UNIT SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION: DEFINITIONS

Study time :5 hours

1.0 Introduction
As you teach or perhaps interact with learners, you may observe that they all
exhibit differences from one another in terms of their physical attributes like height,
weight, complexion, strength and learning abilities. Some pupils learn quickly and
are able to remember and apply what they have learned in different situations.
Others need repeated practice and have difficulty maintaining and generalizing
learned skills. The differences among pupils are relatively small. The learning
attributes or abilities of some pupils however differ from the norm to such an extent
that they may require extra help, specialized equipment and methodologies
specifically adapted to meet their needs.

Learning outcomes

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

i. Define terminologies used in special education
ii. Know the roles and responsibilities of special education teachers
iii. Be able to know the various labels and classifications of children with
special education needs
iv. Involvement of missionaries and development of special education in
Zambia
v. Government role in special education

Content

Clarification of terminologies
It is common in your everyday discourse to use certain terms
interchangeably without bothering about the confusion it may cause to both
professionals and lay persons. In this unit, attempts will be made to give the correct
use of terminologies as they are supposed to be applied in the context of special
education. Peoples first language will be used as we explore the different
terminologies in this unit.

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 Activity 1.1
Select five teachers randomly in any high school around you and ask them the
following questions
1. What is special education?
Compile their answers and after finishing reading through this unit compare
their answers. Why do you think they gave these answers?

1.1. Special Education - What the Ministry of Education Policies say.

The term Special Education in the first indigenous Zambian National Education
Policy of 1977, was used in a traditional way to refer to a form of different
education from the ordinary and directed to pupils with deficiencies. Today, the
concept of Special education refers to the ‘systematic provision of education to
children who have a physical, hearing or visual impairment; are significantly
different from others, whether by being very bright, slow or severely impaired
mentally; or are socially maladjusted or emotionally disturbed. Special education is
instruction specifically designed to meet the unique needs of a student with a
disability, including classroom instruction, instruction in physical education, home
instruction, and instruction in hospitals and institutions. Special education means
specially designed instruction that meets the unusual needs of an exceptional
student (Hallahan, Kauffman & Pullen, 2014). It may include special materials,
teaching techniques, or equipment and/or facilities The trend is toward placement
in environments closest to the general education classroom in format, especially
for younger children.

1.2. Special Educational Needs (SEN)

Zambia is largely influenced by its colonial legacy and the major
international players in its education system are usually the donors. Most concepts
used in the field of special education are either copied from its colonial power Great
Britain or international donors. The term Special Education Needs refers to all
children who because of physical or sensory problems cannot access education in
the normal way and may require certain adaptations for them to overcome barriers

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to learning. In other words, it’s a type of education that focus on the removal of
barriers embedded in social and educational practices that do not create
possibilities for pluralities of specific individual educational needs (Huefner, 2006).
Special educational needs are those characteristics which make it necessary to
provide a student undertaking an educational program with resources different
from those which are needed by most students. Special educational needs are
identified during assessment of a student; they are the basis for determining an
appropriate educational program (including necessary resources) for that student.

1.3. Special Needs Education (SNE)

In the first activity you were asked to define special education, you may have
included in your definition that it is the education of the disabled. This was true in
the past. Special education was targeted at children with visual, hearing,
developmental or physical impairment. Over the years, special education has not
been able to meet the needs of all children. In recent years there has been a
paradigm shift in the provision of education for children with special needs. This is
education which provides appropriate modification in curriculum delivery methods,
educational resources, medium of communication or the learning environment in
order to cater for individual differences in learning. Special Needs Education is the
provision of quality education that is in accordance with children’s’ potential and
needs in relation to the national curriculum. It covers all orphans and vulnerable
children (OVC). These are children who are marginalised and usually do not benefit
from general education. Some spend time on the street begging or generating
incomes for their families such that they miss out from school. Others are those
that usually find themselves on the wrong side of the law (Skjørten, 2001).

Similarly, Special education is instruction specifically designed to meet the unique

needs of a student with a disability, including classroom instruction, instruction in
physical education, home instruction, and instruction in hospitals and institutions.
Special education means specially designed instruction that meets the unusual
needs of an exceptional student. It may include special materials, teaching
techniques, or equipment and/or facilities The trend is toward placement in
environments closest to the general education classroom in format, especially for
younger children.

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1.4. Student with Special Needs

This refers to a student who has a disability of an intellectual, physical, sensory,

emotional or behavioural nature, has a learning disability or has special gifts or
talents.

1.5. Special Needs Education Teacher

This is a teacher who is trained to teach and support learners with special needs in
education.

1.6. Disability

This refers to the reduced function or loss of a particular body part or organ. It is
sometimes used interchangeably with the term impairment. A disability limits the
ability of an individual to perform certain tasks like reading, walking or talking. A
disability is an inability to do something that most people with typical maturation,
opportunity or instruction can do or a diminished capacity to perform in a specific
way while a handicap is a disadvantage imposed on an individual. A disability is
also a physical, sensory, cognitive, or affective impairment that causes the student
to need special education. We can also define it as lack or restriction of ability to
perform an activity in the manner within the range considered normal in the cultural
context of the human being (Farrell, 2008).

A disability is an inability or the lack of a specific ¬capacity to do something. Also, a

disability might or might not be a handicap, depending on the circumstances. For
instance, the inability to walk is not a handicap in ¬learning to read, but it can be a
handicap in getting into the stands at a ball game. Thus, a disability might or might
not be a handicap, depending on the circumstances (Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005).
We need to clarify that a person with a disability is not handicapped unless the
physical disability leads to educational, personal, social, vocational or other
challenges.

