up to and
including.
The test temperature range is 20–32ºC.
52
2.23.5 Layout
Font, Margin, Page Numbering and Headings
 Table 1 gives the particulars of a widely accepted formatting

scheme for technical reports.
53
 Draft reports may alternatively be printed at one-and-a-half spacing
on A4 paper with margins of at least 25 mm.
 The pages of the chapters and appendices must be numbered in the
center at the bottom using Arabic numerals (1, 2, …).
 The start of Chapter 1 (usually the Introduction) must be page 1.
Pages before this are numbered in small Roman numerals (i, ii, iii,
iv, ...), with the Abstract on page i.
 The format for the headings of chapters, sections and subsections
must be as in this report.
 Every attempt should be made to avoid requiring more than three
levels of headings.
 Note that the main text and headings of a report may not be in more
than one type of font.
 It is very important that the layout throughout the report must
consistently remain the same, for example with regard to the use of
capital letters in the headings and spacing between paragraphs.
54
2.23.6 Equations
 Equations must be numbered sequentially, either (1, 2 …), or per

chapter (1.1, 1.2 …) and 2.1, 2.2 …). The second method makes it
easier to write chapters independently of one another.
 With regard to the formatting of equations the rest of this section is
not applicable if type setting programs, such as Latex, are used for
word processing, as these programs format equations automatically.
 The two acceptable formats for equations are illustrated in the next
two equations:
 Occasionally long equations are more easily dealt with by dividing

them up, for example:
55
 Note that the letters representing variables or constants must be in
italics, while functions (such as the trigonometric functions) and
units must not be in italics, as in the following examples:
 In equation (8), the subscript i is also a variable and therefore is

written in italics, while the subscript 1 in equation (9) is not a
symbol, and is therefore not written in italics.
 The number of the equation must be placed on the right-hand margin
(use a right tab).
 Place all “=” signs underneath one another if the equations are short
enough.
 An "x" should not be used for a normal multiplication, since it can
be confused with a symbol or the cross product operator .
 All equations must be indented by at least 10 mm.
56
3 Chapter 3
CV (Curriculum Vitae) and Letters
3.1 CV (Curriculum Vitae)
When it comes to job hunting, your CV is paramount. Get it right, and

you’ll have an interview in no time, but get it wrong, and you may face
rejection after rejection. Every CV is different as you want to show why
your set of skills makes you suitable for the position you’re applying for at
that moment, but all follow a similar structure.
3.1.1 Definition of CV
Your CV, short for curriculum vitae, is a personal marketing document
used to sell yourself to prospective employers. It should tell them about
you, your professional history and your skills, abilities and achievements.
Ultimately, it should highlight why you’re the best person for the job. A
CV is required when applying for a job. In addition to your CV, employers
may also require a cover letter and a completed application form.
3.1.2 What to include in your CV
While the structure of a CV is flexible, bending to your unique skill set and
experiences, there are particular sections that employers expect to see on
your CV regardless.
The sections must include in a CV:
3.1.3 Name, professional title and contact details
The first part of your CV, positioned at the top of the page, should contain
your name, professional title and contact details. Under no circumstances
should you title your CV with ‘curriculum vitae’ or ‘CV’ as it is a waste of
valuable space. Treat your name as the title instead. When it comes to your
contact details, your email address and phone number(s) are essential.
57
Once upon a time, it was customary to include your full address on your
CV. Today, you simply need to list your town and county. If you like, you
can also include a link to your LinkedIn profile in this section – but only if
it is up to date!
There is an example of how your name, professional title and contact
details might look:
Forename Surname | Professional Title
Location: Town, County
Phone: 01234 567890
Email: name@example.com
3.1.4 Personal profile

A personal profile, also known as a personal statement, career objective
and professional profile, is one of the most important aspects of your CV.
It’s a short paragraph that sits just underneath your name and contact
details giving prospective employers an overview of who you are and what
you’re all about. You should tailor your profile to every job you apply for,
highlighting specific qualities that match you to the role. Aim to keep your
personal statement short and sweet, and no longer than a few sentences. To
make the most of this section, you should try to address the following:
1. Who are you?

