Second Law of Thermodynamics 173 174 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Finally, the first law of thermodynamics is a statement of energy
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Chapter - 5
5.1 Limitation of First Law
The first of thermodynamics, also known as the few of energy
conservation, states that energy one be created or destroyed, but can only
be transformed from one form to another. While this is fundamental to
our understanding of thermodynamics, there are certain imitations to its
applicability. Here are some of the key limitations.
(a) The first law of thermodynamics only considers the total energy of a
system and does not take into account the way in which energy is
distributed within the system
(b) The first law of thermodynamics assumes that all energy
transformations are reversible, which is not always the case in real-
world situations.
(c) The first law of thermodynamics does not provide any information
about the efficiency of energy transformations. It only tells us how
much energy is involved in the transformation not how much of that
energy is actually useful or available to do work.
(d) The first law of thermodynamics does not account for the effects of
friction, which can cause energy to be lost as heat and reduce the
overall efficiency of a system.
(e) The first law of thermodynamics does not take into account the
effects of chemical reactions or phase changes, which can involve
significant changes in the internal energy of a system.
(f) The first law of thermodynamics assumes that the energy involved
in a transformation is conserved, but it does not provide any
information about the entropy or disorder of the system, which can
also play a key role in determining the overall behavior of the
system.
conservation but it does not address issues related to the availability,
accessibility, or quality of the energy involved in a transformation. These
issues are addressed by the second law of thermodynamics.
5.2 Necessity of Formulation of Second Law of
Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics was formulated to address the
limitations of the first law, which only considers the total amount of
energy in a system and does not account for the direction or efficiency of
energy transformations.
The second law of thermodynamics serves a broader purpose beyond
simply indicating process direction, It also highlights that energy has both
quantity and quality, unlike the first law which only deals with the
amount of energy and its transformations between forms without
considering its quality Engineers have a significant interest in maintaining
energy quality and the second law offers a way to evaluate both the
quality and the extent of energy degradation that occurs during a process.
The key features of the second law of thermodynamics are:
(a) The second law of thermodynamics explains why any real device
cannot operate without heat loss.
(b) Second law of thermodynamics defines the direction of the process
with reference to the system property called entropy.
(c) We can also compare the nature of two modes of energy transfer i.e.
work transfer and heat transfer with the help of second law of
thermodynamic.
5.3 Classical Statements of Second Law of
Thermodynamics
(a) Kelvin-Planck statement: It is impossible to construct a heat
engine to work in a cyclic process whose sole effect is to convert all
the heat supplied to it into an equivalent amount of work.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 175 176 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Thermal energy The work output W of engine HE is used to operate the heat pump HP
reservoir
which takes in heat QL from the low temperature reservoir. By the first
TH law, the magnitude of heat rejected by heat pump to the high temperature
reservoir is,
QL + W = QL + QH
QH
Out of the heat (QL + QH) rejected to the high temperature reservoir, a
part QH can be diverted to furnish the heat input to the engine HE. Thus
there would remain a net flow of heat of magnitude QL from a low to a
HE W
high temperature reservoir. The engine and heat pump combined would
thus operate continuously, the engine providing just sufficient work to
Fig: Impossible device defined by
Kelvin-Planck drive the refrigerator. This device would therefore violate the Clausius
(b) Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a device to work statement also.
in a cyclic process whose sole effect is to transfer heat from a body TH TH TH
at a lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature without
external work. QH QH + QL QL
Warm environment
TH HE W = QH + QH HP = HP

qH QL QL

TL TL
HP
Violation of Kelvin Conforms Violation of
Planck statement clausius statement clausius statement

qL
Hence, we conclude that violation of Kelvin-Planck statement leads to the
violation of Clausius statement.
TL Again, consider device that violates the Clausius statement. Heat flows
continuously from the low temperature reservoir to the high temperature
Cold space
reservoir at the rate QL. Now we operate an engine HE between the two
Fig: Impossible device defined
by Clausius reservoirs. HE takes in heat at the rate QH from the high temperature
reservoir, does work W, and rejects heat of magnitude (QH = W) to the
Equivalence of Clausius and Kelvin statements
low temperature reservoir. We can so arrange the operation of the engine
We shall demonstrate the equivalence of the Clausius and Kelvin that heat is rejected by it at the same rate QL at which it flows from the
statements of the second law. low to the high temperature reservoir.
A cyclic heat engine E that is supposed to violate the Kelvin statement. It Thus, QH – WE = QL or QH = QL + W. This device will also operate
removes heat QH from a high temperature reservoir and converts it continuously and its sole effect is to remove heat at the rate (QH – QL)
completely to work W. Thus the work of the engine is W = QH. from a single reservoir and convert it completely into work. This is
violation of the Kelvin statement also.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 177 178 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

TH TH TH TH

QH QL QH – QL
QH

HE QH – QL
HE W = QH – QL + HP =
HE W

QL QL
QL
TL TL
TL
Conforms to Kelvin Violation of Violation of Kelvin
Planck statement clausius statement Planck statement
Fig: Schematic diagram
Hence, we conclude that violation of Clausius statement leads to the of heat engine
violation of Kelvin-Planck statement. Efficiency: Performance of a heat engine is measured by its efficiency
which is defined as the ratio of work output and heat supplied.
5.4 Perpetual Motion Machine of the Second Kind
Output
(PMM – II) i.e. efficiency (η) = Input
A cyclic device which abstracts heat continuously from a single reservoir
W
and converts it completely into work is called a perpetual motion machine ηH.E = Q ... ... ... (i)
H
of the second kind. The second law declares that such a machine is
impossible. Note that a perpetual motion machine of the secondary kind From first law of thermodynamics
would not violate the first law since such a machine would not create or ΣQ = ΣW
destroy energy. or, QH – QL = W
5.5 Heat engine, heat pump and refrigerator QH – QL
So, η = QH
5.5.1 Heat engine QL
∴ η=1–Q
Device which operates on a cyclic process and converts heat energy into H
mechanical work is called a heat engine. for reversible heat engine
A heat engine takes QH amount of heat from a high temperature reservoir QH QL
at TH (Source), converts same part of it into work W and rejects the TH = QL
remaining part QL to a low temperature reservoir at TL (sink).
QL TL
QH = TH .... .... ... (ii)

TL
ηreversible H.E = 1 – T
H

This is the maximum efficiency for a heat engine or Carnot engine.

 Second Law of Thermodynamics 179 180 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

5.5.2 Heat pump For reversible heat pump

Heat pump is a device, operating on a cycle, which maintains the TH
(COP)rev. HP = T – T
temperature of a desired space higher than that of the surroundings. H L

A heat pump takes heat from a low temperature reservoir at TL 1

Also, (COP)rev. HP = TL
(surroundings) and delivers it to a high temperature reservoir at TH 1–T
(desired space) with the help of external work. H

This is the maximum COP for any heat pump

TH
5.5.3 Refrigerator
QH Refrigerator is a device, operating on a cycle which maintains the
temperature of desired space lower than that of the surroundings.

HE
A refrigerator takes heat from a low temperature reservoir at TL (desired
W
space) and delivers it to a high temperature reservoir at TH (surroundings)
with the help of external work.
QL
TH
TL
QH
Fig: Schematic diagram
of heat pump
Coefficient of performance (COP): Performance of a heat pump is
R W
measured by its coefficient of performance, which is the ratio of desired
effect (heat supplied to the desired space) and the work supplied.
desired effect QL
(COP)H.P = Work supplied

QH TL
(COP)H.P = W ... ... ... (i)
Fig: Schematic diagram
From first law of thermodynamics of refrigerator
ΣQ = ΣW Coefficient of performance (COP): Performance of a refrigerator is
or, QL – QH = – W measured by its coefficient of performance, which is the ratio of desired
∴ W = QH – QL ... ... ... (ii) effect (heat taken out from the desired space) and the work supplied.

From equation (i) and (ii) Desired effect

i.e. (COP)ref = Work spplied
QH
(COP)H.P = Q – Q QL
H L (COP)ref = W .... ... ... (i)
1
∴ (COP)H.P = QL From first law of thermodynamics
1–Q
H ΣQ = ΣW
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 181 182 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

or, QL – QH = – W Calorific value of fuel (C. V) = 42500 kJ/kg

∴ W = QH – QL ... ... ... (ii) Now,
From equation (i) and (ii) . .
Rate of heat addition (QH ) = mf × C. V
QL
(COP)ref = Q – Q
H L
= 4.16 × 10–5 × 42500
For reversible refrigerator = 1.768 kW
TL = 1.768 × 103 W
(COP)rev. ref = T – T Here, maximum possible for this petrol engine operating on
H L

This is the maximum COP for any refrigerator. these temperature limits is
TL 773
Example 5.1 ηmax = 1 – T = 1 – 2273
H

An inventor makes the following claims. Determine whether the = 0.65992

claims are valid or not and explain why or why not. ∴ ηmax = 65.992 %
(a) A petrol engine operating between temperatures 2000 °C But, According to inventor claims, efficiency is given by,
and 500 °C will produce 1.2 kW of power output
.
consuming 0.15 kg/h of petrol having a calorific value of W 1.2 × 103
42500 kJ/kg. ηHE = = 1.768 × 103 = 0.6787
.
QH
(b) A heat pump supplies heat to a room maintained at 22°C at
a rate of 50000 kJ/h. The inventor claims a work input of = 67.87%
8000 kJ/h is sufficient when the surroundings is at – 2 °C. Therefore, the claim is not valid because the efficiency of heat
(c) A refrigerator maintains – 5 °C in the refrigerator which is engine is greater than maximum efficiency (i.e. ηHE > ηmax).
kept in a room where is 30 °C and has a COP of 8. (b) Given,
TH=22°C
Solution: Given; Higher temperature (TH) = 22 °C
Higher temperature (TH) = 2000 °C = 295 K
TH=200°C QH
= 2273 K Lower temperature (TL) = – 2 °C
Lower temperature (TL) = 500 °C = 271 K
QH
HP W
= 773 K .
Rate of heat addition (QH ) = 5000 kJ/h 8000 kJ/h
.
Power output (W ) = 1.2 kW HE W .
1200 W Work input (W ) = 8000 kJ/h QL
3
= 1.2 × 10 W
Now,
. QL TL=2°C
Rate of fuel consumed (m f) = 0.15 kg/hr Maximum possible coefficient of
0.15 performance for heat pump on these
= 3600 TL=500°C temperature limits is,
= 4.16 × 10–5 kg/s
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 183 184 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

TH 295 .
(COP)max = T – T = 295 – 271
H L
Work output (W ) = 60 kW = 60 × 103W
∴ (COP)max = 12.2916 .
Rate of heat rejection (QL ) = 72 MJ/hr
But, (COP) according to inventor claim is, = 20000 W
. Let higher temperature be (TH)
QH 50000
(COP)HP = W = 8000 = 6.25 From first law of thermodynamics
Therefore, the claim is vlid because the coefficient of . . .
W = QH – QL
performance of heat pump is less than the maximum
coefficient of performance (i.e. COPHP < COPmax). . . . TH
or, W + QL = QH
(c) Given,
.
Higher temperature (TH) = 30 °C ∴ QH = 60000 + 20000 = 80000 W QH
= 303 K TH=30°C Now,
Lower temperature (TL) = – 5 °C For an ideal heat engine
HE W = 60 kW
= 268 K QH ηH.E = ηmaximum
(COP)R = 8 .
W TL QL= 72 MJ/hr
Now, R or, =1–T
W . H
Maximum possible coefficient of QH
TL= 300 K
performance for refrigerator between 60000 300
QL or, 80000 = 1 – TH
these temperature limits is
TL 6 300
(COP)max = T – T or,
H L
TL= –5°C
8 = 1 – TH
268 300 6
= 303 – 268 = 7.657 or, = 1 –
TH 8
Therefore the claim is not valid because the coefficient of 300 1
or, TH = 4
performance of refrigerator is greater than the maximum
coefficient of performance (i.e. COPR > COPmax). or, TH = 1200 k
Example 5.2 ∴ The minimum theoretical value of TH in K is 1200 K.