1.7. Handicap
This refers to a problem a person with a disability or impairment encounters
in interacting with the environment. The environment may either be social,
economic or academic. A disability may pose a handicap in one environment but

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not in another. If you take a physically impaired pupil, he may not be able to play
football but chess. You may not label the pupil to be handicapped in sports. The
child with a missing limb may be handicapped (i.e., disadvantaged) when
competing against nondisabled peers on the basketball court but experience no
disadvantage in the classroom. Many people with disabilities experience handicaps
that are the result of negative attitudes and inappropriate behaviour of others who
needlessly restrict their access and ability to participate fully in school, work, or
community activities.

On the other hand, a handicap is a disadvantage that is imposed on an individual.

For example, a learner who ¬cannot write with a pen but can use a typewriter would
be handicapped without such equipment. Similarly, a handicap might or might not
be caused by a disability. For example, blindness is a disability that can be anything
but a handicap in the dark. In fact, in the dark, the person who has sight is the one
who is handicapped. Needing to use a wheelchair might be a handicap in certain
circumstances, but the disadvantage may be caused by stare cases to go to upper
floors if there is no lift in a building(barriers) or other people’s reactions, not the
inability to walk. Other people can handicap those who differ from themselves (in
color, size, appearance, language, and so on) by stereotyping them or not giving
them opportunities to do the things they are able to do (Heward, 2013).

Therefore, when working and living with children who have disabilities, we must
constantly strive to separate their disabilities from the handicaps. That is, our goal
should be to confine the handicaps to those characteristics and circumstances that
can’t be changed and to make sure that we impose no further handicaps by our
attitudes or our unwillingness to accommodate their disabilities.

1.8. Impairment

An impairment refers to the loss or reduced function of a particular body part or

organ (for example, a missing limb of an individual). This means that a disability
occurs when an impairment limits a person’s ability to perform certain activities
such as walking, seeing (physical impairment when an individual has a missing
limb or visual impairment in case of loss of sight). Take for instance, a child who
has lost his legs but learns to use artificial limbs and functions in and around his
home, school, public places and environment, you cannot say the child is

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handicapped because he is able to function with less difficult in the physical
environment.

1.9. Disorder

Another terminology worth looking at is disorder. This is different from a disability,

handicap or impairment. A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written, which
may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or
do mathematical calculations (e.g mental). The term includes, but is not limited to
conditions such as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction,
dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include children who have
learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps;
mental retardation; emotional disturbance; or environmental, cultural, or economic
disadvantages.

1.9.1. Roles and responsibilities of special education teachers

Both special education teachers have various roles in the education provision for
children with special needs. In an inclusion classroom, students with disabilities
and other special needs are taught alongside non-disabled students, instead of
being segregated in a special education classroom. To help meet students' needs, a
special education teacher may work alongside a general education teacher in an
inclusion classroom. The role of a special education teacher in such an
arrangement varies according to the needs of individual students and how well the
two teachers work together. Some of the roles are:

Planning

In an ideal inclusion classroom, the special education teacher and regular

education teacher engage in co-planning. They work together to design lesson
plans to fit the needs of all students, with the special education teacher focusing on
the needs of the special needs students. In some cases, however, the general
education teacher plans the classroom lessons and the special education teacher

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adapts those lessons to meet the needs of her students. The teacher may also use
the lessons to develop review materials or plan one-on-one instruction with special
needs students before or after the class.

Instruction

The amount of actual instruction a special education teacher gives in an inclusion

classroom varies. In some inclusion classrooms, the two teachers take turns
presenting lessons. This may be done on a daily basis, with each teacher taking a
portion of the lesson, or the special education teacher may teach the class one or
two days a week. When not teaching the entire class, the special education teacher
may sit beside students and provide one-on-one help or additional instruction. To
help students feel more included as a part of the class, the special education
teacher may not be in the inclusion classroom every day, unless a student's needs
require it.

Classroom management

Even though the focus of a special education teacher's job is the special needs
students in the class, the teacher is also responsible for helping the general
education teacher manage the classroom. Other students must listen to and
respect the authority of the special education teacher. The teacher also helps set
the classroom rules and routines, working with the teacher to create a classroom
climate that benefits students with special needs. It is also a special education
teacher's job to be aware of individual students' behavior plans and provide
discipline accordingly.

Collaboration

As an inclusion teacher, you must collaborate with a regular education teacher or

multiple teachers to plan and present lesson plans, create assessments and make
sure the needs of all students in the classroom are being met. While your focus may
be on planning with your special education students in mind, the goal of an
inclusion classroom is to keep special education students from feeling singled out.
As you plan, focus on scaffolding activities and differentiating instruction to meet
the needs of all students, not just the special education students

Accommodation

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A special education student's Individualized Education Plan (IEP) contains
accommodations that must be met at all times. Some students' IEPs may require a
teacher to orally read tests, modify homework assignments or take notes for
students to review later. If you find a teacher is ignoring a student's
accommodations, it is your job to correct the teacher and offer suggestions for
making it easier to follow all of the accommodations. An inclusion teacher will also
regularly evaluate whether certain accommodations can be removed from the IEP
at the next review or if new accommodations should be added.

Documentation

Documentation is a critical part of special education. At regular reviews of a

student's IEP and conferences with parents, teachers show proof that they are
adhering to the accommodations laid out in a student's IEP and provide evidence to
explain whether the accommodations are working or require modification. In
addition to following the IEP, an inclusion teacher regularly assesses students to
see if they are meeting their academic and developmental goals, tracks their growth
and keeps parents up to date on their children's progress

Communication

An inclusion teacher must communicate effectively with those involved in the

education of a special education student. The teacher should regularly
communicate with parents about the child's needs and progress through phone
calls, letters and secure emails. Special education students also regularly talk with
the inclusion teacher about their feelings related to the inclusion classroom and the
progress being made toward their goals. Because of the sensitive nature of a
student's disabilities, the inclusion teacher ensures that confidential information is
only shared with those authorized to hear it. Conversations with students take place
outside of the inclusion classroom so they do not feel singled out or that sensitive
conversations are not overhead by their peers.