2. What can you offer the company?
3. What are your career goals?
58
3.1.5 How to structure a personal profile
We know writing a personal statement can seem quite daunting but
honestly, once you’ve started writing it, the rest will come naturally. Here’s
a breakdown of the basics of creating your statement. The most important
thing to remember is that statements are usually around four sentences in
length, and no more than six. Aim for anywhere between 50 and 200 words,
and you’re golden. Like the length, the grammatical person you are writing
in also has some flexibility. You could choose to write in the third person
which can appear more objective, for example, ‘Project manager seeking…
skills include…’ Or you could write in the first person which tends to be
more personal: ‘I am a project manager seeking… My skills are…’ It
honestly doesn’t matter which person you choose, just pick the one you’re
comfortable writing in. As long as you keep it consistent, you cannot go
wrong.
3.1.6 Experience and employment history
Your employment history section gives you a chance to outline your
previous jobs, internships and work experience. List your experience in
reverse chronological order as your recent role is the most relevant to the
employer. When listing each position of employment, state your job title,
the employer, the dates you worked and a line that summarizes the role.
Then bullet point your key responsibilities, skills and achievements, and
bolster each point with powerful verbs and figures to support each claim
and showcase your impact. It helps to choose the duties most relevant to
the job you’re applying for, especially if it’s a long list. If you have many
years’ worth of experience, you can reduce the detail of old or irrelevant
roles. If you have positions from more than 10 years’ ago, you can delete
them. There is an example of how to lay out each position of employment
on your CV:
59
mmm yyyy – mmm yyyy Company Name, Location
Role Title
Outline
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Key responsibilities
 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Key achievements/projects
 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
3.1.7 Education and qualifications
Like your experience section, your education should be listed in reverse

chronological order. Include the name of the institutions and the dates you
were there, followed by the qualifications and grades you achieved. If you
have recently left education, you may write your degree, A-levels or
GCSEs (or equivalents) like so:
Institution name – Dates attended (from – to)
Qualification/subject – Grade
If you have a degree, you could list a few of the most relevant modules,
assignments or projects underneath. For professionals that are a little
further along in their careers, or have many certificates in their repertoire,
you can lay your qualifications out in this way:
Qualification, grade – Institution – Year
60
3.1.8 Additional sections
There is a range of additional sections that may strengthen your CV and

highlight your skills. Here are just a few you can include if you have room:
Key skills: If you’re writing a functional CV, or have some abilities you
want to show off to the employer immediately, insert a key skills section
underneath your personal profile. You should aim to detail four to five
abilities at most.
Hobbies and interests: If you feel that your CV is lacking, you can boost
your document by inserting a hobbies and interests section at the end. Be
careful though; avoid listing hobbies that don’t add value to your CV or
are run-of-the-mill, like reading. Draw on interests that make you stand out
or are relevant to the job.
References: Like including an address on your CV, adding your referees to

the end of your CV is no longer standardised. You can include a line that
reads ‘references available on request’, but if you don’t have room, it’s
acceptable to remove it altogether.
3.1.9 Formatting and spacing guidelines
There are some formatting and spacing tips to bear in mind:
Length: The standard length of a CV in the UK is two pages. However, one

size doesn’t fit all, and so for some professionals, one or three pages may
be more appropriate.
Headings: Each section must be introduced by a big, bold heading to ensure

an easy read.
61
Font type: Most employers will receive your CV in a digital format, so
choose a clear font like Calibri or Arial. You can use a different font type
for your headings, but keep it professional and easy-to-read too.
Font size and page margins: The body of your CV should be between 10
and 12 point font, and your headings between 14 and 18 points. Keep your
page margins around 2.5cm, but never reduce them to less than 1.27cm or
your CV will appear cluttered and hard to read. White space ensures clarity
and professionalism.
Proofreading and consistency: Your formatting must be consistent