A heat engine operates between a high temperature source TH and a Example 5.3
low temperature sink at 300 K. The engine develops 60 kW of power
An ideal engine has an efficiency of 25%. If the source temperature is
and rejects heat to the sink at the rate of 72 MJ/hr. Determine the
increased by 200 °C its efficiency gets doubled determine its source
minimum theoretical value of TH in K.
and sink temperature.
Solution: Given;
Solution: Given;
Lower temperature (TL) = 300 k
Let the temperature of source be TH and temperature of sink be TL.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 185 186 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

First case: A refrigerator operates in a room at 22 °C. Heat must be taken from
TL the desired space at a rate of 2.5 kW to maintain its temperature at –
η1 = 1 – T 20 °C. What is the minimum power required to drive the
H
refrigerator?
25 TL
or, 100 = 1 – TH ... ... ... (i) Solution: Given;
Second case Higher temperature (TH) = 22 °C = 295 K
According to question, Lower temperature (TL) = – 20 °C = 253 K
source temperature T 'H = TH + 200 [Δ°C = Δk] .
Rate of heat taken out from desired space (QL ) = 2.5 kW
TL
η2 = 1 – T ' Now,
H
COP reversible of refrigerator is given by,
50 TL
or, 100 = 1 – (TH + 200) ... ... ... (ii) TL 253
(COP)R = T – T = 295 – 253 = 6.024 TH=22°C
H L
From (i)
Also,
TL QH
0.25 = 1 – T COP of refrigerator is given as
H

TL .
or, QH
TH = 0.75 (COP)R = W R W
or, TL = 0.75 TH ... ... ... (iii) 2.5
From (ii) or, 6.024 = W
QL
0.75 TH . 2.5
0.5 = 1 – T + 200 or, W = 6.024
H TL= –20°C
0.75 TH .
or, TH + 200 = 1 – 0.5 ∴ W = 0.415 kW
or, 0.75 TH = 0.5 TH + 100 Hence the minimum power required to drive the refrigerator is
or, 0.25 TH = 100 0.415 kW.
∴ TH = 400 k Example 5.5
From (iii) A heat pump having a coefficient of performance 50% of the
TL = 0.75 TH theoretical maximum maintains a house at temperature of 20 °C, the
= 0.75 × 400 heat leakage from the house occurs at a rate of 0.8 kW per degree
= 300 K temperature difference. For a maximum power input of 1.5 kW,
determine the minimum surrounding temperature for which the heat
Hence, the temperature of source is 400 k and the temperature of
pump will be efficient?
sink is 300 k.
Solution: Given;
Example 5.4 Higher temperature (TH) = 20 °C = 293 K
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 187 188 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

.
( ,QH) TH= 400°C TH= 100°C
Rate of heat addition = 0.8 kW
ΔT
. QH= 12000 kJ/s QH= 25000 kJ/s
QH
or, TH – TL = 0.8
. HE W1 HE W2
or, QH = 0.8 (TH – TL)
.
Power input (W ) = 1.5 kW
By question,
(COP)HP = 50% of (COP)rev HP TL=20°C TL=20°C

. For 1st engine For 2nd engine

QH TH
or, = 0.5 T – T
. H L TL TL
W ηHE1 = 1 – T ηHE2 = 1 – T
H H
0.8 (TH – TL) 0.5 × 293 1 – 20 + 273 20 + 273
or, 1.5 = 293 – T = 400 + 273 = 1 – 100 + 273
L

0.8 (293 – TL) 146.5 = 0.564635 = 0.214477

or, 1.5 = 293 – T
L
For reversible heat engine,
or, (293 – TL)2 = 274.6875
. .
or, 293 – TL = 16.5736 W1 W2
0.564635 = 0.214477 =
or, 293 – 16.5736 = TL . .
QH QH
or, TL = 276.4263 K
.
∴ TL = 3.4263 °C or, W1 = 0.564635 × 12000
Hence, the minimum surrounding temperature for which the heat .
or, W2 = 0.214477 × 25000
pump will be efficient is 3.4263 °C.
.
Example 5.6 ∴ W1 = 6775.631 kW
.
A reversible engine operates under two surrounding. In the first, it draw ∴ W2 = 5361.93 kW
12000 kJ/s from a thermal source at 400 °C and in second it draws 25000
. .
kJ/s from a thermal source at 100 °C. In both the operations, the engine Since, W1 > W2 , The first engine delivers more power.
rejects heat to a thermal sink at 20 °C. Determine the operations, in
Example 5.7
which the engine delivers more power. [2018]
Solution: Given; Find the efficiency, power output and heat rejection rate for a heat
engine operating on a Carnot cycle which receives heat at a rate of 6
kW at 327 °C and rejects heat to 27 °C.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 189 190 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Solution: Given; input find the minimum outside temperature for which heat pump is
Higher temperature (TH) = 327 °C = 600 K sufficient heat source. [2015]
Lower temperature (TL) = 27 °C = 300 K Solution: Given;
. (COP)HP = 0.45 (COP)reversible HP
Rate of heat addition (QH ) = 6 kW Higher temperature (TH) = 20 °C = 20 + 273 = 293 k
Now, .
Efficiency of heat engine is given by, QH
TH – TL = 0.8 kW
TH=20°C
TL
η=1–T . kW
H QH = 0.8
or, QH = 0.8 (TH – TL) ΔT
300
or, η = 1 – 600 .
Power input (W ) = 1 kW
HP W1 = kW
or, η = 0.5 Lower temperature (TL) = ?
Also, According to question
. (COP)HP = 0.45 (COP)reversible HP QL
W
η= .
. QH TH
= 0.45 T – T 
QH TL= ?
.  H L
. W
W
or, 0.5 = 6 0.8 (TH – TL) 293
or, = 0.45 293 – T 
1  L
.
∴ W = 3 kW 131.85
or, 0.8 (293 – TL) = 293 – T
L
From first law of thermodynamics,
. . . 131.85
or, (293 – TL)2 = 0.8
W = QH – QL
. or, (293 – TL)2 = 164.8125
or, 3 = 6 – QL
or, TL = 280.17 K
.
or, QL = 6 – 3 i.e. TL = 7.17 °C
. Therefore the minimum outside temperature for which heat pump is
∴ QL = 3 kW sufficient heat source is 7.17 °C.
Hence, the efficiency of heat engine is 0.5, power output is 3 kW
and rate of heat rejection is 3 kW. 5.6 Clausius Inequality
For both power producing and power consuming cycles,
Example 5.8
δQ
A heat pump has COP that is 45% of the theoretically maximum. It ∮ T = ≤ 0, which is called Clausius inequality
maintains a house at 20°C, Which leaks energy of 0.8 kW per degree
temperature difference to the ambient. For a maximum 1 kW power
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 191 192 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Here, δQ is heat transferred between system δQ

∮ T =0
and surrounding and T = thermodynamic
temperature at the boundary. We know, cyclic integral of any property is zero. Conversely a quantity
For reversible cycle δQ
whose cyclic integral zero is a property. Therefore, the quantity  T 
δQ  Rev
∮ T = 0 must represent a property in the differential form. So, Clausius discovered
a new thermodynamics property and name this as entropy and denoted by
For irreversible cycle
S.
δQ
∮ T < 0 δQ
∴ ΔS =  T 
 Rev
Note:
Note: Change in entropy for reversible and isothermal heat framfer
δQ process is,
∮ T > 0 (Impossible)
Q
Let us consider reversible heat engine. ΔS = T
TH 0
We know, for reversible process where, T0 = constant temperature of the system
δQ QH Q = heat tramfer for reversible process.
∮ T = 0

QH – QL 5.7.1 The increase of entropy principle

or, T H +  TL  = 0 HE W Consider a cycle that is made up of two processes: process 1-2, which is
QH QL arbitrary (reversible or irreversible), and process 2-1, is reversible, as
∴ TH = TL shown in figure.
QL
From the Clausius inequality
TL δQ 2
5.7 Entropy ∮ T ≤0 Process 1-2
(irreversible
Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system. It is a 2 2
∫1 δQ δQ or reversible)
thermodynamic property that describes the degree of energy dispersal in a or, T + ∫1  T Rev ≤ 0
system and the extent to which that energy is unavailable to do work: In Process 2-1
The second integral in the previous 1
other words, entropy is a measure of the number of ways in which a (reversible)
relation is recognized as the entropy
Aystem's energy can be distributed among its constituent particles or Fig: Cycle composed of a reversible
change S1 – S2. Therefore, and irreversible process
components.
2
"Entropy is a function of a quantity of heat which shows the possibility of ∫1 δQ
T + S1 – S2 ≤ 0
conversion of that heat into work. The increase in entropy is small when
heat is added at a high temperature and is greater when heat addition is which can be rearranged as
made at a lower temperature. Thus for maximum entropy, there is 2
δQ
minimum availability for conversion into work and for minimum entropy S2 – S1 ≥ ∫ T ... ... ... (i)
1
there is maximum availability for conversion into work". It can also be expressed in differential form as
From Clausius inequality, for reversible cycle.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 193 194 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