1.9.2 Labels and classification of children with special education needs

Many years ago, labelling and classifying people were of little significance because
the main concern was centred on survival. Those whose disabilities prevented full
participation in the activities necessary for survival were left on their own to perish
and, in some instances, were even killed (Berkson, 2004). In later years, offensive

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words such as, imbecile, stupid and fool were applied to people with intellectual
disabilities or behaviour problems, and other demeaning words were used for
people with health impairments or physical disabilities. These terms shared a
common function to exclude people with disabilities from the activities and
privileges of everyday life. It was purely survival of the fittest. However, over time,
when the move to recognise people with disabilities were enforced, more
meaningful words were used and labels played an important role.

Labelling and Eligibility for Special Education

Under the federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), to receive
special education and related services, a child must be identified as having a
disability (i.e., labelled) and, in most cases, further classified into one of that state’s
categories, such as learning disabilities or orthopaedic impairments. (IDEA allows
children ages 3 to 9 to be identified as developmentally delayed and receive special
education services without the use of a specific disability label.) In practice,
therefore, a student becomes eligible for special education and related services
because of membership in a given disability category.

Some educators believe that the labels used to identify and classify exceptional
children stigmatize them and serve to deny them opportunities in the mainstream.
Yet others argue that a workable system of classifying exceptional children (or their
exceptional learning needs) is a prerequisite to providing needed special
educational services and that using more “pleasant” terms minimizes and devalues
the individual’s situation and need for supports. As Kauffman (2003) noted, the
stigma of cancer was not eliminated by referring to those affected as people with
prolific cells or challenging tissue.

Labelling and classification are complex issues involving emotional, political, and
ethical considerations in addition to scientific, fiscal, and educational interests
(Florian et al., 2006; McLaughlin et al., 2006). As with most complex issues, valid
perspectives and arguments exist on both sides of the labelling question. The
reasons most often cited for and against the labelling and classification of
exceptional children follow.

Possible Benefits of Labelling and Classification

 Labelling recognizes meaningful differences in learning or behaviour and is

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 a first and necessary step in responding responsibly to those differences.
As Kauffman (1999) points out, “Although universal interventions that apply
equally to all . . . can be implemented without labels and risk of stigma, no
other interventions are possible without labels. Either all students are
treated the same or some are treated differently. Any student who is treated
differently is inevitably labelled… Labelling a problem clearly is the first
step in dealing with it productively” (p. 452).

 A disability label can provide access to accommodations and services not

available to people without the label. For example, some parents of
secondary students seek a learning disability label so their child will be
eligible for accommodations such as additional time on college entrance
exams.

 Labelling may lead to a protective response in which peers are more

accepting of the atypical behaviour of a child with disabilities than they
would be of a child without disabilities who emitted that same behaviour.

 Classification helps practitioners and researchers communicate with one

another and classify and evaluate research findings (e.g., National Autism
Center, 2009).

 Funding and resources for research and other programs are often based
on specific categories of exceptionality (e.g., Interagency Autism
Coordinating Committee, 2011).

 Labels enable disability-specific advocacy groups to promote specific

programs and spur legislative action.

 Labelling helps make exceptional children’s special needs more visible to

policy makers and the public.

On the contrary, the Possible Disadvantages of Labelling and Classification are:

 Because the labels used in special education usually focus on disability,

impairment, or performance deficits, they may lead some people to think
only in terms of what the individual cannot do instead of what she can do or

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 might be capable of doing (Terzi, 2005).

 Labels may stigmatize the child and lead peers to reject or ridicule the
labelled child.

 Teachers may hold low expectations for a labelled student (Bianco, 2005)
and treat her differentially as a result, which may lead to a self- fulfilling
prophecy. For example, in one study, student teachers gave a child labelled
“autistic” more praise and rewards and fewer verbal corrections for incorrect
responses than they gave a child labelled “normal” Such differential
treatment could impede the rate at which a child learns new skills and
contribute to a level of performance consistent with the label’s prediction.

 Labels may negatively affect the child’s self-esteem.

 Disability labels are often misused as explanatory constructs (e.g., “Sherry

acts that way because she is emotionally disturbed”).

 Even though membership in a given category is based on a particular

characteristic (e.g., deafness), there is a tendency to assume that all children
in a category share other traits as well, thereby diminishing the detection
and appreciation of each child’s uniqueness (J. D. Smith & Mitchell, 2001).

 Labels suggest that learning problems are primarily the result of something
inherently wrong with the child, thereby reducing the systematic
examination of and accountability for instructional variables as causes of
performance deficits. This is an especially damaging outcome when a label
provides a built-in excuse for ineffective instruction (e.g., “Jalen’s learning
disability prevents him from comprehending printed text.”).

 A disproportionate number of children from some minority and diverse

cultural groups are included in special education programs and thus have
been assigned disability labels (Sullivan, 2011).

 Classifying exceptional children requires the expenditure of a great amount

of money and professional and student time that might be better spent in
delivering and evaluating the effects of early intervention for struggling
students (L. S. Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007a).

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Although the pros and cons of using disability category labels have been widely
debated for several decades neither conceptual arguments nor research has
produced a conclusive case for the total acceptance or absolute rejection of
labelling practices. Most of the studies conducted to assess the effects of labelling
have produced inconclusive, often contradictory evidence and have generally been
marked by methodological weakness. Educators have proposed a number of
alternative approaches to classifying exceptional children that focus on
educationally relevant variables (Terzi, 2005). Some noted special educators have
suggested that exceptional children be classified according to the curriculum and
skill areas they need to learn.