throughout your CV to keep it looking slick. Don’t spoil your polished look
by including typos and inaccuracies.
Saving the file: It’s likely you’ll send your CV via email or through a job
board like CV-Library. Save your CV as a pdf file to ensure recruiters can
open it on any device. A pdf will also maintain formatting, so you can be
sure that employers will see your CV as you intended.
62
3.1.10 Example of CV
Forename Surname | Professional Title
Location: xxxxxxx
Telephone: xxxxxxxxxxx
Email: xxxxxxxxxxxxx
Professional profile
Add a punchy one or two line sentence that sums you up and will appeal
to your target employers and recruiters.
Expand upon the above with a more detailed summary of what you do –
include core industry experience, skills (software, tools etc.) and try to
show how your work impacts your employers. 3-5 lines will be about
right for this section.
IT/Technical skills
 Network design  xxxxxxxxxxxxx  xxxxxxxxxxxxx
 HTML, .Net  xxxxxxxxxxxxx  xxxxxxxxxxxxx
 Xxxxxxxxxxxxxx  xxxxxxxxxxxxx  xxxxxxxxxxxxx
Career summary
mmm yyyy – Present Company Name, Location (Optional)
Role Title
Outline
Give a high-level overview of the role to show how you fit into the
organisation and what the overall goal of your role is. 1-3 lines should be
enough.
 Detail your responsibilities and showcase as much of your skills
and knowledge as possible
 Use professional language and show how your duties impact the
business where possible
 Give lots of detail in recent roles and less in older roles as you go
down the CV
 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
63
Key achievement/projects
 If possible, try to add some impressive achievements you’ve made
that have had a big impact on the employer or a customer/client
Mmm yyyy – mmm yyyy Company Name, Location (Optional)

Role Title
Outline
Give a high-level overview of the role to show how you fit into the
organisation and what the overall goal of your role is. 1-3 lines should be
enough.
 Detail all of your responsibilities and showcase as much of your
skills and knowledge as possible
 Use professional language and show how your duties impact the
business where possible
 Give lots of detail in recent roles and less in older roles as you go
down the CV

Role Title
Outline
As you progress down the CV to old roles, it’s best to summarise the
64
roles in 1-3 lines.

Role Title
Outline
As you progress down the CV to old roles, it’s best to summarise the
roles in 1-3 lines.

Role Title

Role Title

Role Title

Role Title
Education and qualifications
 Qualification, grade – Institution – Year
References available on request
65
3.2 Letters
A letter is one person's written message to another pertaining to some
matter of common concern. Letters have several different types: Formal
letters and informal letters. Letters contribute to the protection and
conservation of literacy.
3.2.1 Informal Letter

An informal letter is a letter that is written in a personal fashion. You can
write them to relatives or friends, but also to anyone with whom you have
a non-professional relationship, although this doesn't exclude business
partners or workers with whom you're friendly. There are different ways to
66
carry out this type of letter depending on which country you're in. This
article will address the English/American way.
We'll discuss the following elements:
 Address
 Date
 Opening
 Body
 Closing
 Signature
3.2.1.1 How Do You Write an Informal Letter?
An informal letter can be written in nearly any way you choose, but there
are a few organizational guidelines you can follow if you are unsure of
what to write or how to format your letter. The perfect informal letter
consists of three sections:
 Opening
 Body text
 Closing
There is one final part of an informal letter that doesn't need listed here: the
signature, which consists of no more than a farewell remark and your name.
67
3.2.1.2 Example of informal letter
3.2.2 Formal Letter (Business letter)

The formal letter, on the other hand, is written in a professional tone using
carefully chosen and polite language for an official purpose. Unlike the
informal letter, there is nothing friendly or quirky about this type of letter,
which must adhere to a strict format.
In today's Internet- and email-driven society, the need to write a formal
letter arises less often than in the past. However, it is still occasionally
necessary to present a formal letter to obtain information, to apply for an
academic program or a job, to write a complaint letter, or simply to express
your opinion in an effective and coherent manner.
68
3.2.2.1 How to write the formal letter
 Be concise
State the purpose of your formal letter in the first paragraph and don't veer
from the subject. Try to avoid flowery language or long words. Keep the
letter short and to the point.
 Use the right tone
A business or formal letter should be written in a tone that is slightly more
formal than your everyday language. Avoid the following: slang or jargon;
contractions such as I'm, can't, it's; and vague words such as good and nice.
Be polite and respectful, even if you are complaining.
 Proofread
Proofreading is so important. Once you have written your formal letter,
check the grammar and spelling carefully. Use the spell-checker on your
computer and then read the letter over yourself as the spellchecker will not
catch every error. Use a dictionary or thesaurus, if necessary. Check the
grammar and punctuation for correctness and make sure the sentences are
complete.
It is a good idea to have someone else proofread your formal letter, even
after you have done so, as you may have overlooked errors in something
that you have read over many times. If this formal letter is important
enough for you to take the time to write, don't rush its completion. Errors
will diminish the impact of the statement or impression you are trying to
make.
 Use proper format and presentation
Remember that the first impression is the one that lasts. Use good quality
paper and a matching envelope for your formal letter. Make sure the
recipient is addressed properly and that his or her name is spelled correctly.
Equally important—don't forget to sign the letter.
69
 Formatting a formal letter
Adhering to the standard conventions of good formal letter writing and
presenting your letter attractively will ensure that your thoughts are
seriously considered by the recipient and given the attention and
consideration they deserve. Here are a few formatting tips:
I. Heading
The heading consists of your address (but not your name) and the date.
Telephone numbers and email addresses are not usually included here, but
they are acceptable. Using block format, the heading goes in the top left-
hand corner of the page.
123 Elm Ave.