δQ According to second law of thermodynamics, during any real process net

dS ≥ T ... ... ... (ii)
entropy change is always greater than or equal to zero i.e. ΔS ≥ 0
where the equality holds for an reversible process and inequality for an For any process, S2 ≥ S1
irreversible process. During the process, if S2 = S1, the process is called reversible but if S2 >
So, we conclude from these equation that the entropy change of a closed S1, the process is called irreversible process.
δQ A process is said to be a reversible process if the initial conditions of both
system during an irreversible process is greater than the integral of T
the system and surroundings can be restored by the reverse action such
evaluated for that process. that net change in entropy is zero for both forward and reverse process.
 The quantity ΔS = S2 – S1 represents the entropy change of the system. A process is said to be an irreversible process, if the initial conditions of
2 both the system and surroundings cannot be restored by the reverse
 For reversible process, it becomes equal to ∫ 1 δQ 
T Rev , which action. In this case entropy of the system increases in forward process and
represent the entropy transfer with heat. there reverse direction is not possible.
Causes of irreversibility
5.7.2 Entropy generation
2
(a) Mechanical Irreversibility: Is associated with the friction between
δQ
For irreversible process, ΔS > ∫ T i.e. entropy change of closed system the system and its surroundings or the friction within the system.
1
(b) Thermal irreversibility: Is associated with the heat transfer
during irreversible process is always greater than entropy transfer. This
between the system and its surroundings or the heat transfer within
means that some entropy is generated or created during an irreversible
the system.
process and this generation is due entirely to the presence of
irreversibilities. The entropy generated during a process is called entropy The factors causing irreversibility can also be classified as:
generation and represented by Sgen. (a) Internal irreversibility: Is associated with friction within the
2
δQ system or heat transfer within the system.
So, ΔS = ∫ T + Sgen (b) External irreversibility: Is associated with friction between the
1
2 system and its surroundings and heat transfer between the system
δQ
 Sgen = (S2 – S1) – ∫  T  and its surroundings.
1 
The entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero. Its value 5.9 Entropy Relations
depends on the process, and thus not a property of the system.
We know, from first law of thermodynamics
For isolated system i.e. adiabatic closed system, the heat transfer is zero.
δQ = dU + dW ... ... ... (i)
So, eqn (i) reduces to (ΔS)isolated ≥ 0.
For reversible process and displacement work transfer
This equation, shows that entropy of an isolated system during a process
always increase or in the case of reverssible process, remains constant. In δQ
ds = T For reversible process
other words, entropy never decreases. This is known as increase of
entropy principle.  δQ = T ds
Also, dW = P dV → for displacement work transfer
5.8 Reversible and Irreversible Process
Equation (i) can be written as
T ds = dU + P dV
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 195 196 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

dU P dV (b) For incompressible substance (water)

 ds = T + T ... ... ... (ii)
dV = 0
This is the entropy relation of first type dT
 dS = mC T + 0 [From (ii)]
Also,
H = U + PV On integrating,
 T2
S2 – S1 = mC ln 
dH = dU + P dV + dP. V
... ... ... (vi)
 dH = T ds + V dP
T1
 T ds = dH – V dP 5.10 Isentropic Process
dH V Reversible adiabatic process is called isentropic process we know for
 ds = T – T dP ... ... ... (iii)
reversible process,
This is also entropy relation of second type Q
ΔS = T
(a) For ideal gases
We know, For adiabatic process; Q = 0
PV = mRT ΔS = 0
dU = mCV dT or, S2 – S1 = 0
dH = mCP dT ∴ S2 = S1
Using these equations in (ii) we get So, constant entropy process is called isentropic process
m CV dT mR Isentropic relations
dS = T + V dV
(a) For ideal gas
On integrating we get, CP
S2 T2 v2 We know, for ideal gas R = CP – Cv and γ = C
dT dV V
∫S1 dS = m C V∫
T1 T
+ mR ∫v1 V
Now change in entropy is
T2 V2
 S2 – S1 = m CV ln   + mR ln   ... ... ... (iv) T2 V2
S2 – S1 = m CV ln T  + mR ln V 
T1 V1  1  1
Also, T2 V2
or, 0 = m CV ln T  + mR ln V 
From equation (iii)  1  1
m CP dT mR [For isentropic process S2 – S1 = 0]
dS = T – P dP
T2 V2
or, – m CV ln T  = mR ln V 
On integrating, we get  1  1
S2 T2 P2
dT dP T2 –R V2
∫S1 dS = m CP ∫T1 ln T  = C ln V 
T + mR ∫P1 P
or,
 1 V  1
T2 P2 T2 V2 –R/cv
 S2 – S1 = m CP ln  or, ln T  = ln V 
T1 – mR ln P1 ... ... ... (v)  1  1
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 197 198 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

T2 V1 R/cv δq
or, ln T  = ln V  ds = T
 1  2
Cp – CV du + dw
T2 V1 CV or, ds =
or, T
T1 = V2
Cp du + Pdv
T2 V1 C – 1 or, ds = T
or, T1 = V2
V

For incompressible substance, dv = 0

T2 V1 γ–1 du
∴ = ... ... ... (i)
T1 V2 ds = T ... ... ... (i)
Also, we know For isentropic process, ds = 0
T2 P2
S2 – S1 = m CP ln T  – mR ln P  du
 1  1 0= T
For isentropic process, ∴ du = 0 ... ... ... (ii)
S2 – S1 = 0 We know, specific enthalpy is given by,
T2 P2
or, 0 = m CP ln T  – mR ln P  h = u + pv
 1  1
Differentiating we get
T2 P2
or, m CP ln T  = mR ln P  dh = du + P dv + v dP
 1  1
T2 R P2 or, dh = v dP [∵ du = dv = 0]
or, ln T  = C ln P 
 1 P  1 ∴ h2 – h1 = v (P2 – P1)
T2 P2 R/cP
or, ln T  = ln P  Example 5.9
 1  1
Cp – CV 4 kg of water at 25°C is mixed with 1 kg of ice at 0°C in an isolated
T2 P2 CP system. Calculate the change in entropy due to mixing process.
or, T1 = P1 [Take latent heat of ice L = 336 kJ/kg K and specific heat of water
CV C = 4.18 kJ/kg K] [2019]
T2 P2 1 – C
or, T1 = P1
P
Solution: Given;
1 Mass of water (mw) = 4 kg
T2 P2 1 – γ Initial temperature of water (Tw,1) = 25 °C = 298 k
or, T1 = P1
Mass of ice (mi) = 1 kg
γ–1
T2 P2 γ Initial temperature of ice (Ti, 1) = 0°C = 273 k
∴ =
T1 P1
Latent heat of ice (L) = 336 kJ/kg K
(b) For incompressible substance Specific heat of water (C) = 4.18 kJ/kg K
The change in specific entropy of an incompressible substance is Now,
Let T be the final temperature of the system after mixing
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 199 200 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Here, surroundings. They are allowed to reach a final state of thermal

equilibrium. Determine the entropy change of each block. Block A is
aluminium (CP = 0.9 kJ/kg K) with mA = 0.45 kg, and block B is
Heat loss by water = Heat gained by ice
copper (CP = 0.385 kJ/kg K) with mB = 0.9 kg. [2022]
or, mw C (Tw,1 – T) Latent heat Sensible heat
(QL=mL) (Q=mCΔT) Solution: Given;
= mi L + mi C (T – Ti, 1)
Temperature of block A (TA) = 950°C = 1223 K
or, 4 × 4.18 (298 – T) 0°C 0°C T
Temperature of block B (TB) = 5400°C = 5673 K
= 1 × 336 + 1 × 4.18 × 0°C ice water water
Mass of block A (mA) = 0.45 kg
or, 4982.56 – 16.72T
Mass of block B (mB) = 0.9 kg
= 336 + 4.18T – 1141.14
(CP)A = 0.9 kJ/kg K
or, 5787.7 = 20.9 T
(CP)B = 0.385 kJ/kg K
∴ T = 276.9234 K
Let T be the final temperature of the blocks.
Now,
Here, heat loss by block B = heat gain by block A
Change in entropy of water
mB (CP)B (TB = T) = mA (CP)A (T – TA)
T
(Δs)w = mw C ln T  or, 0.9 × 0.385 (5400 – T) = 0.45 × 0.9 (T – 950)
 w1
or, 0.3465 (5400 – T) = 0.405 (T – 950)
276.9234
(Δs)w = 4 × 4.18 × ln  298  or, 1871.1 – 0.3465 T = 0.405 T – 384.75
 
= – 1.22645 kJ/k or, 2255.85 = 0.405 T + 0.3465 T
Also, ∴ T = 3001.79°C = 3274.79 K
Change in entropy of ice So, the temperature of blocks at equilibriu8m state will be 3001.79°C
Q T Now, change in entropy of block A
(Δs)ice = + mi C ln T 
Ti,1  i1 T
(ΔS)A = mA (CP)A ln T 
1 × 336 276.9234  A
= 273 + 1 × 4.18 × ln  273  3274.79
or, (ΔS)A = 045 × 0.9 × 103 × ln  1223 
= 1.29041 kJ/k  
Total change in entropy due to mixing ∴ (ΔS)A = 398.903 J/K
(Δs) = (Δs)ice + (Δs)w Change in entropy of block B
= 1.29041 – 1.22645 T
(ΔS)B = (CP)mB ln T 
= 0.06396 kJ/k  B
Example 5.10 3274.79
or, (ΔS)B = 0.9 × 0.385 × 103 × ln  5673 
 
Two blocks A and B, which are initially at 95°C and 540°C,
respectively are brought together into contact and isolated from the ∴ (ΔS)B = – 190.389 J/K
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 201 202 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

So, the total entropy change of the isolated system T

(Δs)w = Mw Cw ln Tw
 
(ΔS) = (ΔS)A + (ΔS)B
296.793911
= 398.903 + (–190.389) = 100 × 4.18 ln 
 293 
= 208.513 J/K
= 5.377731 kJ/k
So, the entropy change of the isolated system is 208.513 J/K.
Total change in entropy
Example 5.11 (Δs) = (Δs)metal + (Δs)w
A 10 kg metal piece with constant specific heat of 0.9 kJ/kg K at 200 °C = – 4.19451 + 5.377731
is dropped into an insulated tank, which contains 100 kg of water at = 1.18322 kJ/k
20 °C. Determine the final temperature and total change of entropy
during the process. Example 5.12

Solution: Given; Two kg of water at 90 °C is mixed with three kg of water at 10°C in

Mass of metal (mmetal) = 10 kg an isolated system. Calculate the change in entropy due to the mixing
process. [Take c for water = 4.18 kJ/kg]
Specific heat of metal (Cmetal) = 0.9 kJ/kg K
Solution: Given;
Initial temperature of metal (T1)metal = 200 °C = 473 k
mw1 = 2 kg
Mass of water (mw) = 100 kg
Initial temperature of water (T1)water = 20 °C = 293 k Tw,1 = 90 °C = 363 k
Final temperature (T) = ? mw2 = 3 kg
Specific heat of water (C) = 4.18 kJ/kg K Tw,2 = 10 °C = 283 k
Now, let T be final temperature after mixing. C = 4.18 kJ/kg
Heat lost by metal = Heat gained by water Now,
or, Mmetal Cmetal (Tmetal 1 – T) = Mw Cw (T – Tw,1) Heat lost by water1 = Heat gained by water2
or, 10 × 0.9 (473 – T) = 100 × 4.18 (T – 293) mw1 × Cw (Tw,1)–T = mw2 Cw (T – Tw,2)
or, 4257 – 9T = 418 T – 122474 or, 2 × 4.18 (363 – T) = 3 × 4.18 (T – 283)
or, 126731 = 427 T or, 726 – 2T = 3T – 849
∴ T = 296.793911 K or, 726 + 849 = 3T – 849
Now, or, 726 + 849 = 3T + 2T
Change in entropy of metal or, 5T = 1575
T
(Δs)metal = Mm Cm ln Tm ∴ T = 315 k
 
Now,
296.793911
= 10 × 0.9 ln  Change in entropy of water1
 473 
T
= – 4.19451 kJ/k (Δs)w1 = mw1 Cw1 × ln  T 
 w1 
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 203 204 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