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HISTORICAL ORIGINS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION
2.1 Early history of special education
The early history of societal involvement with individuals with disabilities has
been primarily one of misunderstanding and superstition. Persons with visual and
hearing impairments and those who are mentally challenged have existed since the
beginning of human race. In Zambia, there is a saying that witches and spinster are
always present in anyvillage. Like spinsters and perceived witches, persons with
disabilities are found in every community.
In your oral history, you may have heard how parents reacted when the
woman gave birth to a child with a disability. In most cultures, it was a norm for the
father to determine the fate of a newly born infant. He decided whether to keep the
child or throw it away.
However, during the middle ages, the rise of Christianity reduced such cases
of persons with disability being abandoned. This was because of the idea of love
and concern for others that had gained headways. Unfortunately, the belief that
persons with mental retardation were less human persisted. In some cultures, they
were even considered to be possessed by demons or evil spirits and were subjected
to exorcism to remove the demons. In some instances, they were even accused of
being witches.
During the late 16th century the picture started to slowly change. One Spanish
Monk – Pedro Ponce de León - is credited to have managed to teach a small group
of deaf pupils to “speak, read and write”. This breakthrough led to the reversal of the
official position of the church that the deaf were uneducable.
Later, effective procedures were devised for teaching children with sensory
impairments (i.e., those who were blind or deaf). In 1760, Abbe de l’Epee opened a
school for the deaf in Paris. This was after the development of finger spelling for
the deaf by Juan Bonet. Another notable school for the blind was opened in France
by Valentin Huay in 1784. Huay was actually compelled to help teach the blind after
he had witnessed ten of them being exploited for public entertainment. This resolve
saw the establishment of the National Institution for Young Blind People.In 1829,
Samuel Gridley Howe created the first residential school for students who were
blind the curriculum focused on both traditional reading, writing, and mathematics
and students’ individual interests and abilities.

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 Early in the 19th century, the first systematic attempts were made to
educate “idiotic” and “insane” children those who today are said to have intellectual
disabilities and emotional or behavioural disorders or emotional disturbance
(Stichter et al., 2008). In the pre-Revolutionary era, the best that society offered
most children with disabilities was protection in asylum from a cruel world into
which they didn’t fit and in which they couldn’t survive with dignity.

But as the ideas of democracy, individual freedom, and equality swept

across America and France, a change in attitude occurred. Political reformers and
leaders in medicine and education began to champion the cause of children and
adults with disabilities, urging that these “imperfect” or “incomplete” people be
taught skills that would allow them to become independent and productive citizens.
These humanitarian sentiments surpassed a desire to protect and defend people
with disabilities.

The early leaders wanted to normalize exceptional people to the greatest

extent possible and confer on them the human dignity they apparently lacked.
Modern educational methods for exceptional children can be traced directly to
techniques pioneered during the early 1800s. Many (perhaps most) of today’s vital,
controversial issues have been issues ever since the birth of special education.
Some present-day writers believe that the history of special education is critically
important to understanding today’s issues and should receive more attention
because of the lessons we can learn from our past (Gerber, 2011; Kauffman &
Landrum, 2006).

Another remarkable event that contributed to the change in societal

attitudes towards individuals with disabilities was the 1798 occurrence that took
place near Aveyron, France. It is vital to recognize the major historical events and
trends since 1800. Most originators of special education were European physicians
who were primarily young, ambitious people who challenged the wisdom of the
established authorities, including their own friends and teachers. Most historians
trace the beginning of special education as we know it today to Jean-Marc-Gaspard
Itard (1774–1838), a French physician who was an authority on diseases of the ear
and on the education of students who were deaf. In the early 19th century, this
young doctor began to educate a boy of about 12 years of age who had been found
roaming naked and wild in the forests of France (sometimes referred to as the “wild

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child” or the “wild boy of Aveyron forest”). (Kauffman & Landrum, 2006).

Itard’s mentor, Philippe Pinel, a prominent French physician who was an

early advocate of humane treatment of “insane” people, advised Itard that his
efforts would be unsuccessful because the boy, Victor, was a “hopeless idiot.” But
Itard insisted that victor will learn some day and obtained custody of the boy. He did
not eliminate Victor’s disabilities, but he did dramatically improve the wild child’s
behaviour through patient, systematic educative procedures (Itard, 1962).

Following are some of the innovative ideas of Itard and his successors that form
the foundation for present-day special education:

a. Individualized instruction, in which the child’s characteristics, rather than

prescribed academic content, provide the basis for teaching techniques

b. Emphasis on stimulation and awakening of the child’s senses, to make the

child more aware of and responsive to educational stimuli

c. Meticulous arrangement of the child’s environment, so that the structure of

the environment and the child’s experience of it lead naturally to learning

d. Immediate reward for correct performance, providing reinforcement for

desirable behaviour

2.2 Institutional movement (Asylums and Special homes)

Between the 1800 and 1900 saw the emergency of institutions for the
disabled all over Europe and the United States. These were started mostly by
charitable organizations and religious groups. The driving force behind this
movement was to keep the undesirable or unattractive persons away from the
public eye and hence off the public conscience. This practice when looked at today
is completely against human rights but at that time was far much better than the
practice of abandoning disabled babies in the forest to be devoured by animals.
Among the earliest institutions to be established were for the blind and the
deaf. Special homes for the Mentally Retarded followed years later.
2.3 Public schools and Special classes
In the United Kingdom (UK), the first forms of “special schools” appeared in
the latter part of the 18th century. The Thomas Braidwood Academy was among the

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first schools for the Deaf to be opened. Most of these schools which were opened
offered vocation training but were motivated mostly by commercial rather than
education or charitable factors
In the UK, the taking over of education responsibilities by the government
controlled London School Board in 1874 saw the establishment of classes for deaf
children at public elementary schools.
In the United States, the first special education school - the American
Asylum for the Education and Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb (now called the
American School for the Deaf), was established in 1817 by Thomas Hopkins
Gallaudet. By the middle of the nineteenth century, special educational programs
were being provided in many asylums. By the close of the nineteenth century,
special classes within regular public schools had been launched in major cities in
the USA. These special classes were initially filled with immigrant pupils who were
not proficient in English and those who had mild mental retardation or behavioural
disorders (Winzer, 1993).