Treesville, ON M1N 2P3
November 23, 2008
II. Inside Address

The inside address consists of the name and address of the person to whom
you are writing. You should try to address the formal letter to a specific
person, but if you do not know his or her name, at least try to include his
or her title. This address is usually placed four lines below the heading if a
word processor is used or one line below the heading if the letter is
handwritten.
Mr. M. Leaf (name)
Chief of Syrup Production (title)
Old Sticky Pancake Company
456 Maple Lane
Forest, ON 7W8 9Y0
70
III. Salutation
Skip one line after the inside address and then type the salutation. Your
choice of salutation depends on whether or not you know the intended
recipient of the formal letter. The most usual greeting is
Dear
Followed by the person's name and punctuated with a colon. If you don't
know whether the person you are addressing is a man or a woman, you may
begin with
Dear Sir or Madam,
Again followed by a colon.
Ms.
May be used if you don't know the marital status of a woman. Furthermore,
if the person has a specific title such as
Dr.
Make sure that you use it. Here are some examples of each salutation:
Dear Mr. Trunk,

Dear Ms. Root,
Dear Mrs. Branch,
Dear Dr. Acorn,
IV. Body
Skip one line after the salutation and begin typing the body of the formal
letter. This is the main part of the letter. Keep in mind the rules outlined
above regarding brevity and coherence. It is best to use short, clear, logical
paragraphs to state your business.
71
V. Closing and Signature
This is the end of the letter. Skip one line after the last paragraph of the
body of the letter and type the closing. Only the first word of the closing
should be capitalized. It is punctuated with a comma. Leave several lines
after the closing and type (or print) your signature. Your actual handwritten
signature is to be inserted between these two printed lines, written in ink.
Yours sincerely,
Ezra Twig
Your typed signature marks the end of your letter, and while you can write
a postscript (P.S.) containing additional information, it is better to include
all pertinent details in the body of the letter itself so nothing is accidentally
overlooked.
Now that your formal letter has been written, read it through in its entirety
to ensure you have communicated your points thoroughly and accurately.
Then, it's ready to be sent off to its recipient.
72
3.2.2.2 Example of formal letter
123 Elm Ave.

Treesville, ON M1N 2P3
November 7, 2016
Mr. M. Leaf
Chief of Syrup Production
Old Sticky Pancake Company
456 Maple Lane
Forest, ON 7W8 9Y0
Dear Mr. Leaf:

Let me begin by thanking you for your past contributions to our Little League baseball
team. Your sponsorship aided in the purchase of ten full uniforms and several pieces of
baseball equipment for last year's season.
Next month, our company is planning an employee appreciation pancake breakfast

honoring retired employees for their past years of service and present employees for
their loyalty and dedication in spite of the current difficult economic conditions.
We would like to place an order with your company for 25 pounds of pancake mix and
five gallons of maple syrup. We hope you will be able to provide these products in the
bulk quantities we require.
As you are a committed corporate sponsor and long-time associate, we hope that you
will be able to join us for breakfast on December 12, 2016.
Respectfully yours,
Derek Jeter
73
3.2.2.3 Types of formal letter (Business letter)
I. Sales Letters
Typical sales letters start off with a very strong statement to capture the
interest of the reader. Since the purpose is to get the reader to do something,
these letters include strong calls to action, detail the benefit to the reader of
taking the action and include information to help the reader to act, such as
including a telephone number or website link.
74
II. Order Letters
Order letters are sent by consumers or businesses to a manufacturer, retailer
or wholesaler to order goods or services. These letters must contain specific
information such as model number, name of the product, the quantity
desired and expected price. Payment is sometimes included with the letter.
III. Complaint Letters