315 P – V and T – S diagram for cannot cycle

= 2 × 4.18 × ln 363
  P T
= – 1.1857 kJ/k 1
P1
1 2
T
(Δs)w2 = mw2 Cw2 × ln  T 
T1=T2
2
 w2 P2

315
= 3 × 4.18 × ln 283 P4
  4 T4=T3 3
4
= 1.3433 kJ/k P3 3
Total change in entropy (Δs) = (Δs)w1 + (Δs)w2 V S
V1 V4 V2 V3 S1=S4 S2=S3
= – 1.1857 + 1.3433
= 0.1576 kJ/k Example 5.13

5.11 Carnot Cycle Steam enters into a well-insulated throttling value at 10 MPa and 600 °C
and exit at 5 MPa. Determine the change in entropy per unit mass of
 Ideal cycle designed by cannot which will have efficiency equal to
the system.
that of a reversible cycle (theoretical maximum) without considering
its mechanical details. Solution: Given;
 Not a practical cycle but used as reference for the comparison of At inlet and outlet us:
different practical cycles. At inlet At outlet
 Consists of following process in series P1 = 10 MPa = 10000 kPa P2 = 5 MPa = 5000 kPa
Process 1 – 2: Isothermal heat addition T1 = 600 °C
Process 2 – 3: Isentropic expansion At inlet
Process 3 – 4: Isothermal heat rejection From pressure table,
Process 4 – 1: Isentropic compression Tsat at 10,000 kPa = 311.03 °C
Here, T1 > Tsat
So, it is superheated vapour
From superheated steam table
v1 = 0.03836 m3/kg
h1 = 3624.7 kJ/kg
S1 = 6.9022 kJ/kg K
Now,
Since, the steady state energy equation for the adiabatic throttling
value is given by, h1 = h2
∴ h2 = 3624.7 kJ/kg
At outlet
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 205 206 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

P2 = 5000 kPa At inlet At outlet

h2 = 3624.7 kJ/kg P1 = 1.5 MPa = 1500 kPa P2 = 200 kPa
From pressure table –
T1 = 300 °C = 573 K V2 = 150 m/s
Tsat at 5000 kPa = 263.98 °C
At inlet
hl = 1154.2 kJ/kg
P1 = 1500 kPa
hlg = 1639.7 kJ/kg
T1 = 300 °C
hg = 2793.7 kJ/kg
From pressure table,
Since, h2 > hg. So, it is superheated vapour
Tsat at (1500 kPa) = 198.33 °C
From superheated steam table
Here, T1 > Tsat
h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg K) So it is superheated vapour
3550.2 ( 7.1218 From superheated steam table
3624.7 S2 h1 = 3036.9 kJ/kg
S1 = 6.9168 kJ/kg K
3666.2 7.2586
Now,
Using linear interpolation technique For reversible adiabatic process, entropy is constant
(3666.2 – 3550.2) ∴ S2 = 6.9168 kJ/kg K
or, 3624.7 – 3550.2 = 7.2586 – 7.1218 (S2 – 7.1218)
P2 = 200 kPa
or, 74.5 = 847.9532 (S2 – 7.1218)
From pressure table
or, 0.08785 + 7.1218 = S2
Sl = 1.5304 kJ/kg K
∴ S2 = 7.209658 kJ/kg K
Slg = 5.5968 kJ/kg K
Now,
Sg = 7.1272 kJ/kg K
Change in entropy (ΔS) = S2 – S1
Here, Sl < S2 < Sg. So, it is two phase mixture
= 7.209658 – 6.9022
So, S2 = Sl + x2 Slg
= 0.3074 kJ/kg K
or, 6.9168 = 1.5304 + x2 × 5.5968
Hence, the change in entropy per unit mass of steam is 0.3074 kJ/kg K.
5.3864
or, 5.5968 = x2
Example 5.14

Steam enters a turbine at 1.5 MPa and 300 °C and with a velocity of ∴ x2 = 0.9624
60 m/s, expands in a reversible adiabatic process and exits at 200 kPa Also,
with a velocity of 150 m/s. Determine the specific work output. From table,
Solution: Given; hl = 504.80 kJ/kg
hlg = 2201.7 kJ/kg
Now,
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 207 208 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

h2 = hl + x2 hlg For reversible adiabatic process, entropy is constant

= 504.80 + 0.9624 × 2201.7 ∴ S2 = 6.9168 kJ/kg K
∴ h2 = 2623.716 kJ/kg From pressure table
Then, Sl = 1.5304 kJ/kg K
Steady state energy equation for adiabatic turbine is given as, Slg = 5.5968 kJ/kg
. . 1 – Sg = 7.1272 kJ/kg
–W = m (h2 – h1) + 2 ( V22 – V12) and neglecting P.E
–
  Here Sl < S2 < Sg. So, it is two phase mixture
. So,
or, –
W
.
1
= (h2 – h1) + 2 (V– 2
2 –
)
– V12 S2 = Sl + x2 Slg
m or, 6.9168 = 1.5304 + x2 × 5.5968
. 1 or, 5.5968 x2 = 6.9168 – 1.5304
or, – W = 2623.716 × 103 – 3036.9 × 103 + 2 (1502 – 602)
5.3864
or, x2 = 5.5968
.
or, W = – 403.734 kJ/kg
∴ x2 = 0.9624
Hence, the specific work output is 403.734 kJ/kg.
Also, from table
Example 5.15 hl = 504.80 kJ/kg
Steam at 1.5 MPa and 300 °C is flowing with a velocity of 50 m/s hlg = 2201.7 kJ/kg
undergoes a reversible adiabatic process through a nozzle and leaves ∴ h2 = hl + x2 hlg
the nozzle at 200 kPa. Determine the exit velocity of steam from nozzle.
= 504.80 + 0.9624 × 2201.7
Solution: Given;
= 2623.71608 kJ/kg
At inlet At outlet
Now,
P1 = 1.5 MPa = 1500 kPa P2 = 200 kPa
Applying energy equation for an adiabatic nozzle,
–
T1 = 300 °C V2 = ? 1 – 1 –
h1 + 2 v12 = h2 + 2 v22
–
V1 = 50 m/s
1 1–
Now, or, 3036.9 + 2 × 502 = 2623.71608 + 2 v22
From pressure table,
∴ = 57.67 m/s
Tsat at (1500 kPa) = 198.33 °C
Hence, the exit velocity of steam from nozzle is 57.67 m/s.
Here T1 > Tsat. So, it is superheated vapour
From superheated steam table Example 5.16
h1 = 3036.9 kJ/kg A compressor receives air at 100 kPa and 27°C and requires a
S1 = 6.9168 kJ/kg K power input of 60 kW. If the mass flow rate of the air is 0.1 kg/s,
Now,
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 209 210 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

determine the maximum exit pressure of the compressor. [Take

γ = 1.4, Cp = 1005 J/kg K]
1. Explain the limitation of the first law of thermodynamics with
Solution: Given; examples.
Properties of air at inlet
2. What is key feature of the second law of thermodynamics? Explain
P1 = 100 kPa with appropriate examples.
T1 = 27 °C = 27 + 273 = 300 k
3. State Kelvin-Planck and clauses statement of second law of
. thermodynamics. [2018]
Power input (W ) = – 60 kW
. 4. Define heat engine, heat pump and refrigerator with its schematic
Mass flow rate of air (m ) = 0.1 kg/s diagrams. [2016]
Now,
5. Define reversible and irreversible processes with examples.
Applying energy equation for an adiabatic compressor we get
6. State Clausius inequality. Define entropy, entropy generation and
. . 1
W = m (h1 – h2) + 2 (
– –
v12 – v22 ) + g (Z1 – Z2) isentropic process. [2019]
7. Write down entropy relations and derive them for ideal gases,
We know, for ideal gas
incompressible substance and isentropic process. [2018]
h1 – h2 = Cp (T1 – T2)
8. Explain Carnot heat engine on P – V and T – S diagrams.
∴ h1 – h2 = 1005 (300 – T2)
Also, neglecting kinetic energy and potential energy
. .
W = m × 1005 (300 – T2) + 0 + 0
or, – 60 × 103 – 0.1 × 1005 (300 – T2)
∴ T2 = 897.015 k 1. During an experiment a student claims that based on his
Now, measurements, a heat engine receives 300 kJ from a source at 500 K
For an isentropic process pressure of air at compressor exit is given by converts 160 kJ of it into work and rejects heat to the sink at 300 K.
γ
Are these data reasonable? Why? [Ans: Invalid]
T2
P2 = T  γ – 1 P1 2. A heat engine receives 400 kJ from a source at a temperature of
 1
1000 K. It rejects 150 kJ of heat to sink at a temperature of 300 K is
1.4
897.015 this a reversible cycle an irreversible cycle or an impossible cycle?
=  300  1.4 – 1 × 100
  [Ans: irreversible]
= 4622.475 kPa
3. An inventor claims that a heat pump can maintain a room at 20°C
Hence, the maximum exit pressure of the compressor is 4622.4775 kPa when the surroundings is at 0°C. The heat loss from the room occurs
at a rate of 1000 kJ/min and the heat pump requires 1 kW of power
input. Evaluate his claim. [Invalid]
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 211 212 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