Activity 2.1
1. List and explain major breakthroughs and stages of development in special
education in the Western world

The introduction of finger spelling by Juan Bonnet saw the establishment of

schools in France like the Abbe de I’ Eppe a school for the deaf in 1760.Another
milestone covered in the development of special education was attempts that were
made by Jean Marc Gaspard Itard who obtained custody of a boy named Victor
who was found by hunters in the forest of Aveyron a town near Paris. A renowned
scholar, Phillipe Pinel declared Victor as an incurable idiot but Itard managed to
teach him few things.
Residential learning institutions for people with disabilities emerged between
1800 and 1900. They were started mostly by charitable and religious organizations.
Some of the early residential institutions were usually asylums. They were mostly
designed to keep away the disabled from the public eye. This was followed by
public and special schools in countries like England and the USA.
2.4 The history of special education in Zambia

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2.4.1 Missionary involvement and the introduction of special education
The history of special education like that of general education had its
genesis in mission stations. The first attempt to provide some form of organized
special education in Zambia was made by a wife of a Dutch Reformed Church
missionary – Issie Hofmeyr in 1905 at Magwero in Chipata. The aim of Issie
Hofmeyr was to make the gospel available to the blind. When Issie Hofmeyr died in
1910, Ella Botes took over and opened a class at Madzimoyo. When the number of
pupils increased a school was opened at Magwero. Others who were inspired by
her work were the Franciscan Fathers of the Catholic Church who opened a special
school at Bwana Mukubwa near Ndola town. The success of these first
missionaries propelled other Christian societies like the Evangelical Missionary
Society (PEMS) to open their school doors for the Blind at Sefula near Mongu in
Western Zambia.
2.4.2 Government Role in Special Education
At independence in 1964, the new government of Kenneth Kaunda marshaled
resources to build more schools to meet the manpower needs of a young nation.
The Ministry of Education was mandated to expand the educational system, but
special education was not among its listed priorities. This was because the special
education unit was not located in the Ministry of Education (MOE) but at the then
Ministry Labour and Social Services. This Ministry did not have the capacity and the
required expertise to effectively meet the special educational needs of persons with
disabilities. This was the state of affairs for almost the entire duration of the First
National Development Plan (FNDP).
The FNDP was the roadmap that the new government drew up in terms of
investment and infrastructure development. In this plan, the Ministry of Education
was tasked address the inadequacies in the sector of general education. Special
education received no attention whatsoever until 1971 when a presidential decree
brought the special education unit from Ministry of Labour to MOE.
The Missed years of the FNDP, when the MOE was had received massive
financial support from the central government for the development of the education
sector had a telling effect later on the development of special education. The MOE
continued to depend on Missionary societies and Non-Governmental Organizations
(NGO) to run special education. Special education was seen more like a voluntary

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service. There was no serious commitment to its expansion or modernization. Very
little attention was paid to both infrastructure and material development. To date
this can be seen in the physical design of most schools. Almost all the schools in
Zambia are designed with the “normal” child in mind.
In the early years of ZAMISE’s existence the training package mostly
attracted primary school teachers though the course was designed for all levels of
the education system. Most high school teachers shunned the course because of
lack of information. This has created serious shortages of qualified special
education high school teachers. Most pupils with disabilities are either sent to
special schools far away from their homes or they are denied places in ordinary
schools on grounds that there are no teachers to handle them.
Ad hoc approached towards special education was also the norm. There
were no well-defined official structures for running special education from the time
the ministry of education to the extent where matters concerning special education
was handled by a single Inspector of schools (Education Standards Officer) based
at Ministry HQ.

2.4.4 Current State of Special Education in Zambia

You may have heard about the restructuring of the public service. The MOE
was also affected by this restructuring. The restructuring of the MOE brought about
the establishment of and administrative structure for special education. Highly
qualified specialist teachers have been appointed to manage special education at
all levels of the Ministry. Special education now falls under a unit in the Directorate
of Education and Specialized Services with a Principal Education Officer in charge.
At provincial level a senior Education Standards Officer (SESO) – Special is
responsible for all matters related to special education. The Education Standards
Officer – Special is in charge at district level. The MOE has also provided funds for
special education through school grants.
To mitigate disadvantages experienced by candidates with Special
Educational Needs (SEN) during exams, the Examinations Council of Zambia has
produced guidelines for the administration of national examinations.
The Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) of the MOE has also produced
materials and alternative curriculum for learners with SEN.

18
 A professional Special education degree programme has been introduced to
train high school teachers at both the University of Zambia and Kwame Nkrumah
University. Special education has also been made a compulsory course for both the
Secondary Teachers’ Diploma and Primary Teachers’ Diploma.
At the time when the Ministry of Education (MOE) was mandated to run
special education, there were very few qualified specialist teachers. The few
qualified teachers had received their training outside the country. This mode of
training of specialist teachers outside the country could not be sustained and hence
college dedicated to train specialist teacher same – Lusaka College for Teachers of
the Handicapped (LUCOTEHA) which was established in 1971 and later renamed
the Zambia Institute of Special Education (ZAMISE) in 1995. The capacity of this
college though small has produced all categories of special education teachers.
The college has also trained specialist teachers around.

