Till 31

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A TRANSMISSION System
• Insulators
• Conductors
• Towers & Foundations
• Earth wire
• Hardware Fittings
• Accessories
Dr. Subba Reddy B, Department of Electrical Engg, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore - India
History of Transmission Insulators
• Basically grew out of the needs of telegraph industry – starting in the
late 1700s, early 1800s
During 1840-50s
• Glass plates used to insulate telegraph lines
• Many, many trials with different materials – wood – cement –

porcelain - beeswax soaked rag wrapped around the wire, etc.
• Ultimately porcelain and glass prevailed
During
• Wet process porcelain developed for high voltage applications
• Porcelain insulator industry started
During
• Application voltages increased
• Insulator designs became larger, more complex
• Ceramics (porcelain, glass) still only choices at high voltages
In 1907 Harold Buck (Niagara falls power Corporation) and

Edward Hewlett (of GE) invented the disc insulator.
During
• US trials of first “NCIs” – Not successful, but others soon became
interested and a new industry started up
During
• Europeans develop “modern” style NCI – fiberglass rod with various
polymeric sheds - Now considered “First generation”.
During
• NCI insulator industry really begins in US with field trials of insulators
• Since the time - new manufacturers, new designs, new materials
• NCIs at “generation X” – there have been so many improvements in
materials, end fitting designs, etc.
• Change in materials have meant changes in line design practices,
maintenance practices, etc.
• Ceramic manufacturers have not been idle either with development of
higher strength porcelains, RG glazes, etc.
• Power transmission from Generating stations to load centers -- Overhead
lines
• High Voltage is essential for power transmission
• String Insulators perform dual functions – Mechanical support and

Electrically isolate
• Subjected to prevailing ambient/overvoltage

conditions
• Transmission lines run over hundreds of kms..
• Failure at one point brings down the system
How an Insulator functions ? ?
• Maintains distance (Air Gap) between Line from Ground
- depends on system voltage, safety margin, contamination, etc.
• Withstand Mechanical Stresses

- Static, Tension / Compression & dynamic load.
• Withstand Electrical Stresses

- system voltage/fields, over-voltages
• Withstand Environmental Stresses

- heat, cold, UV, contamination, etc.
INSULATION CO-ORDINATION
• The maximum over voltage occurs rarely and like wise insulation
strength very rarely decreases to its lowest value.
• The likelihood of both events occurring simultaneously is very

limited.
• Considerable economy may be achieved by recognizing the

probabilistic nature of both voltage stress and insulation strength by
accepting a certain risk of failure.
• This leads to substantial decrease in line insulation, spark distances,

tower dimensions, weight, ROW resulting in decreased cost of line.
• The decrease in line cost must be weighed against the increased risk of
failure and the cost of such failures.
Design Criteria - Mechanical
– Its primary function is to support the line mechanically
– Estimate the maximum load the Insulator will ever see Including
Normal and Overload Factors.
Design Criteria - Mechanical
Porcelain / Ceramic Insulators
When the porcelain begins to crack, it electrically punctures.
Never Exceed 50% of the M&E Rating
Check for Cantilever Rating do not exceed >40%
NCIs (Polymer Insulators)

Never Load beyond the
S.M.L. – Specified Mechanical Load
S.T.L (Specified Tensile load)
R.T.L. (Routine Test Load )
R.C.L (Rated cantilever load)
Design Criteria - Electrical
Strike Distance (Dry Arcing Distance)
“The shortest distance through
the surrounding medium between
terminal electrodes….”
• Dry PF Flashover & Impulse Flashover

- based on strike distance
• for Wet PF also these are considered
•
What is Leakage Distance?
“The sum of the shortest distances measured along the insulating surfaces between
the conductive parts, as arranged for dry flashover test.”
• Leakage distance helps to maintain the surface resistance of strike distance
Empirical Determination: What’s been used successfully? If Flashovers occur – add more leak?
Designing / Selecting a Suitable Insulator
Electrical Parameters Calculation
A Heighest System Voltage 69.0 245
B System Line-Gnd Voltage (A/1.732) * 1.05 41.8 170
C Peak L-G Voltage (Pv) Pv=B * 1.414 59.1 220.5
Leakage distance Calculations
Contamination/Pollution levels Recommended Leakage (Inches/kV L-G)