4. Find the efficiency, power output and heat rejection rate for a heat 13. Steam at 5 MPa and 400°C enters into a turbine at a rate of 2 kg/s and
engine operating on a Carnot cycle which receives heat at a rate of 6 exit at a pressure of 400 kPa. Assuming the process to the reversible
kW at 327°C and rejects heat to 27°C. [Ans: 51%, 3 kW, 3 kW] and adiabatic, determine the power output. [Ans: 1122.97 kW]
5. An ideal heat engine has the same efficiency for source and sink at 14. Steam enters a turbine at 1.5 MPa and 300°C and with a velocity of
800 K and 400 K respectively as for source and sink at TH and 800 K. 60 m/s, expands in a reversible adiabatic process and exits at 200
Determine TH, in K. [Ans: 1600 K} kPa with a velocity of 150 m/s. Determine the specific work output.
6. A refrigerator operates in a room at 22°C. Heat must be taken from [Ans: 403.718 kJk}
the desired space at a rate of 2.5 kW to maintain its temperature at
15. A compressor receives air at 100 kPa and 27°C and requires a power
–20°C. What is the minimum power required to drive the
input of 60 kW. If the mass flow rate of the air is 0.1 kg/s, determine
refrigerator? [0.415 kW]
the maximum exit pressure of the compressor.
7. 2 kg water at 100°C is mixed with 4 kg of water at 20°C in an [Take γ = 1.4, cP = 1005 J/kg K] [Ans: 4622.474 kPa]
isolated system. Calculate the net change in entropy due to the
mixing process. [Take specific heat of water c = 4.18 kJ/K] 16. Air at 200 kPa and 1000 K with very low velocity enters into a
nozzle and exits at a pressure of 100 kPa. Assuming the process to
[Ans: 0.1665 kJ/K] be isentropic, determine the exit velocity.
8. Block A (mA = 0.5 kg, cA = 1 kJ/kgK) and block B (mb = 1 kg, cB = [Take γ = 1.4, cp = 1005 J/kg K] [Ans: 600.937 m/s]
0.5 kJ/kg K) which are initially at 100°C and 500°C respectively are
17. Steam enters into a well insulated throttling value at 100 MPa and
brought in contact inside an isolated system. Determine the change
600°C and exits and 5 MPa. Determine the change in entropy per
in entropy when they reach to a final state of thermal equilibrium.
unit mass of the steam. [Ans: 0.3075 kJ/kg K]
[Ans: 0.06496 kg/K] 
9. A lupm of steel (cs = 0.5 kJ/kg K) of mass 10 kg at 727°C is
dropped in 100 kg of soil (c0 = 3.5 kJ/kg K) at 27°C. Determine the
net change in entropy. [Ans: 5.4592 kJ/K]
10. 1 kg of air enclosed in an isolated box with volume V1, pressure P1
and temperature T1 is allowed to expand freely until its volume
increases to V2 = 2V1. Determine the change in entropy. [Take
R = 287 J/kg K] [Ans: 198.93 J/K]
11. A rigid cylinder contains nitrogen initially at 100 kPa. 300 K, and
0.005 m3. It is heated reversibly until its temperature reaches 400 K.
Determine the entropy change of the nitrogen during the process.
[Take R = 297 J/kg K, cv = 743 J/kg K] [Ans: 1.1995 J/k]
12. 5 kg of air initially at 150 kPa and 27°C is heated reversibly at
constant pressure to 227°C. Determine the entropy change of the air
during the process. [Take cp = 1005 J/kg K] [Ans: 2.5669 kJ/K]
 Thermodynamic Cycles 213
Thermodynamic Cycles
Chapter - 6
6.1 Introduction
Thermodynamic cycles are essential in understanding and analyzing the
behavior of thermodynamic systems, particularly in engineering applications.
Two important areas of application for thermodynamics are power
generation and refrigeration. Both are usually accomplished by systems
that operate on a thermodynamic cycle. Thermodynamic cycles can be
divided into two general categories: power cycles, and refrigeration
cycles.
The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are often
called engines, and the thermodynamic cycles they operate on are called
power cycles. The devices or systems used to produce a refrigeration
effect are called refrigerators, air conditioners, or heat pumps, and the
cycles they operate on are called refrigeration cycles.
Thermodynamic cycles can also be categorized as gas cycles and vapor
cycles, depending on the phase of the working fluid. In gas cycles, the
working fluid remains in the gaseous phase throughout the entire cycle,
whereas in vapor cycles the working fluid exists in the vapor phase
during one part of the cycle and in the liquid phase during another part.
Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized yet another way: closed and
open cycles. In closed cycles, the working fluid is returned to the initial
state at the end of the cycle and is recirculated. In open cycles, the
working fluid is renewed at the end of each cycle instead of being
recirculated. In automobile engines, the combustion gases are exhausted
and replaced by fresh air-fuel mixture at the end of each cycle. The
engine operates on a mechanical cycle, but the working fluid does not go
through a complete thermodynamic cycle.
Heat engines are categorized as internal combustion and external
combustion engines, depending on how the heat is supplied to the
214 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
working fluid. In external combustion engines (such as steam power
plants), heat is supplied to the working fluid from an external source such
as a furnace a geothermal well, a nuclear reactor, or even the sun. In
internal combustion engines (such as automobile engines), this is done by
burning the fuel within the system boundaries. In this chapter, various gas
power cycles are analyzed under some simplifying assumptions.
6.2 Internal Combustion Cycle
(a) Operation of four stroke petrol engines: In case of petrol engines,
fuel is ignited by the electric spark produced by the spark plug.
Therefore petrol engine is also called spark ignition (SI) engine.
(b) Operation of four stroke diesel engines: In case of diesel engines,
diesel is exposed to high temperature air at the end of the
compression stroke, gets self burnt. Therefore, diesel engine is also
called compression ignition (CI) engine.
The main differences between actual Diesel engine and the actual Otto
engine are listed below:
S.N. Diesel Engine Otto Engine
(a) No carburetor. Air alone is Fuel-air mixture formed in
supplied to engine cylinder. Fuel carburetor is supplied cylinder.
is injected directly into the engine The mixture is homogeneous.
cylinder near the end of
compression stroke by means of a
fuel injector. Fuel-air mixture is
heterogeneous.
(b) No spark plug. Compression ratio Ignition produced by means of an
 Thermodynamic Cycles 215 216 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

is high and fuel is ignited by high electric spark plug. During the expansion process, pressure of the system decreases, volume
temperature of air. increases, temperature decreases and entropy remains constant.
(c) Power output is controlled by Power output is controlled by Process 4 – 1: Isochoric heat rejection
varying the mass of fuel-air varying the mass of fuel-air In this process heat is rejected by the system to the surroundings. Hence,
mixture by means of a throttle mixture by means of a throttle during isochoric heat rejection process, temperature, pressure and entropy
valve in the carburetor. value in the carburetor. of the system decrease.
P T
6.2.1 Air standard analysis 3
P3 T3 3
The idealized analysis of the cycle considering only air as the working qH
substance is called an air standard analysis. The efficiency resulting from P4
4
T2
2
such analysis is called an air standard efficiency. qH
P2 qL T4 4
2
Assumptions of air standard analysis
 The cycle consists of fixed mass of air. P1 1 T1 qL
1
 The expansion and compression processes are isentropic. V S
V2=V3 V4=V1 S1=S2 S3=S4
 The combustion process is replaced by an equivalent heat addition
Efficiency of an air standard Otto cycle
process from an external source.
Efficiency of an internal combustion cycle can be determined as
 The exhaust process is replaced by an equivalent heat rejection
process to an external sink. qL
η=1–q ... ... ... (i)
H
 The properties of air (cp, cv. R, etc.) remains constant.
Here,
Although the air standard analysis differs from the actual operation, it
gives basic idea about the variation of efficiency of the cycle with Heat rejected and heat added per unit mass during the cycle are given as
different parameters. qL = q41 = CV (T4 – T1) and qH = q23 = CV (T3 – T2)
Substituting qL and q4,
6.2.2 Air standard Otto cycle
CV (T4 – T1)
It is an idealized model for the operation of petrol engines. It is also η = 1 – C (T – T )
V 3 2
called constant volume cycle. It consists of two isentropic and two
isochoric processes. (T4 – T1)
∴ η = 1 – (T – T ) ... ... ... (ii)
3 2
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression
Applying temperature volume relationship for isotropic compression
In this process the air inside the cylinder is compressed under isentropic
process 1 – 2 and isentropic expansion 3 – 4 process.
condition. During the isentropic compression, pressure of the air
T2 V1 γ–1 T3 V4
increases, its volume decreases, temperature increases and entropy
T1 = V2 and T = V  x–1
remains constant. 4  3
Process 2 – 3: Isochoric heat addition T3 V1 γ–1
 T4 = V2
In this process heat is added constant volume, pressure, temperature and
entropy of the system increases. Equating we get

Process 3 – 4: isentropic expansion

 Thermodynamic Cycles 217 218 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

T2 T3 [Take R = 287 J/kg K, CV = 718 J/kg K and CP = 1005 J/kg K]

T1 = T4 Solution: Given;
T3 T2 P T
 T4 = T1 3
3
Now, using componendo and dividendo, qH
4 2
T3 T1 T4 – T1 qH
T4 = T2 = T3 – T2 qL 4
2
Efficiency is then given as,
P1 1 qL
T4 1
η=1– T [from (ii)] V S
3
V2=V3 V1=V4 S1=S2 S3=S4
T1
∴ η=1– T V1
2 Compression ratio (r) = V = 8
2
Efficiency in terms of compression ratio
Properties at inlet of compression stroke,
V2
η = 1 – V  x–1 P1 = 100 kPa and T1 = 20 °C = 293 k
 1
Heat added per kg (qH) = q23 = 2000 kJ/kg
1 V1
= 1 –  r  x–1 where r = V = Compression ratio R = 287 J/kg K
  2

Note: The compression ratio for petrol engine ranges from 8 to 12. γ = 1.4
Mean effective pressure: Mean effective pressure is defined as the (a) Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression
magnitude of the constant pressure that would produce same work as that T2 V1 γ–1
produced by the actual pressure varying cycle. T1 = V2
w or, T2 = T1 (r)γ–1
PMEP = v – v
1 2 or, T2 = 293 (8)1.4–1
where w = net work done per kg of the cycle. ∴ T2 = 673.1372 K
v = specific volume of the air. Also,
Example 6.1 P2 V1 γ
P1 = V2
The compression ratio of an air standard Otto cycle is 8. At the
beginning of compression process, the pressure and temperature of P2 = P1 (r)γ
air are 100 kPa and 20°C respectively. The heat added per kg of air P2 = 100 (8)1.4
during the cycle is 2000 kJ/kg. Determine. ∴ P2 = 1837.9173 kPa
(a) The pressure and temperature at the end of each process of Process 2 – 3 : Isochoric heat addition
the cycle. i.e. V2 = V3
(b) The thermal efficiency and Here, qH = q23 = CV (T3 – T2)
(c) The mean effective pressure. 103 × 2000 = 718 (T3 – 673.1372)
 Thermodynamic Cycles 219 220 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

or, 2785515 = T3 – 673.1372 or, 0.5647 × 2000 × 103 = w

or, T3 = 3458.652 k ∴ w = 1129.4 kJ/kg
From charle's law, At the beginning of compression process,
T3 P3 P1v1 = RT1
T2 = P2 or, 100 × 103 × v1 = 287 × 293
3458.625 P3 ∴ v1 = 0.84091 m3/kg
or, – 673.1372 = 1837.9173
Also, compression ratio,
∴ P3 = 9443.41 kPa
v1
Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion r=v
2
T4 V3γ–1 v1 0.84091
T3 = V4 or, v2 = r = 8 = 0.1051
V2
or, T4 = T3 V  γ–1 Now, we know mean effective pressure is given by,
 1
w
1 PMEP = v – v
or, T4 = T3  r  γ–1 1 2
 
w 1129.4
1 PMEP = v – v = 0.84091 – 0.1051
or, T4 = 3458.65 8 0.4 1 2
 
= 1534.92 kPa
or, T4 = 1505.464 K
Example 6.2
Also,
P4 V3 γ V2 γ An ideal standard Otto cycle has a compression ratio 8 and before
= V  = V 
P3  4  1 compression stoke has air at 100 kPa and 300 K. The peak pressure
1 γ 1 1.4 during cycle is 6000 kPa. Determine
=  r  = 8
    (a) The peak temperature in the cycle
P4 = 9443.41 × 0.544094 (b) The temperature at the end of expansion stoke and
P4 = 513.81 kPa (c) The cycle efficiency.
(b) Efficiency of Otto cycle is given by [Take R = 287 J/kg K and CV = 718 J/kg K]
1 1 Solution: Given;
η = 1 –  r  γ–1 = 1 – 8 1.4–1
   
= 0.56472
= 56.47%
(c) Mean effective pressure
We know efficiency is given by
w
η=q
H
 Thermodynamic Cycles 221 222 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