The words and tone you choose to use in a letter complaining to a business
may be the deciding factor on whether your complaint is satisfied. Be direct
but tactful and always use a professional tone if you want the company to
listen to you.
IV. Adjustment Letters

An adjustment letter is normally sent in response to a claim or complaint.
If the adjustment is in the customer’s favor, begin the letter with that news.
If not, keep your tone factual and let the customer know that you
understand the complaint.
V. Inquiry Letters
Inquiry letters ask a question or elicit information from the recipient. When
composing this type of letter, keep it clear and succinct and list exactly
what information you need. Be sure to include your contact information so
that it is easy for the reader to respond.
VI. Follow-Up Letters

Follow-up letters are usually sent after some type of initial communication.
This could be a sales department thanking a customer for an order, a
businessman reviewing the outcome of a meeting or a job seeker inquiring
75
about the status of his application. In many cases, these letters are a
combination thank-you note and sales letter.
VII. Letters of Recommendation

Prospective employers often ask job applicants for letters of
recommendation before they hire them. This type of letter is usually from
a previous employer or professor, and it describes the sender’s relationship
with and opinion of the job seeker.
VIII. Acknowledgment Letters

Acknowledgment letters act as simple receipts. Businesses send them to let
others know that they have received a prior communication, but action may
or may not have taken place.
IX. Cover Letters

Cover letters usually accompany a package, report or other merchandise.
They are used to describe what is enclosed, why it is being sent and what
the recipient should do with it, if there is any action that needs to be taken.
These types of letters are generally very short and succinct.
X. Letters of Resignation
When an employee plans to leave his job, a letter of resignation is usually
sent to his immediate manager giving him notice and letting him know
when the last day of employment will be. In many cases, the employee also
will detail his reason for leaving the company.
76
4 Chapter 4
Technical Presentations
4.1 Introduction of presentation

A presentation is any situation which involves speaking to a group of
people in order to make a point, educate or share information. Many
presentations also have some form of supporting visual aid such as slides,
a whiteboard, projections or flip charts.
Therefore, when assessing your performance your lecturer will be looking
for:
 Understanding of the topic and the audience
 Appropriate breadth and depth
 An argument in the content
 A clear structure: a distinct beginning, middle and end
 Suitable visual aids
 Proper timing/length
As with all academic skills, academic presentation skills can be learnt and
continually improved through practice.
4.2 Section of presentation

I. Planning
II. Preparing
III. Presenting
77
4.2.1 Planning
Thorough planning will enable you to present your views in a considerate
and logical way. Three key factors should be addressed when planning
your presentation:
 Purpose
 Audience
 Location
4.2.1.1 Purpose of the presentation

Focus: When you plan your presentation, concentrate on what's really
important. What is the exact problem? What is it you need to achieve by
the end of it? Set these down as objectives.
To determine your objectives, decide what you feel your audience must
know, think or do at the end of your presentation. Perhaps finishing the
statement below will help you focus: As a result of my presentation, my
audience will...
Simplify: Support your main idea with a few examples, and their relevance
to the overall aim.
Organise: Structure your overall presentation from the following outline:
 State the main issue
 Develop your viewpoint with specifics
 End with a clear summary and/or a last statement or request
 Handle any questions
Humanise: Remember you are speaking to people, try to project outward,
not inward, by thinking of ways that will engage your audience.
78
Audience
The type of audience might well influence the format of your presentation
and its content, for example, a technical presentation to a specialist
audience might be more formal than one to a discussion group. Ask
yourself the following questions about your intended audience:
 Who are they?
 What are their reasons for attending?
 How many are likely to be present?
 What sort of people – age, education, status?
 What do they already know about the subject?
 What are their likely attitudes/biases?
Location
Another important aspect of planning concerns the location. This can have
significant implications for how you plan your content and organise
yourself. If you have access to the venue, it might help to pay an early visit.
The aspects you might want to check include:
 type and size of room
 seating arrangements – fixed or movable
 position of speaker (you)
 equipment available, e.g. whiteboard, projector and tape recorder
 acoustics (sound)
Don’t forget, your plan should help you tailor your information to your
audience, to decide what degree of specialist knowledge is required, the
order in which you present it and what might affect how you can deliver
your presentation. The next stage, preparing, is the time you organise and
make your content come to life.
79
4.2.2 Preparing
A clear structure will allow the audience to understand your main themes.
To aid this, break your presentation down into three sections:
 Introduction
 Main Body
 Conclusion.
4.2.2.1 Introduction of preparing
Your introduction will need to create an immediate impression and gain