Unit summary
The concept of special education has been defined in different ways by
different scholars but it all means the same thing. The provision of quality
education that is in accordance with children’s’ potential and needs in relation to
the national curriculum. It covers all vulnerable children and marginalised who
usually do not benefit from general education. From the various definitions that
have been given, it is hoped that you have found it beneficial and able to use them
correctly. You have been urged to use the peoples first language- person first and
disability second.
In early history people with disabilities were cruelly treated. Those
with Mental Retardation were considered to be possessed by evil spirits and
subjected to exorcism.
The Christian idea of love and compassion helped to change societal attitudes
towards the disabled. Monks like Pedro Ponce de León are credited to be among

19
the first to attempt to teach deaf pupils.
Missionary societies were the pioneers of special education in Zambia and
have continued to play an important role in the provision of special education. The
government since taking over the responsibility of special education from the then
Ministry of Labour and Social Services has made a lot of strides though they still
remain a lot of challenges in making special education available to children with
SEN

UNIT 2
PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION SERVICES

Study time :5 hours

Introduction

If you look back in the development of special education, you will see that each era
had a system of serving children with disabilities. Even today not all children with
SEN are served in the same environment. Different settings are still being used to
deliver special education. This unit will take you through the process of special
education and the different settings in which it is offered.

20
 Learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

i. Describe the idea process of special education
ii. Differentiate the different settings available for special education
provision
iii. Identify advantages of each special education setting

Content

3.0 The process of special education

In Zambia there are no legislative procedures that schools must follow when
identifying and educating children with disabilities. Usually administrative
guidelines and common sense among professionals has been used to provide
special education services. In this unit attempts shall be made to explain the idea
process of providing special education.
An Individual Education Plan (IEP) is a documented plan developed for a
student with special needs that describes individualized goals, adaptations,
modifications, the services to be provided, and includes measures for tracking
achievement. We can also say that it is a written statement of specially designed
instruction which is prepared by the IEP team at the meeting that describes the
students

 eligibility,

 present level of performance,

 annual goals and short term objectives,

 educational and related services and amount of time in general education

An Individual Education Plan (IEP) is a documented plan developed for a student

with special needs that describes individualized goals, adaptations, modifications,
the services to be provided, and includes measures for tracking achievement. An
IEP must have one or more of the following:

21
 • the goals or outcomes set for that student for that school year where they
are different from the learning outcomes set out in an applicable educational
program guide; or
• a list of the support services required to achieve goals established for the
student; or
• a list of the adaptations to educational materials, instructional strategies or
assessment methods.

An IEP should also include the following:

• the present levels of educational performance of the student;

• the setting where the educational program is to be provided;
• the names of all personnel who will be providing the educational program
and the support services for the student during the school year;
• the period of time and process for review of the IEP;
• evidence of evaluation or review, which could include revisions made to the
plan and the tracking of achievement in relation to goals; and
• plans for the next transition point in the student's education (including
transitions beyond school completion).

It serves as a tool for collaborative planning among the school, the parents, the
student (where appropriate) and, as necessary, school district personnel, other
ministries and/or community agencies. Typically, an IEP includes individualized
goals with measurable objectives, adaptations and/or modifications where
appropriate, the strategies to meet these goals, and measures for tracking student
achievement in relation to the goals. It also documents the special education
services being provided as these relate to the student’s identified needs. Some
students require small adaptations and minimum levels of support; other students
with more complex needs may require detailed planning for educational
modifications, adaptive technologies, or health care plans. The IEP will reflect the
complexity of the student's need and, accordingly, can be brief or more detailed
and lengthy.

The development of an IEP serves a number of purposes:

• It formalizes planning decisions and processes, linking assessment with

22
 programming.
• It provides teachers, parents, and students with a record of the educational
program for an individual student with special needs, and serves as the
basis for reporting the student's progress.
• It serves as a tool for tracking individual student learning in terms of agreed
upon goals and objectives.
• It documents the relationships between any support services being provided
and the student's educational program.

It provides parents and students with a mechanism for input into the individualized
planning process

IEP documentation provides evidence that:

• the parent and/or student were offered the opportunity to be consulted

about the preparation of the IEP;
• the student is receiving learning activities in accordance with IEP; and
• the IEP is reviewed at least once each school year.

What must an IEP contain?

The IEP document does not describe every aspect of the student's program. It
makes reference to those aspects of the education program that are adapted or
have been modified, and identifies the support services to be provided. IEP
learning outcomes are often described as goals and objectives.

An IEP must have one or more of the following:

• the goals or outcomes set for that student for that school year where they
are different from the learning outcomes set out in an applicable educational
program guide; or
• a list of the support services required to achieve goals established for the
student; or
• a list of the adaptations to educational materials, instructional strategies or
assessment methods.

23
An IEP should also include the following:

• the present levels of educational performance of the student;

• the setting where the educational program is to be provided;
• the names of all personnel who will be providing the educational program
and the support services for the student during the school year;
• the period of time and process for review of the IEP;
• evidence of evaluation or review, which could include revisions made to the
plan and the tracking of achievement in relation to goals; and
• plans for the next transition point in the student's education
Where the goals established for the student are different from the expected
learning outcomes for the age or grade, these should

• be set at a high but attainable level to encourage parents, students and staff
to hold high expectations.
• be accompanied by measurable objectives developed for each goal to
enable IEP review and evaluation.

The IEP may be brief, or it may be more detailed and complex, depending on the
complexity of the student's needs. For example, the IEP for a student who needs

Who must have an IEP?