P T 6000 T3
3 or, 1837.917 = 689.219
3
qH ∴ T3 = 2250 K
4 2
qH The peak temperature is T3 = Tmax= 2250 K.
qL 4
2 (b) T4 and P4 are the pressure and temperature at the expansion
qL stroke.
P1 1
1 Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion
V S
V2=V3 V1=V4 S1=S2 S3=S4 T3 V4 γ–1 V1 γ–1
V1 T4 = V3 = V
 2
Compression ratio (r) = V = 8
1 or, T3 = T4 × (r)γ–1
P1 = 100 kPa T3
or, T4 =
T1 = 300 K (r)γ–1
P3 = 6000 kPa 2250
or, T4 = 80.4
(a) T3 = ?
(b) T4 = ? ∴ T4 = 979.36 K
P3 V3 γ V2 γ
(c) η=? Also, P = V  = V 
4  4  1
(a) From P-V and T-S diagram, T3 and P3 are maximum
1 γ 1 1.4
temperature and maximum pressure for the cycle. =  r  × p3 = 6000 × 8 = 326.45 kPa
   
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression
(c) Efficiency is given by
T2 V1 γ–1
T1 = V2 1 1
η = 1 –  r  γ–1 = 1 – 8 1.4 –1
   
or, T2 = T1 (r)γ–1
= 0.5647
= 300 (8)1.4–1
= 56.47%
= 689.219 k
Example 6.3
P2
Now, P = (r)γ
1 The compression ratio of an air standard Otto cycle is 9. At the
1.4
P2 = 100 × (8) beginning of compression stroke, the pressure is 0.1 MPa and
= 1837.917 kPa temperature is 27°C. The heat transfer to the air per cycle is 2000
kJ/kg of air. Determine thermal efficiency of the cycle. Also, find
Process 2 – 3: Isochoric heat addition
peak pressure and temperature of the cycle. [2019]
P3 = 6000 kPa
Solution: Given;
From charle's law
V1
P3 T3 Compression ratio (r) = V = 9
P2 = T2
2
 Thermodynamic Cycles 223 224 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

P T Process 2-3 is isochoric heat addition

3 3 Here, qH = q2–3 = Cv (T3 – T2)
qH
4 2  2000 × 103 = 718 (T3 – 722.467)
qH
2  T3 = 3507.98 K
4
qL And from Charles's law
1 1 qL P3 T3
V S P2 = T2
Properties at beginning of compression stroke 3507.98
 P3 = 722.467 × 2167.40
P1 = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
T1 = 27°C = 300 K  P3 = 10523.94 kPa
Heat added per kg of cycle So, maximum temperature and pressure during cycle are 3507.98 K
and 10523.94 kPa respectively.
qH = q2–3 = 2000 kJ/kg
The efficiency of Otto cycle is given by Example 6.4
1 γ–1
η = 1 – r An air standard Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 10. At the
  beginning of compression stroke the pressure and temperature are
1 1.4 – 1 100 kPa and 20°C respectively. The peak temperature during the
 η = 1 – 9
  cycle is 2000 K. Determine
 η = 0.5847 (a) The pressure and temperature at the end of expansion stroke.
 η = 58.47% (b) The thermal efficiency.
Process 1 – 23 is isentropic compression, (c) The mean effective pressure.
Using isentropic T-V relation [Take R = 287 J/kg K and Cv = 718 J/kg K] [2018]
T2 V1 γ–1 Solution: Given;
T1 = V2 P T
γ–1
 T2 = T1 (r) 3 3
 T2 = 300 × (9) 1.4 1 qH
qH 4 qL 2
 T2 = 722.467 K 2 4
Similarly, using isentropic P–V relations qL
P2 V1γ 1 1 qL
P1 = V2 V S
 P2 = P1 (r)γ (a) Compression ratio (r) = 10
1.4
 P2 = 100 × (9) P1 = 100 kPa
 P2 = 2167.40 kPa T1 = 20°C = 293 K
 Thermodynamic Cycles 225 226 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

T3 = 2000 K 2000 0.4

or, T4 = (r)
Now,
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression 2000
or, (10)0.4 = T4
T2 V1 γ–1
T1 = V2 ∴ T4 = 796.21 K
1 γ–1
or, T2 = T1 × (r)γ–1 (b) Efficiency is, η = 1 –  r 
 
= 293 × (10)1.4 –1
1 1.4– 1
= 293 × (10)0.4 = 1 – 10
 
= 735.9827 K
= 0.6018
Then,
= 60.18%
γ–1
T2 P2 (c) We know,
γ
T1 = P1 qH = Cv (T3 – T2)
0.4 = 718 (2000 – 735.9827)
735.9827  P2  1.4
or, = 100
293   = 907564.4214 J/kg
P2 w
or, 25.1186 = 100 η=q
H

or, P2 = 25.1186 × 100 or, w = 0.6018 × 907564.4214

∴ P2 = 2511.8861 kPa ∴ w = 546172.2688 J/kg
Process 2 – 3: Isochoric heat addition We know,
Peak temperature is, T3 = 2000 K P1v1 = RT1
From Charle's law or, 100 × 103 × v1 = 287 × 293
P3 T3 ∴ v1 = 0.84091 m3/kg
P2 = T2 v1 0.84091
r = v  v2 = 10
P3 2000 2
or, 2511.8861 = 735.9827 ∴ v2 = 0.084091 m3/kg
or, P3 = 2511.8861 × 2.71745 Now,
∴ P3 = 6825.9378 kPa w 546172.2688
PMEP = v – v = 0.84091 – 0.084091
Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion 1 2

T3 V4 γ – 1 or, PMEP = 721668.2837 Pa

=
T4 V3 ∴ PMEP = 721.668 kPa
2000 V1 1.4– 1
or, T4 = V2
 Thermodynamic Cycles 227 228 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Example 6.5 T3 P3
T2 = P2
The compression ratio of an ideal otto cycle is 8.5. At the beginning of
P3
the compression stroke air is at 100 kPa and 27 °C. The pressure is or, T3 = T 2 × P
2
doubled during the constant volume heat addition process. Determine
4001.442
(a) The heat added per kg of air or, T3 = 706.137 × 2000.721
(b) The network output per kg of air
∴ T3 = 1412.274 K
(c) The thermal efficiency
Process 3 – 4 : Isentropic expansion
Solution: Given;
T4 V3 x – 1
V2
Compression ratio (r) = V = 8.5 T3 = V4
1
V2 x – 1
At state 1 or, T4 = T 3 .  V 
 1
P1 = 100 kPa 1 x–1
or, T4 = P3.  r 
T1 = 27 °C = 27 + 273 = 300 K  
At state 2 1 1.4 – 1
or, T4 = 1412.274 × 8.5
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression  
T2 V1 x – 1 ∴ T4 = 600 K
T1 = V2 = (r)x–1 = (8.5)1.4 – 1
Also,
or, T2 = 300 × 2.3537 P4 V3 x
∴ T2 = 706.137 K P3 = V4
V2 x
Also, or, P4 = P3. V 
 1
P2 V1 x
P1 = V2 or,
1 x
P4 = P3.  r 
 
or, P2 = P1 × (r)x
1 1.4
= 100 × (8.5)1.4 or, P4 = 4001.442 × 8.5
 
= 2000.721 kPa
∴ P4 = 200 kPa
At state 3
(a) The heat added per kg is given by,
P3 = 2P2
qH = q23 = CV (T3 – T2)
= 2 × 2000.721
= 718 (1412.274 – 706.137)
= 4001.442 kPa
= 507006.366 J/kg
Process 2 – 3: Isochoric heat addition
= 507.066 kJ/kg
i.e. V2 = V3
(b) Heat rejected per kg of air during the cycle is given by
From charle's law,
qL = q41 = CV (T4 – T1)
 Thermodynamic Cycles 229 230 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

= 718 (600 – 300) P T

qH
= 215400 J/kg 2 3
P2=P3 T3 3
= 215.4 kJ/kg
∴ The net work output per kg of air is given by T2 2
4
W = qH – qL P4 T4 4

= 507.066 – 215.4
P1 1 T1
= 291.606 kJ/kg 1
V S
(c) The thermal efficiency of the cycle is given by, V2 V3 V1=V4 S1=S2 S3=S4
W 291.606 Efficiency of an air standard diesel cycle
η = q = 507.066
H
Efficiency of an ideal diesel cycle is given as;
= 0.5751
qL
= 57.51% η=1–q
H

6.2.3 Air standard diesel cycle Heat rejected by the system during constant volume process 4 – 1 is given
by,
Ideal cycle for diesel engine
qL = q41 = Cv (T4 – T1)
 It is also called constant pressure cycle
Heat added to the system during constant pressure process 2 – 3 is given
 It also has four process
by
They are:
qH = q23 = CP (T3 – T2)
1 – 2: Isentropic compression
Substituting,
In this process the piston travels from BDC to TDC, the air inside the
CV T4 – T1
cylinder is compressed under isentropic condition. During the isentropic η=1– C T –T
p 3 2
compression, pressure of the system increases, its volume decreases,
temperature increases and entropy remains constant.  T4 – 1 
1 T1 T1 
2 – 3: Isobaric heat addition (constant pressure) or, η=1– T T ... ... ... (i)
γ 2  3 
Heat addition for an ideal diesel cycle is modeled as an isobaric process. T2 – 1
Hence, during the constant pressure heat addition process, volume,
Applying temperature volume relationship for isentropic compression
temperature and entropy of the system increases.
process 1 – 2
3 – 4: Isentropic expansion
T1 V1 γ–1 γ–1
During the expansion process, pressure of the system decreases, volume T2 = V2 = (r)
increases, temperature decreases and entropy remains constant.
V1
4 – 1: Isochoric heat rejection (constant volume) where, r = V called compression ratio
2
In this process heat is rejected by the system to the surroundings at Applying temperature volume relationship for isobaric heat addition
constant volume. During isochoric heat rejection process, temperature, process 2 – 3
pressure and entropy of the system decrease. From charle's law
 Thermodynamic Cycles 231 232 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

T α V at constant pressure Note:

T3 V3 The compression ratio for diesel engine varies from 16 – 22.
T2 = V2 = α V3 – V2
% of stroke at which cut off takes place = V – V
V3 1 2
where, α = V is called cut off ratio.
2  V3 – V2 = x% of (V1 – V2
This cut off ratio indicates the point at which fuel injection is stopped v2
during power stroke. v3

Applying temperature volume relationship for isentropic expansion v1 1 2 v4

process 3 – 4
T4 V3 γ–1
T3 = V4
T4 V3 V2 γ–1 Example 6.6
or, T3 = V2 × V1
Substituting V4 = V1 An air standard diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18, and the
heat transferred to the working fluid per cycle is 1800 kJ/kg. At the
T4 V3 V2 γ–1
beginning of the compression process, the pressure is 0.1 MPa and
T3 = V2 × V1
the temperature is 15 °C. Determine: [2017, 2016]
T4 α γ–1 (a) Maximum pressure and temperature of the cycle
or, T3 =  r 
(b) Thermal efficiency, and
Here,
(c) Mean effective pressure.
T 4 T 4 T3 T2
T1 = T3 × T2 × T1 [Take R = 287 J/kg K, CV = 718 J/kg K and CP = 1005 J/kg K]
Solution: Given;
T4 α γ–1
or, T1 =  r  × α × (r)γ–1 P T
qH
T4 α  γ–1 2 3
or, T1 =  r . r ×α 3
qH
T4 2
γ–1
T1 = α ×α
or, 4
4
T4 qL
γ.1 + 1
or, T1 = α 1
1 qL
T4 γ V S
∴ T1 = α V1
Compression ratio (r) = V = 18
Substituting these values in (i) 2
γ Heat addition per unit mass (qH) = 1800 kJ/kg
α – 1
η = 1 – . γ–1 
1 1
γ (r)  α – 1 P1 = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
 Thermodynamic Cycles 233 234 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

T1 = 15 °C = 288 K α γ–1
or, T4 = T3 ×  r 
Now,  
2.957 0.4
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression. or, T4 = 2706.20 ×  18  = 1313.98 K
Using T-V relation for isentropic process.
 