the attention of the audience. Therefore, it is very important to be clear
about what message you are trying to relay from the outset. You will need
to outline enough information for the audience to understand the context
of the subject; break down any key terms or concepts that you will be
discussing; and outline the sequence of your material. Generally, you need
to identify up to three objectives and these need to be stated early in the
presentation so that your audience can follow the development of your
argument/discussion.
4.2.2.2 Main body
The middle part of your presentation is where the bulk of your research is
relayed.
Topic
 The quality of the research is critical - The topic should be

thoroughly researched, with a number of different sources.
 Organisation and transitions make or break a presentation -There
should be a logical flow from beginning to end, like in written work.
Avoid jumping from one point to another, and be careful about
adding information that is not directly related to the main theme.
80
 Visual aids - Visual aids will help to illustrate your presentation, but
effective use of visual aids requires planning and preparation; you
need to be selective so as not to overwhelm your audience.
For PowerPoint slides:

 Check your timing.
 Use text sparingly. If your audience is concentrating on written text,
they are less likely to give you their complete attention. THINK
BULLETS!
 The “joy of six” is a helpful rule of thumb. Use a maximum of six
points per slide and six words per point.
 Depending on the colour and font size you select, text may be
difficult to read. Font size is important - use the "floor test" for
readability. Print out a slide containing text, and place the page on
the floor. Can you read the slide from a standing position? If yes,
then your audience can likely read it from their seats. If no, then the
font size needs to be increased.
 Select colors with care. Lighting and distance will affect color
choice.
 Use one design style for the entire presentation. Using one, or
several, of the master slides provided in PowerPoint can help ensure
this is not a problem.
 Minimize or avoid animated texts, sounds, and fancy transitions.
 Avoid switching between programs (such as calling up a Web page).
This takes extra time and can make it difficult for your audience to
remain focused on your presentation.
 Consider whether you want people to take notes during your
presentation? If yes, then allow some time to do so.
81
4.2.2.3 Question and answer session
 Prepare for questions - Anticipate questions and be prepared to

respond to them – not just with more information but with real and
relevant examples.
 Do not rush your answer(s)
 Repeat questions, or ask for the question to be repeated, if you need
time to think of the appropriate response.
 If you have no idea how to answer a particular question, it would be
better to state this clearly and ask to move on to another question.
4.2.2.4 Conclusion
The conclusion is as equally important as the introduction and should not

be rushed. Common pitfalls are running out of time, speeding up,
mumbling and fading off, or ending abruptly. If the ending is weak it will
affect what the audience think of the overall presentation. Prepare an
ending (or end slide) that:
 Sums up the whole presentation
 Does not introduce any new ideas
 Does not keep repeating points over and over again
82
4.2.3 Presenting
Academic presentations are not always in formal settings; sometimes they
take place in classrooms in front of small groups of fellow students.
Whatever the situation, they should be viewed as an important opportunity
to sell your knowledge in a professional way.
4.2.3.1 The delivery
 Do not simply read the text from the slides without any of your own
words. Remember the audience can read!
 Consider whether sitting or standing is most appropriate
 Don’t fold your arms or put your hands in your pocket
 Use cue cards as memory aids. Try to keep them small so that they
can be held in one hand, and not read like a script.
 Do not fumble with the equipment or furniture.
4.2.3.2 Personal qualities
 Open body language – hands at your side or bent at the elbow in