(Typical Values)
D. Zero Up to 1.00
E. Light 1.00 to 1.25
F. Moderate 1.50 to 1.75
G. Heavy 2.00 to 2.50
H. Insulator Minimum Leakage distance : (B * inches/kV)
69 kV 220kV
41.8 inches 170 inches
I. Switching Over-voltages: (B * 3 - 5)
69 kV 220kV
System Approx Values Approx Values
125 850
Requirement 66kV system 220kV system
J. Lightning Over-voltages: ( I(t)*R(f)+Pv Leakage distance 41.8 inches 170 inches
(typical values: I(t):20-50kA, R(f): 10-20 ohms Switching surge 125 kV 850 kV
69 kV (20*15+59.1) 220kV(44*19+220) (approx) Voltage
Lightning Impulse 359 kV 1056 kV
359 kV 1056 kV
withstand
Chart Courtesy of Ohio Brass/HPS – EU1429-H
Insulator Selection
Characteristic Required Available
Leakage
42” 46”
Distance
Wet Switching
125 kV 240 kV
Surge W/S
Impulse W/S 359 kV 374 kV
M&E 12,000 lbs 15,000 lbs
“Application Guide for Insulators in a Contaminated Environment”
by K. C. Holte et al – F77 639-8
Leakage Distance
ESDD (mg/cm2) Site Severity I-string/V-string
(“/kV l-g)
0 – 0.03 Very Light 0.94/0.8
0.03 – 0.06 Light 1.18/0.97
0.06 – 0.1 Moderate 1.34/1.05
>0.1 Heavy 1.59/1.19
•IEEE T&D – Insulators 101

IEC 60815 Standards
Leakage Distance
ESDD (mg/cm2) Site Severity
(“/kV l-g)
< 0.01 Very Light 0.87
0.01 – 0.04 Light 1.09
0.04 – 0.15 Medium 1.37
0.15 – 0.40 Heavy 1.70
> 0.40 Very Heavy 2.11
•IEEE T&D – Insulators 101

Leakage Distance Recommendations
2.5
2
IEEE V
Leak ("/kV l-g)
1.5 IEEE I
IEC
Poly. (IEC)
1
Poly. (IEEE V)
Poly. (IEEE I)
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
ESDD (mg/cm^2)
Improved Contamination Performance
Flashover Vs ESDD
300
250
200
Flashover Voltage
Porcelain
New EPDM
150 Aged EPDM
New SR
Aged SR
100
CEA 280 T 621
SR units - leakage equal to porcelain
EPDM Units - leakage 1.3 X Porcelain
50
0
0.01 0.1
ESDD (mg/cm^2)
ESDD (Equivalent Salt Deposit Density) Determination

- Measure ESDD, Pollution Monitors, Dummy Insulators, Remove in-service insulators
- Evaluate ESDD and select appropriate Leakage Distance
Improved Contamination Performance
Claims:
• Polymer insulators offer better contamination flashover performance
than porcelain ? ?
• Smaller core and weather-shed diameter increase leakage current

density.
• Higher leakage current density means more Ohmic Heating.

• Ohmic Heating helps to dry the contaminant layer and reduce
leakage currents.
• In addition, hydrophobicity helps to minimize filming.
• Contamination performance of composite insulators exceeds that of

their porcelain counterparts
• Contamination flashover performance of silicone insulators exceeds

that of EPDM units…. ? ?
Grading Rings
• Simulate a larger, more spherical object
• Reduce the gradients associated with the shielded object
• Reduction in gradients helps to minimize RIV & TVI
• Porcelain or Glass –
– Inorganic – breaks down very slowly
• NCIs
– Polymers are more susceptible to scissioning due to corona
– UV – short wavelength range – attacks polymer bonds.
– Most short wavelength UV is filtered by the environment
– UV due to corona is not filtered
NCIs and CC-Rings
• Grading (Corona) Rings
– Due to “corona cutting” and water droplet corona – NCIs may

require the application of rings to grade the field on the polymer
material of the weathershed housing.
– Rings must be:

• Properly positioned relative to the end fitting on which they
are mounted.
• Oriented to provide grading to the polymer material.
– As a general rule – rings should be over the polymer – brackets

should be on the hardware.
SERVICE EXPERIENCE
Ceramic / Porcelain Insulators
• Used since 1830s (for telegraph lines)
• Used at all voltages for line insulation
• Provides great flexibility (cap and pin)
• Strong in compression
• Available in various shapes (simple-complicated)
• High degree of standardization
Experience with Ceramic Insulators
• Electrically- fairly stable with time

• Mechanically – subject to deterioration with time
Issues with Ceramic Insulators

• Flashovers
• Punctures
• Cement growth Cracking (growth expansion due to hydration –
causes radial cracks or punctures in head)
• Pin erosion
• Long term M & E Strength Reduction
• Coupling Hardware Corrosion
2. Glass Suspension Insulators
• Good contamination performance due to self cleaning properties

• Good for remote areas with no gun shooting & helicopter patrols
• Outer glass surface under higher tension than inside glass
• Damage to outer surface causes violent shattering of shell
• Spontaneous failures
• Attractive to shoot because the shell “ explodes when hit
• Shattered glass is a safety hazard
• Not popular in US, used in Europe, Canada & Brazil
3. Non Ceramic Insulators
* Introduced in 1960s for transmission (GE)
* Used for all voltages
* light flexible, high strength to weight ratio
* Strong in tension
* low degree of standardization
weather sheds
fiberglass core
end fittings
Service Experience with Polymers
• Surface degradation:
- UV, Electrical stress (tracking/treeing) , leakage current & arcing..
Result in - Flashover & mechanical failures
• Internal degradation:
- Cracked rod, bad coating between rod & sheath, void
between rod & sheath - water wicking between rod & sheath ….
Result in – flashovers, line lockouts, worker safety concerns,

problems for carrying out live line maintenance
• Contamination performance- Mold growth etc
• Brittle fracture
is a stress corrosion failures of fiberglass rod,
factors: Water in the rod, Mechanical loads, Electrical stress
Ceramic vs. Polymeric Insulators
Ceramic
• Made from inorganic materials Þ do not age
• 80 years of experience
• Flexibility in length
• High leakage distance profiles
• Can be coated and washed
Polymeric
• Made from Organic materials Þ age
• Approx: 30years, latest designs < 10years
• Lighter, less susceptible to vandalism
• Smaller viewing profile
• Good short term performance in polluted environments
• 90% weight reduction, Reduced breakage, lower installation costs
• Aesthetically more pleasing, improved power frequency insulation
Comparison of attributes of Insulators
Insulator Positive Attributes Negative Attributes
Non Weight (60-90% reduction) Reduced strike distance
Ceramic/Polymeric Contamination withstand Susceptible to aging
Low installed cost Susceptible to arcing damage
Impact strength Brittle fracture possible
Small profile/ Cost -? Not easily inter changeable
(1.5times - 1985-86 Limited Experience,Handling,Storing,Transporting
0.5times 1997-98) Live line techniques to be developed
Performance quantified Weight
Porcelain/Ceramic Long history of use Pin corrosion
Post cascade failures
Hidden defects
“Fun” to shoot
Price
RG Porcelain Contamination withstand Power loss
Glass Spotting damaged units Weight

Attractive to vandals
Negative perception - glass is fragile
The Reliability of modern high voltage power transmission system has been seriously
affected by pollution induced flashover, which occurs at normal operating voltage itself.
1600
1400 1.2x50us Impulse

.
-1275
Flashover Volatge - kV(Peak)
1200 +1265
1000
250x2500 us Switching surge
. +875 dry Figure shows greatest threat of
800 . 785 dry flashover at nominal voltage for
.+750 Wet Porcelain / glass insulators is
600 .565 Wet } Clean
under polluted conditions
400
Polluted
Normal 230kV Operating Voltage 206
200
186
100 102 104 106 108 10