(a) Tmax = T3 = 2706.20 K
T2 V1 γ–1
T1 = V2 Pmax = P3 = P2 = 5719.60 kPa
T2 1.4–1
(b) Efficiency is given by
or, 288 = (r) 1 1 γ–1 αγ – 1
η = 1 – r
or, T2 = 288 × (18)0.4 = 915.16 K γ  α – 1
Also, T-P relation for isentropic process is, 1 1 1.4 –1 2.9571.4 – 1
or, η = 1 – 1.4 18
γ–1    2.957 – 1 
T1 P1 γ or, η = 0.5908
T2 = P2
0.4
∴ η = 59.08%
288 100 1.4 (c) We know,
or, 915.16 =  P2 
P1v1 = RT1
100
or, 0.017483 = P or, 100 × 103 × v1 = 287 × 288
2
or, v1 = 0.82656 m2/kg
∴ P2 = 5719.60 kPa
Now,
Process 2 – 3: Isobaric heat addition
v1
P3 = P2 = 5719.60 kPa r=v
2
We know, heat added per kg is,
0.82656
qH = CP (T3 – T2) or, v2 = 18 = 0.04592 m3/kg
or, 1800 × 103 = 1005 (T3 – 915.16) Then,
or, 1791.04 = T3 – 915.16 w
η=q
∴ T3 = 2706.20 K H

T3 2706.20 w = 0.5908 × 1800 × 103 = 1063440 J/kg

Now, cut off ratio is, α = T = 915.16 = 2.9570
2 Now,
Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion w 1063440
PMEP = v – v = 0.82656 – 0.04592
T4 V3 γ –1 1 2
T3 = V4 or, PMEP = 1362266.858 Pa
V3 V2 γ–1
= V × V  ∴ PMEP = 1362.2668 kPa
 2 1

T4 α γ–1
or, T3 =  r 
 Thermodynamic Cycles 235 236 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Example 6.7 Now,

qH = CP (T3 – T2)
The pressure and temperature at the end of suction stoke of a
standard diesel cycle are 100 kPa and 27 °C respectively. Maximum = 1005 × (1873 – 909.4299)
temperature during the cycle is 1600 °C and the compression ratio is = 968387.95 J/kg
16. Determine. Then,
(a) The temperature at the end of the expansion stoke and T3 V3
(b) The thermal efficiency. T2 = V2 = α
Solution: Given; V3 1873
or, α = V = 909.4299
P 2
T
qH ∴ α = 2.0595
2 3
3 Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion
qH
2 P3 = P2 = 4850.293 kPa
4
4 T3 = 1873 K
qL Now,
1
1 qL T4 V3 γ – 1
V S T3 = V4
P1 = 100 kPa T4 V3 V2 γ – 1
T1 = 27 °C = 27 + 273 = 300 K
or, T3 = V2 × V1
1 γ–1
T3 = 1600 °C = 1600 + 273 = 1873 K or, T4 = T 3 ×  α × r 
r = 16
 
1 1.4
T4 = 1873 ×  2.0595 × 16
–1
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression or,
 
T2 V1 γ – 1
T1 = V2 ∴ T4 = 824.887 K
Also,
or, T2 = T1 × (r)γ–1
x–1
or, T2 = 300 × (16)1.4 – 1 T4 P4 x
∴ T2 = 909.4299 K T3 = P3
Also, 0.4
824.887  P4  1.4
or, 1873 = 4850.293
P2 V1 γ
P1 = V2 ∴ P4 = 274.958 kPa
or, P2 = P1 (r)γ (a) The temperature at the end of expansion stoke T4 = 824.887 K
or, P2 = 100 × (16)1.4 (b) The thermal efficiency is given by,
∴ P2 = 4850.293 kPa 1 1 γ – 1 αγ – 1
η = 1 – r
Process 2 – 3: Isobaric heat addition γ   α – 1
 Thermodynamic Cycles 237 238 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

1 1 0.4 2.05951.4 – 1 ∴ T3 = 1886 K

= 1 – 1.4 16
   2.0595 – 1  Hence, the maximum temperature is 1886 K.
= 0.6109
Example 6.9
= 61.09 %
The following data relate to an air-standard diesel cycle. The
Example 6.8
pressure and temperature at the end of suction strike are 1 bar and
Air at the beginning of compression stoke in an ideal diesel cycle is at 30°C respectively. Maximum temperature during the cycle is 1500°C
100 kPa and 295 K and the compression ratio is 20. Determine the and compression ratio is 16. Determine.
maximum temperature during the cycle to have an efficiency of 65% (a) The percentage of stroke at which cut-off takes place.
Solution: Given; (b) The temperature at the end of expansion stroke.
P1 = 100 kPa (c) Thermal efficiency.
T1 = 295 K (d) Men effective pressure.
Compression ratio (r) = 20 Solution: Given;
Cycle efficiency (η) = 65% = 0.65 P T
qH
Now, 2 3
3
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression qH
T2 V1 γ – 1 2
4
T1 = V2 4
or, T2 = 295 × (20)0.4 qL
1
∴ T2 = 977.764 K 1 qL
V S
Efficiency of the cycle is given by,
5
P1 = 1 bar = 10 Pa = 100 kPa
1 1 γ – 1 αγ – 1
η = 1 – r
γ   α – 1 T1 = 30 °C = 303 K
1 1 1.4 – 1 α1.4 – 1 Tmax = T3 = 1500 °C = 1773 K
or, 0.65 = 1 – 1.4 20
   α–1 r = 16
Solving for α, Now,
α = 1.9289 Process 1 – 2 Isentropic compression
Then, T2 V1 γ–1
T1 = V2
Cut off ratio is given by,
or, T2 = 303 × (16)1.4 –1
V3 T3
α=V =T ∴ T2 = 918.5242 K
2 2

∴ T3 = α . T2 P2 V1 γ
P1 = V2
or, T3 = 1.9289 × 977.764
 Thermodynamic Cycles 239 240 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

P2 γ (b) Temperature at the end of expansion stroke (T4) = 760.8545 K

or, 100 = (r) 1  1 γ–1 αγ – 1
(c) η=1–
γ  r
1.4
or, P2 = 100 × 16 α – 1
∴ P2 = 4850.293 kPa 1 1 0.4 1.93021.4 – 1
= 1 – 1.4  16  1.9302 – 1 
Process 2 – 3: Iso baric heat addition    
Now, = 0.6172
qH = Cp (T3 – T2) = 61.72%
= 1005 × (1773 – 918.5242) w
(c) =q
H
= 858748.179 J/kg
Then, or, w = 0.6172 × 858748.179

T3 V3 ∴ w = 530019.3761 J/kg
T2 = V2 = α Then,
1773 V3 P1v1 = RT1
or, 918.5242 = V2 = α 287 × 303
or, v1 = 100 × 103
∴ α = 1.9302
Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion ∴ v1 = 0.86861 m3/kg
P3 = P2 = 4850.293 kPa And,
T3 = 1773 K v1
r=v
2
Now,
v1 0.86961
T4 V3 γ–1 or, v2 = r = 16 = 0.05435 m3/kg
T3 = V4
Now,
T4 V3 × V2 γ–1
or, =
1773 V2 V1 w
PMEP = v – v
1 2
1 γ–1
or, T4 = 1773 ×  α × r 
  530019.3761
= 0.86961 – 0.05435
1.9302 1.4–1
or, T4 = 1773 ×  16 
  = 650123.1216 Pa
∴ T4 = 760.8545 K = 650.123 kPa
γ–1 We know,
T4 P4
Then, T = P  γ v3
3  3 α=v
2
0.4
760.8545  P4  1.4 or, v3 = αv2
or, 1773 =  4850.293 or, v3 = 1.932 × 0.05435
∴ P4 = 251.0978 kPa ∴ v3 = 0.104911 m3/kg
 Thermodynamic Cycles 241 242 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Now, ∴ V1 = 16 V2
% cut off stroke at which takes place is Now,
v3 – v2 0.104911 – 0.05435 V3
v1 – v2 = 0.86961 – 0.05435 = 0.062 = 6.2% Cut off ratio (α) = V = ?
2

Example 6.10 v3 – v2
% cut off ratio which takes place = v – v
1 2
An air standard diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 22 and v3 – v2
expansion ratio of 11. Determine its cut off ratio and the efficiency. or, 0.08 = v – v
1 2
Solution: Given; or, 0.08 (v1 – v2) = v3 – v2
v1 8
r = v = 22 P or, v 1 – 1  = v 3 – 1
2 100 v2  v2
v4 2 3
re = v = 11 8 v3
3 or, 100 (16 – 1) + 1 = v2
We know cut off ratio 4 V3
V3 V3 V1 ∴ V2 = 2.2
α=V =V ×V
2 1 2
1 Now,
V3 V1 r 22 1  1 γ–1 αγ – 1
= V × V = r = 11 = 2 V η=1–
4 2 e
γ  r α – 1
The,
1 1 1.4 –1 2.261.4 – 1
γ = 1 – 1.4  16
η=1–
1  1 γ–1 α – 1    2.26 – 1 
γ  r α – 1 = 0.6042
1 1 0.4 21.4 – 1
= 1 – 1.4  22 = 60.42%
   2–1 
Again,
= 0.6599
r = 20
= 65.99%
α = 2.2
Example 6.11 1  1 γ–1 αγ – 1
η=1–
An engine working on a diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 16 and γ  r α – 1
the cut off ratio take place at 8% of the stroke. Determine its air 1 1 1.4 –1 2.21.4 – 1
= 1 – 1.4  20
standard efficiency. Also determine its efficiency when compression    2.2 – 1 
ratio is 20. [2022, 2015] = 0.6379
Solution: Given; = 63.79 %
Compression ratio = 16
V1
or, V2 = 16
 Thermodynamic Cycles 243 244 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