All students with special needs must have an IEP. An exception can be made if:

• the student with special needs requires no adaptation or only minor

adaptations to educational materials, or instructional or assessment
methods;
• the expected learning outcomes established by the applicable educational
program guide have not been modified for the student with special needs;
and

the student with special needs requires in a school year, 25 hours or less remedial
instruction, by a person other than the classroom teacher in order for the student to
meet the expected learning outcomes.
This is a statement written for every pupil receiving special education; it

24
describes the child’s current level of performance and goals for the school year, the
particular special education services to be delivered, and procedures by which
outcome are to be evaluated.
An IEP must be developed and implemented for each child who receives special
education. This plan is one method of documenting a student's key goals and
learning outcomes to assist the education team in reporting to parents. It is not a
total plan of instruction to be undertaken by a student with a disability, but rather
the IEP focuses on the goals that are essential to maximize the learning of each
student.
The IEP process brings parents/carers, professionals and the student (where
appropriate) team together to consider the student's current performance and to
determine support needs and learning goals for the next six months. An IEP is only
one tool a teacher or specialist support staff member might use to record either:
 outcomes for a student which differ to the outcomes for their peers
 adjustments being made for an individual student which are beyond the
adjustments being made for other class members
(a) the child’s present performance levels
(b) annual and short - term instructional objectives
(c) the specific education services to be provided and the extent to which the
child will be able to participate in regular education
(d) the projected date for initiation and anticipated duration of such services
(e) Criteria, evaluation procedures, and schedules for determining whether
objectives are being achieved.
Activity 4.1
1. Prepare an IEP based on your teaching subject for a high school pupil with a
hearing impairment.

SAMPLE OF INDIVIDUALISED EDUCATION PROGRAMME FORM

1. Personal information
Name……………………………………………………………………..……………...
School……………………………………………………………………………………
Date of birth……………………………………………………………………………...

25
Parent’s Name……………………………………………………………………………
Address…………………………………………………………………………………...
Name of Class Teacher…………………………………………………………………...
Date of IEP meeting………………………………………………………………………
2. Continuum of services
Placement…………………. Hours per week
Regular class ………………………………………………..……..
Resource teacher in regular …………………………………………………….…..
classroom
Resource room …………………………………………………….….
Special class ……………………………………………………….
Transmission class ……………………………………………..………..
Other ……………………………………………………….

3. Committee members
……………………………………………………………….…………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………..……
………………………………………………………………………………………..………..
…………………………………………………………………………………….……………
…………………………………………………………………………………..………………
4. Testing information
Test name Date administered Interpretation

5. Health information
Vision …………………………………………………………………….

26
 Hearing …………………………………………………………………….
Physician …………………………………………………………………….
Other ……………………………………………………………………..

6. Level of performance (subject area)

………………………………………………………………….…………….………..………….
……………………………………………………………………………….……………………
7. Annual goals
(i) …………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
(ii) …………….……………………………………………………………………….……………..
(i) ……………………….………………………………………………………………….…….…….
(ii) ……………………….…………………………………………………..………………………….
Date Objectives Materials Evaluation Date Person
Initiated achieved responsible

8.Health information
Vision ………………………………………………………………….
Hearing ………………………………………………………………….
Physician ………………………………………………………………….
Other ………………………………………………………………….

3.1 Pre-referral intervention

A learner who requires special education usually comes to the attention of the

27
schools because;
(iii) teachers or parents have raised concerns about differences in learning or
behaviour
(iv) results from a screening test may suggest a possible disability
Before referring a child for more formal testing and evaluation for special
education, the school is expected to conduct a process known as pre-referral
intervention. This is an informal, problem solving process aimed at providing
immediate instructional or behaviour management to both the child and the teacher.
It is also meant to reduce chances of children being considered for special
education who may not be disabled. A screening test can be used for this purpose.
Screening tests are relatively quick, inexpensive and easy to administer assessment
given to a large group of children to find out who might have a disability and need
further testing.
Schools should use intervention assistance teams to help classroom teachers
devise and implement adaptations for a pupil who is experiencing either academic
or behavioural difficulties so that they may remain in regular classrooms.
3.2 Evaluation and identification
Assessment and evaluation should be conducted by a team sometimes
referred to as multidisciplinary team. The team examines the test results and any
other relevant information pertaining to the performance of the child to determine if
a child has a disability and needs special education. Multidisciplinary teams are
composed of professionals from different disciplines who work independently of
one another. Each team member conducts assessment, plans interventions and
delivers services. There must be real team work by the multidisciplinary team.
There is danger to “splinter” the child into segments along disciplinary lines.
Multidisciplinary teams must comprise persons at least one of whom has
knowledge in the child’s area of disability.

3.3 Evaluation considerations

 Technically sound instruments must be used to assess the pupil across the
four domains of cognitive, behavioural, physical and developmental.
 Test must not discriminate on the basis of race or culture
 Test must be provided and administered in the child’s native language or

28
 other mode of communication
 When using standardized tests, they must have been validated for specific
purposes for which they are used.
 Standardized tests must be administered by trained personnel in accordance
with any instructions provided by the publisher of the tests.
 The child must be assessed in all areas related to the suspected disability
 The evaluation process must rely on any single procedure as the sole
criterion for determining whether the pupil has a disability, the pupil’s
programme, or placement.

3.4 Programme planning and Placement

Once the evaluation team has determined that a child has a disability that is
adversely affecting his/her educational performance, and Individualized Education
Programme (IEP) must be planned and provided. The IEP determines the learning
goals and objectives, implementers and frequency of specialized instruction and
related services of a child’s special education programme. After the child’s
educational needs and related services necessary to meet those needs are
determined, the IEP team may now decide the appropriate education that may be
provided. This is the last stage but very important. The IEP must constantly be
evaluated from time to time. No matter how appropriate the goals and objectives
are it should be open for review.

29
30
3.5 Collaboration in Special Education
Special education to be delivered successfully requires team work. Collaboration
has become common and necessary practice in special education. Teachers who
work with pupils with special needs tend to deliver their lesson well when they work
together. The following are the ways in which team members can work
collaboratively;
(i) Coordination: This is the simplest form of collaboration requiring only
ongoing communication and cooperation to ensure that services are
provided in timely and systematic fashion.
(ii) Consultation: team members provide information and expertise to one
another.
(iii) Teaming: Each step of the special education process involves a group of
people who must work together for the benefit of a child with special
needs.
(iv) Education team role and responsibilities:
(v) identify students experiencing barriers to learning
(vi) establish collaborative relationships with the parent in all aspects of the
EAP process including informing them of the disability criteria and the
required supporting evidence
(vii) obtain and record parent consent to start the processes involved by using
the IEP Consent Form
(viii) refer students to appropriate education specialists for assessment
(ix) request additional support (for the class, teacher or student) through
school processes
(x) collect data about the student's learning and functioning in the classroom
environment
(xi) ensure students are accessing and achieving the learnings described in
the mandated curriculum documents
(xii) establish processes that enable students where possible, to be active
participants in the verification process

31
 (xiii) participate in the validation process as required.