front of your body.
 Look at the audience – don’t fix your stare, but glance around in a
casual manner.
 Smile
 Clear, even tone of voice
 Try to avoid using too many gestures or repetition of certain words
or phrases e.g. ‘you know’, ‘and so on and so forth’ ‘and I really
mean this’ ‘umm’ ‘err’
 Be enthusiastic but do not get too excited about what you are saying
and start going off the subject.
83
4.2.3.3 Nerves
Remember you are not alone, even the most practised presenter will suffer
from nervousness. The following suggestions can help to relieve feelings
of anxiety:
 Try some relaxation exercises.
 Practise your presentation a few times before the actual event.
 Mentally rehearse if you are unable to physically rehearse. Visualise
yourself speaking, your body language, what you have to do when;
Try to picture the sequence of the presentation to get an idea of the
flow of the material, and how you can help the audience understand
the most important points. Know your subject!
 Before you get to the presentation do not cram at the last moment.
Try to do something enjoyable and unrelated to the upcoming event.
84
5 REFERENCES
1. Carol Poster and Linda C. Mitchell, eds., Letter-Writing Manuals

and Instruction from Antiquity to the Present (Columbia, SC: U of
South Carolina Press, 2007).
2. Glenday, Craig (2013). Guinness Book of World Records 2014. p.
127.
3. Harries, H. (2010) Training for staff, 27 May. University of
Glamorgan.
4. Saunders, D. (2004) Making presentations: a guide for students.
Centre for Lifelong Learning: University of Glamorgan.
85

Technical Reports Preperation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Technical Reports Preperation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Technical Reports

1.1 Course objectives

1.3 Technical writing Definitions

(3) Technical writing is straightforward, easy to understand explanations

(5) Technical writing is direct, informative, clear, and concise language

1.9 Difference between Technical Writing and General Writing

2.1 Common Elements of Technical Reports

2.2 Cover page

2.3 Title page

 A cover page is an introductory page that often goes in front of a

2.9 List of Tables and List of Figures (List of illustrations)

 Abbreviations and acronyms are shortened forms of words or

2.12 Introductory chapters(s)

 It surveys the literature in your chosen area of study

 Drawings of purpose-built apparatus, including:

 Complete raw data:

 When you quote an author's words directly

2.20.2 When is a reference not needed?

2.20.3 How do you define general knowledge?

 If the same information appears in several sources (at least 5)

2.20.4 Why should you give references?

Winsor, D.A. 1988. Communication

Norback, JS, Llewellyn, DC & Hardin,

... investigated the Smith, G.J. 2005. Personal interview.

(Smith & Carpenter

plane angle Radian Rad

stress, pressure Pascal Pa

energy, work Joule J

electrical charge or flux Coulomb C

magnetic flux Weber Wb

electrical potential Volt V

electrical resistance Ohm Ω

magnetic induction Tesla T

luminous flux Lumen Lm

Degree ° (π/180) rad

metric ton t 1000 kg

 Table 1 gives the particulars of a widely accepted formatting

 Equations must be numbered sequentially, either (1, 2 …), or per

 Occasionally long equations are more easily dealt with by dividing

 In equation (8), the subscript i is also a variable and therefore is

CV (Curriculum Vitae) and Letters

3.1 CV (Curriculum Vitae)

When it comes to job hunting, your CV is paramount. Get it right, and

Forename Surname | Professional Title

Location: Town, County

Phone: 01234 567890

3.1.4 Personal profile

1. Who are you?

3.1.7 Education and qualifications

Like your experience section, your education should be listed in reverse

Institution name – Dates attended (from – to)

Qualification, grade – Institution – Year

There is a range of additional sections that may strengthen your CV and

References: Like including an address on your CV, adding your referees to

3.1.9 Formatting and spacing guidelines

There are some formatting and spacing tips to bear in mind:

Length: The standard length of a CV in the UK is two pages. However, one

Headings: Each section must be introduced by a big, bold heading to ensure

Proofreading and consistency: Your formatting must be consistent

Mmm yyyy – mmm yyyy Company Name, Location (Optional)

Mmm yyyy – mmm yyyy Company Name, Location (Optional)

Mmm yyyy – mmm yyyy Company Name, Location (Optional)

Mmm yyyy – mmm yyyy Company Name, Location (Optional)