10
Time to Flashover (us)
Fig 1.3. Illustriation of withstand capability of porcelain Insulators
to nominal and surge voltages(Standard I-String)[2]
Considering this, high voltage laboratory at IISc has been conducting research both on
Expt & Simulation/Modelling on performance of outdoor insulators under normal &
pollution conditions.
- A Novel field control element / electrode is developed.
Pollution types
• Marine
• Industrial
• Desert
• Mixed
• Agricultural
• Fog/Ice etc
Pollution flashover phenomena
Deposition of pollutants
ß
wetting & flow of current
ß
non uniform heat generation & non uniform drying
ß
inception of scintillation / partial arcs
ß
Elongation of partial arcs -- -> complete flashover
Þ Spatial distribution of electric field is a governing factor
Region around pin forms the high field zone => scintillations
Pollution/Contamination Flashover
§ Flashover of polluted insulators is a complex phenomena
- Theoretically difficult to comprehend
§ A relatively slow electro-thermal process
- Experimentation difficulties
§ Influencing parameters : wetting rate, pollution type, wind its direction,
type of insulator etc
§ From the literature/practice - There exist some remedial measures – Problems

Coatings – Silicon grease, RTV, Resistive glaze,
Increasing creepage lengths, Special designs, Live line washing etc
§ There is a need to develop suitable mitigation technique which is cost effective

& gives better performance in the field
Experimentation- Pollution Flashover studies
Potential and Electric Field Distribution in a Ceramic
Disc Insulator String with Faulty Insulators
Detection and replacement of faulty insulator disc in a string of
insulators is necessary to ensure reliable power supply.
SR.NO Method Common technique
1 Electrical • Field Measurement
• Voltage Distribution
• Insulation resistance measurement
2 Acoustic • Ultra Sonic Detection
• Corona Detection Gun
3 Visual • Eye sight
• Ultra Violet Enhancement
• Infra Red Camera
35
30 120N
healthy stirng
25 2nd disc faulty
20
potential in kV
15
10
-5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
creapage distance in m
Surface gradient plot
12
10
120N
8 2nd disc faulty

healthy string
Gradient (kV/cm)
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Creepage distance measured from Pin end (m)
50
45 120N
healthy
40
2nd
35
k
2&3rd
V 30
/ 25 2&3&4th
c
m 20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
25 healthy
120N
12th
20
22nd
20&21&22nd
k
15
V 11&12&13th
/
c
10
m
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Disc number from the line end
120
100
160N Healthy
2nd
2&3rd
80
k 2&3&4th
V
/ 60
c
m 40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
100
90
80
400N Healthy
2nd faulty
70
2&3rd faulty
k
60
V 2,3&4th faulty
/ 50
c
40
m
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
kV
Results for 23 disc string (400kV) 9.5 400
With defective insulator discs at 9

350
locations 2nd & 3rd & 4th from line end,
• electric stress across 1st disc (near 8.5
300
line end) increases by ~100%
• 2nd disc faulty, - enhancement is ~ 8
Distance in (m)
250
33%,
• 2nd & 3rd disc faulty, - enhancement 7.5
200
is ~ 68%
7
150
Ø enhancement in electric stress 120N
6.5
across normal insulators is minimal 100
when defective disc located is at
middle or at ground end of the string 6
50
5.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Distance in (m)
Ø Similarly, electric stress enhancement for 2nd & 3rd defective discs is
~ 50 - 58% for 66 kV,
~ 15 - 60% for 132 kV,
~ 54 - 66% for 220 kV,
~ 30 - 68% for 400 kV and
~ 40 - 78% for 765 kV different insulator strings.
Ø For faults located at 2nd & 3rd & 4th discs from line end: enhancement
in electric stress across first disc from the line end is found to be
~ 48 - 102% for 400 kV and
~ 62 - 110% for 765 kV for various disc insulator strings
Table: percentage electric stress across the first disc from the line end in a string
with defective insulator discs in different location
Ins type 2nd 2&3rd faulty string 2,3&4th faulty string

faulty
66kV 132kV 220kV 400kV 765kV 400kV 765kV
(33kV)
160N 43% 50% 60% 66% 59% 73% 87% 110%