6.3 Rankine Cycle

3
 It is an ideal model for the power cycle consisting of a steam
turbine. High pressure
steam
 It consists of following process. Turbine Wnet
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic pumping (constant volume)
Boiler
Low pressure saturated liquid from the low pressure condenser is
supplied to the high pressure boiler with the help of a pump. 4
qH
Pumping process is assumed to an isentropic process. During the
pumping process, working substance remains in liquid state, its specific Condenser
2
volume remains almost constant, pressure increases and entropy remains
constant. qL
Low pressure
Process 2 – 3: Isobaric heat addition (constant pressure) 1 liquid
Heat is supplied to the boiler from an external source and the boiler Pump
produces steam by heating the liquid water. Heat addition in the boiler
occurs at constant pressure.
Wpump
Hence, during the constant pressure heating, specific volume, temperature
and entropy of the steam increases. The state of the steam is generally P-V and T-S diagram of Rankine cycle
assumed as saturated vapor, but if the rate of heat supply to the boiler is P T
increased, the steam at the boiler outlet may be superheated. 3'
Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion 2 3 3' 3
P2=P3 T3
High temperature and high pressure steam produced by the boiler is 2
supplied to the steam turbine which produces work by consuming energy
carried by the steam at the turbine inlet. The process occurring in the 1 1
P1=P4 T1=T4
4 4' 4 4'
turbine is assumed to be an isentropic expansion.
Hence, during an isentropic expansion during which pressure of the steam
V S
further decreases and its specific volume further increases whereas S1=S2 S3=S4
entropy of the system remains constant and its temperature decreases. Efficiency of Rankin cycle
Process 4 – 1: Isobaric heat rejection (constant pressure) wnet
η = q
The steam form the turbine exit is delivered to the condenser where it H
rejects heat to its surroundings (cooling water) and gets condensed back wnet = wT – wP
into the saturated liquid.
Here, wT = w3–4 = h3 – h4
Heat rejection in the condenser occurs at constant pressure during which
wP = w1 – 2 = h2 – h1
specific volume, and entropy of the steam decreases while its temperature
remains constants. qH = q2 – 3 = h3 – h2
Then,
 Thermodynamic Cycles 245 246 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

(h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1) Process 2 – 3: Isobaric heat addition (constant pressure)
η= h3 – h2 From pressure table, P3 = 1600 kPa
Example 6.12 h3 = hg = 2793.3 kJ/kg
Sg = S3 = 6.4207 kJ/kg K
Determine the efficiency of an ideal Rakine cycle operating between
boiler of 1.6 mPa and condense of 6 kPa. Steam leaves the boiler as Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion
saturated vapour. [2015] At state 4:
Solution: Given; P4 = 6 kPa
P2 = P3 = 1.6 MPa = 1600 kPa S4 = S3 = 6.4207 kJ/kg K
P1 = P4 = 6 kPa From pressure table
draw P-v and T-s diagram as below: Sl = 0.5208 kJ/kg K
P T Slg = 7.8075 kJ/kg K
Sg = 8.3283 kJ/kg K
2 3 3 Here, Sl < S4 < Sg. so, it is two phase mixture,
2
S4 – sl
∴ x4 = S
lg
1 6.4207 – 0.5208
4 4 = = 0.7556
7.8075
v s Also, from table,
At state 1 hl = 151.47 kJ/kg
P1 = 6 kPa hlg = 2415.0 kJ/kg
From pressure table, Now,
Specific volume at 1, (v1) = vl = 0.001006 m /kg3 h4 = hl + x4 hlg
hl = (h1) = 151.47 kJ/kg = 151.47 + (2415.0) × 0.7556
We know, process 1 – 2: Isentropic pumping and constant volume = 1976.244 kJ/kg
At state 2 Finally,
From second law of thermodynamics, isentropic relation for (h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1)
η= h3 – h2
incompressible substance is given by,
h2 – h1 = v (P2 – P1) (2793.3 – 1976.244) – (153.0735 – 151.47)
= 2793.3 – 153.0735
or, h2 – 151.47 = 0.001006 (1600 – 6)
= 0.3088
or, h2 = 151.47 + 1.603564
= 30.88%
∴ h2 = 153.0735 kJ/kg
At state 3
 Thermodynamic Cycles 247 248 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Example 6.13 S3 = S4 = 7.1269 kJ/kg k

T4 = 50 °C
A Rankine cycle has a boiler working at a pressure of 2 MPa. The
maximum and minimum temperature during the cycle are 400 °C From temperature table
and compare it with that of the Carnot cycle operating between the Sl = 0.7037 kJ/kg K
same temperature limits. Slg = 7.3708 kJ/kg K
Solution: Given; Sg = 8.0745 kJ/kg K
P2 = P3 = 2 MPa = 2000 kPa Here, Sl < S4 < Sg
T1 = T4 = 50 °C So, it is two phase mixture
T3 = 400 °C S4 – Sl 7.1269 – 0.7037
x4 = Slg = 7.37.8
At state 1
T1 = 50 °C = 0.8714
From temperature table, Also, from table,
P1 = Psat = 12.344 kPa hl = 209.33 kJ/kg
hl = h1 = 209.33 kJ/kg hlg = 2381.9 kJ/kg
3
vl = v1 = 0.001012 m /kg Now,
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic pumping h4 = hl + x4 hlg
At state 2 = 209.33 + 0.8714 (2381.9)
h2 – h1 = v (P2 – P1) = 2284.91766 kJ/kg
or, h2 – 209.33 = 0.001012 (2000 – 12.344) Now,
or, h2 = 209.33 + 2.0115 (h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1)
η= h3 – h2
∴ h2 = 211.3415 kJ/kg
Process 2 – 3: Isobaric heat addition and constant pressure (3247.5 – 2284.91766) – (211.3415 – 209.33)
= (3247.5 – 211.3415)
P3 = 2000 kpa
= 0.3163
T3 = 400 °C
= 31.63%
From pressure table,
Tsat at (2000 kPa) = 212.42 °C 6.4 Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle
Here, Tsat < T3 Vapor compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used cycle for
So, it is superheated vapour heating and cooling of the desired space.
From superheated steam table The working substance used to run the cycle is called a refrigerant.
h3 = 3247.5 kJ/kg
S3 = 7.1269 kJ/kg K
Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion
 Thermodynamic Cycles 249 250 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

TH
process. During this process, the enthalpy of the refrigerant stays
constant, while its pressure and temperature decrease, and its entropy
QH increases.
High pressure
vapour Process 4 – 1: Constant pressure evaporation
Condenser
The refrigerant, which has low pressure and temperature, enters the
3 High pressure 2 evaporator after passing through the expansion valve. Inside the
liquid evaporator, the low-temperature refrigerant can absorb heat from its
surroundings. During this heat absorption process, the refrigerant
Throttling valve/
evaporates. This evaporation process occurs at a constant pressure, during
expansion valve Compressor Win which the entropy and enthalpy of the refrigerant increase.
P T
3 2
4 Low pressure P3=P2 T2 2
liquid 1 3
Vapour T3
Evaporator

T1=T4 1
QL 4
P1=P4
4 1
TL
h s
h3=h4 h1 s3 s4 s1=s2
It consists of four process
Coefficient of performance (COP)
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression
If the cycle is used for the heating of a desired space then its COP is
The evaporator's vapor outlet is sent to the compressor, where it is given as,
compressed using electricity as the energy input. It is assumed that the
qH h2 – h3
compression process is isentropic, which means it is adiabatic and (COP)HP = W = h – h
2 1
reversible, without any change in entropy, while the refrigerant's pressure,
temperature, and enthalpy increase. If the cycle is used for the cooling of a desired space then its COP is
given as
Process 2 – 3: constant pressure condensation
qL h1 – h4
The refrigerant, which has high pressure and temperature, is transferred (COP)R = W = h – h
2 1
from the compressor outlet to the condenser. In the condenser, the
refrigerant is able to exchange heat with its surroundings and release heat
to the surroundings, causing the vapor at the inlet of the condenser to
condense. This condensation process occurs at a constant pressure, and it 1. Define practical cycles and classify them with examples.
leads to a decrease in the entropy and enthalpy of the refrigerant. 2. Determine the working principle of an ideal rankine cycle. Sketch the
Process 3 – 4: Constant enthalpy throttling process cycle on P – V and T – S diagram when the state of steam at boiler is
The liquid refrigerant with high pressure that exits the condenser is saturated vapour and derive an expression for its efficiency. [2021, 2013]
directed towards the expansion valve, where it undergoes a throttling
 Thermodynamic Cycles 251 252 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

3. Sketch the ideal Rankine cycle on P – V and T– S diagrams when Determine:

the state of steam at boiler is superheated vapour. [2017] (a) the ratio of clearance volume and swept volume
4. Explain the working principle of an ideal Otto cycle. Sketch the (b) the compression ratio.
cycle on P – V and T – S diagrams and derive an expression for its (c) the thermal efficiency. [Ans: 0 J, 11, 6/68%]
efficiency in terms of compression ratio.
4. At the beginning of the compression stroke of an air standard Diesel
5. Explain the working principle of an diesel cycle. Sketch the cycle on cycle having a compression ratio of 16, the temperature is 300 K
P – V and T– S diagrams and derive an expression for its efficiency and the pressure is 100 kPa. If the cut off ratio for the cycle is 2,
in terms of compression ratio and cut off ratio. [2019] determine:
6. Explain the working principle of a vapour compression refrigerator (a) the pressure and temperature at the end of each process of the
cycle. Sketch the cycle on P – h and T–S diagrams and derive an cycle.
expression for its COP. (b) the thermal efficiency.
(c) the mean effective pressure. [Ans: 61.38%, 694.92 kJ]

1. At the beginning of the compression process of an air standard Otto 5. A Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 20. The air at the
cycle, P1 = 100 kPa, T1 = 290 K, V1 = 400 cm3. The maximum beginning of the compression stroke is at P1 = 100 kPa, T1 = 290 K
temperature in the cycle is 2200 K and the compression ratio is 8. and V1 = 0.5 × 10–3 m3. The maximum temperature during the cycle
Determine: is 2000 K. Determine:
(a) The heat addition, in KJ (a) the maximum pressure during the cycle.
(b) The net work, in kJ. (b) the cycle efficiency.
(c) The thermal efficiency (c) the work output. [Ans: 6628.9 kPa, 64.32%, 0.4030 kJ]
(d) The mean effective pressure 6. The following data are given for a four stroke diesel engine:
(Take R = 287 J/kg K, Cv = 716 J/kg K] [2018] Cylinder bore = 14 cm
2. The properties of air at the beginning of an air standard Otto cycle Stroke length = 25 cm
are P1 = 100 kPa, T1 = 300 K and V1 = 0.5 × 10–3 m3. The maximum Clearance volume = 350 cm3
temperature during the cycle is 2400 K and the compression ratio is Determine the air standard efficiency, if fuel injection takes place at
8. Determine: constant pressure for 5% of the stroke. [Ans: 64%]
(a) The heat added during the cycle. [Ans: 0.7133 kJ]
7. Air at the beginning of compression stroke in an ideal Diesel cycle
(b) the net work output. [Ans: 0.4028 kJ] is at 100 kPa and 295 K and the compression ratio is 20.
(c) the thermal efficiency. [Ans: 56.46%] Determine the maximum temperature during the cycle to have an
(d) the mean effective pressure. [Ans: 920.76 KPa] efficiency of 65% [Ans: 1880 K]

3. The following data are obtained for a four stroke petrol engine:
Cylinder bore = 14 cm
Stroke length = 15 cm
Clearance volume = 231 cm3