120N 44% 55% 48% 60% 68% - 102% -
120AF 44% 52% 44% 60% 57% - 88% -

160AF 42% 52% 14% 54% 44% - 67% -
210N - - - - 30% 40% 48% 62%
400N - - - - - 58%(29d) - 91.5%(29d)
90N/120N 48% 58% 40% - - - - -
Present Research activity
COMPOSITE INSULATORS
§ With increased use of synthetic insulators,
additional problems like tracking and
surface erosion arose.
§ As a result, new dimensions are added to
the area of performance of outdoor
insulators.
§ Further, with increased demand for the
power transmission, more number of HVDC
lines are planned in our country.
§ The pollution flashover problem is more
severe in DC than that with AC, which is
evident from lines operating in the country.
§ Significant research activities are
necessary to tackle this problem.
§ Considering this, it is intended the existing
AC pollution test facility was recently
augmented to 250kV DC test facility.
The research work planned is broadly classified as:
AC and DC Pollution Flashover studies on Transmission line Insulators (both ceramic

and synthetic)
Immediate Plans to establish the newer research facilities as per IEC 62217-2005 and
other derived Standards for developing:-
1. Corona studies on AC/DC Composite insulator samples
2. Evaluating tracking resistance and erosion as per IEC-60587 &
tracking Indices as per IEC 60112
3. Low-current arc discharges as per the IEC 61621
4. Tracking wheel arrangement facility.
5. Inclined plane testing & and accelerated ageing facility
6. Facility for conducting Multiple stress on composite Insulators/samples
(This facility will be unique & will be installed for the first time in the country)
Development of special Instrumentation for measuring leakage current and harmonic

analysis during ageing studies.
To use UV/Infrared/and thermal imaging cameras during ageing tests on
composite/polymer test samples.
Determination of the proof comparative tracking indices as per IEC 60112
Test methods for evaluating resistance to tracking and erosion IEC 60587
Method to evaluate the Resistance test to high-voltage, low-current arc
discharges as per the IEC 61621
as per IEC 60112
CORONA STUDIES – AC/DC COMPOSITE INSULATOR SAMPLES
Facility for conducting Multiple Stress as per IEC 60112
IMMEDIATE PLANS
Experimental Studies/ANALYSES on various polymer samples: to use
• FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY (FTIR)
• X-RAY PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY (XPS)
• SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY (SCM)
• INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY
CHARACTERIZATION OF CORONA DISCHARGES:

LEAKAGE CURRENTS
ELECTRIC FIELD SIMULATIONS:

In house developed Programs to study
Models for developing new DC profiles
Selection of Insulators
Mechanical Parameters
• Selection of Ceramic/Glass and Composite is identical- based on strength a
composite insulator can replace porcelain or glass
• Generally Insulator strength rating a two to one safety factor is applied-
because all materials have a time-load characteristics that reduces residual
strength over time.
Mechanical Characteristics
• Specified Mechanical Load for Suspension Insulator
• Ultimate Cantilever load – for post or station post type
Loading Radial Ice Horizontal wind Temp

thickness pressure (LBS/Sq
(Inches) Ft)
Heavy 0.50 4 (40mph) 0
Medium 0.25 4 (40mph) +15
Light 0 9 (60mph) +30
Electrical Parameters
• Selected to maintain economic balance between system performance and the
cost of over-insulation
• Increasing electrical parameters will provide greater system protection at a
higher price
• Consideration based on Individual basis because of uniqueness of power system
configuration, voltage levels, grounding techniques and protection schemes..
Insulator Characteristics
Service Conditions:
Weather, Pollution/Contamination, Altitude, Insulator Configuration,
Physical Characteristics:
Section Length, Dry Arc Distance, Leakage distance
Electrical Characteristics
Max System Voltage, System BIL, Min Dry/Wet Flashover, RIV/Corona
Note:
• The standards provide a comprehensive coverage of many aspects

that would affect performance of the insulators in service
• Routinely insulators are tested for electrical and mechanical tests as

per standards are much higher than normal operating voltages
• None of the tests specified in standards give any indication of the

expected life of the insulator.
• Since no single technology provides “the exact solution” to HV line

insulation…
• Utilities should carefully evaluate the actual performance experience of

each technology & weigh them on their merits.
Concern for the Indian Insulator Industry:
• Domestic manufacturers are facing stiff competition owing to the increasing
import of insulators, particularly from China, at a lower cost.
manufacturing of insulators decreases, shift to offshore (all types)
Calls for:
• Better understanding of the basics of insulator manufacturing, design and
application is more essential than ever before
• Engineers need to develop knowledge and skills necessary to evaluate and
compare suppliers and products from different countries bringing at
par with global benchmark
• Develop manpower skills to support Industry’s future requirement.
• Improve competitiveness and be customer centric – effort by Industry to take
continuous feedback from utilities -- provide solutions.
Summary
• Performance of string insulators used in OH power transmission lines is
very critical & is dictated by electric field distribution prevailing under
different operating contingencies
• Simulation studies were carried using developed SCSM code - obtained
potential and surface field profiles for various discs used in our country
(earlier data was not available)
• A Unique National level experimental facility has been established for

conducting pollution studies on Insulators/strings
• To improve flashover strength of insulators during polluted conditions a
Novel field control elements have been developed (Patent filed April 2009)
• From the experimental studies on pollution flashover it is shown an overall
improvement 15 -20% is achieved for all types of discs presently used
• Encouragement from PGCIL to experiment in the transmission lines
• Studies on Ceramic / Composite Insulators for AC/DC in progress...

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MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A TRANSMISSION System

• Many, many trials with different materials – wood – cement –

• Ultimately porcelain and glass prevailed

In 1907 Harold Buck (Niagara falls power Corporation) and

• High Voltage is essential for power transmission

• String Insulators perform dual functions – Mechanical support and

• Subjected to prevailing ambient/overvoltage

• Transmission lines run over hundreds of kms..

• Failure at one point brings down the system

• Withstand Mechanical Stresses

• Withstand Electrical Stresses

• Withstand Environmental Stresses

• The likelihood of both events occurring simultaneously is very

• Considerable economy may be achieved by recognizing the

• This leads to substantial decrease in line insulation, spark distances,

NCIs (Polymer Insulators)

• Dry PF Flashover & Impulse Flashover

Contamination/Pollution levels Recommended Leakage (Inches/kV L-G)

Characteristic Required Available

Impulse W/S 359 kV 374 kV

M&E 12,000 lbs 15,000 lbs

0 – 0.03 Very Light 0.94/0.8

0.03 – 0.06 Light 1.18/0.97

0.06 – 0.1 Moderate 1.34/1.05

>0.1 Heavy 1.59/1.19

•IEEE T&D – Insulators 101

< 0.01 Very Light 0.87

0.01 – 0.04 Light 1.09

0.04 – 0.15 Medium 1.37

0.15 – 0.40 Heavy 1.70

> 0.40 Very Heavy 2.11

•IEEE T&D – Insulators 101

Leakage Distance Recommendations

ESDD (Equivalent Salt Deposit Density) Determination

• Smaller core and weather-shed diameter increase leakage current

• Higher leakage current density means more Ohmic Heating.

• In addition, hydrophobicity helps to minimize filming.

• Contamination performance of composite insulators exceeds that of

• Contamination flashover performance of silicone insulators exceeds

• Reduce the gradients associated with the shielded object

• Reduction in gradients helps to minimize RIV & TVI

– Inorganic – breaks down very slowly

• Grading (Corona) Rings

– Due to “corona cutting” and water droplet corona – NCIs may

– Rings must be:

– As a general rule – rings should be over the polymer – brackets

• Electrically- fairly stable with time

Issues with Ceramic Insulators

• Good contamination performance due to self cleaning properties

Result in – flashovers, line lockouts, worker safety concerns,

• Contamination performance- Mold growth etc

Glass Spotting damaged units Weight

1400 1.2x50us Impulse

100 102 104 106 108 10

§ From the literature/practice - There exist some remedial measures – Problems

§ There is a need to develop suitable mitigation technique which is cost effective

8 2nd disc faulty

With defective insulator discs at 9

Ins type 2nd 2&3rd faulty string 2,3&4th faulty string

160N 43% 50% 60% 66% 59% 73% 87% 110%

120AF 44% 52% 44% 60% 57% - 88% -

AC and DC Pollution Flashover studies on Transmission line Insulators (both ceramic

Development of special Instrumentation for measuring leakage current and harmonic