3.6 Special Education continuum of services

In countries like the United Kingdom and the United States of America there
is legislation that stipulates how special education is delivered. In the United States,
the Individual with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) amendments of 1992 require
that pupils with disabilities be educated in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE).
The LRE is a setting that is closets to a regular school programme and also
meets the child’s special educational Needs. A Least Restrictive Environment is a
relative concept: It may be appropriate for one pupil and not for the other.
In Britain the Education Act of 1981 enshrines principles of effective practice
for the delivery of special education.
In Zambia the national education policy – Educating Our Future – strongly
recommends that pupils with special educational needs must as much as possible
be integrated into the normal life and activities of the community and ordinary
schools (GRZ, 1996). It further recommends that the special needs of a pupil should
be the determining factor of whether the child be placed in a regular classroom or a
special school.
Learners with disabilities and their families need a wide range of special
education related services. Today most children with special education are
provided with a continuum of services. A continuum of these services is usually
depicted as a pyramid with placement ranging from regular classroom at the
bottom to residential programmes at the top.
(i) Specialized facilities (Hospital units, Home based care, Cheshire Homes)
Pupils placed here are those that require protection that cannot be provided in
public schools. There are usually very few pupils in these facilities.
(ii) Special Schools (St, Josephs, St. Mulumba, Magwero, Ndola Lions School
of the Blind)
Pupils here receive prescribed programmes under the direction of specialist
teachers in specifically designed facilities within the public school system. There
are slightly more pupils here compared to specialized facilities.
(iii) Special Education Units
These are special education classes that are found usually attached to regular high

32
schools like those that are found at Munali, Kalomo and Sefula. Most basic schools
in Zambia have special education units. Pupils here receive prescribed instruction
under the direction of a special education teacher.
(iv) Regular classroom and resource room.
Pupils receive instruction under the regular teacher; in addition, he/she spends
part –time in specially staffed and equipped resource room.
(v) Regular classroom with supplementary instruction and services
The pupil receive instruction under the direction of a regular class teacher in
addition receives prescribed supplementary instruction itinerary or school based
specialist teacher.
(vi) Regular classroom with consultation to teacher
Pupils receive prescribed programme under the direction of regular classroom
teacher who is supported by ongoing consultation from specialist teacher
(vii) Regular classroom Pupils receive prescribed programme under the
direction of a regular classroom teacher.

33
Adaptations are “best practice” in teaching. A student working on learning
outcomes of any grade or course level may be supported through use of
adaptations. Adaptations do not represent unfair advantages to students. In fact,
the opposite could be true. If appropriate adaptations are not used, students could
be unfairly penalized for having learning differences, creating serious negative
impacts to their achievement and self-concept.

Assessment is a systematic process of gathering information in order to make

appropriate educational decisions for a student. It is a collaborative and
progressive process designed to identify the student's strengths and needs, set
goals, and results in the identification and implementation of selected educational
strategies.

Collaborative consultation is a process in which people work together to solve a

common problem or address a common concern. A successful collaborative
process is characterized by the following features: it is voluntary; there is mutual
trust and open communication among the people involved;
identification/clarification of the problem to be addressed is a shared task; the goal
is shared by all participants; each participant's contribution is valued equally; all
participants' skills are employed in identifying and selecting problem-solving
strategies; and there is shared responsibility for the program or strategy initiated.

A neighbourhood school is the school that students would normally attend if they
did not have special needs.

A school-based team is an on-going team of school-based personnel which has a

formal role to play as a problem-solving unit in assisting classroom teachers to
develop and implement instructional and/or management strategies and to
coordinate support resources for students with special needs within the school.

Transition is the passage of a student from one environment to another at key

points in his or her development from childhood to adulthood.

Transition planning is the preparation, implementation and evaluation required to

enable students to make major transitions during their lives - from home or
preschool to school; from class to class; from school to school; from school district

34
to school district; and from school to post-secondary, community or work situations.

Unit 3: HANDICAPPING CONDITIONS

Introduction

Research has shown that children who are at-risk of developing disabilities
are those that are born with low birth weight, premature or have serious medical
complications at birth. During the prenatal period and the time immediately after
birth is viewed by many as the most critical in the entire life of an individual.
Inadequate birth weight and incomplete gestation; both of which can be caused by
a number of factors are the most prevalent conditions that place an infant at
developmental risks. However, the following unit shall discuss some of the most
common handicapping conditions.
Content

General causation of disabilities

There are two main reasons that teachers strive to find the cause of

35
disabilities: first, the identification of a specific cause can help in handling the
condition of the child, and second identification of cause of a disability may help
prevent the occurrence of such disabilities in future generation.
There are thousands of known causes of disabilities, but in a great number of
cases the exact cause of the impairment is never known. Several factors may
combine to create a disability, but they may be reduced to two major categories of
biological or constitution and Scio-cultural or environmental factors.
Biological causes have a basis in the body of the individual; there is a
biological aspect to the condition. Most severe and multiple handicaps include
conditions which fall into this category. Congenital disabilities are; those present at
birth are constitutional conditions.
Environmental causes of disabilities are those which originate outside the
individual’s body. This includes not only those causes which stem from the social,
cultural, and physical environments, but also those causes which result from the
individual’s life-style and behaviour. These factors are hard to isolate for two
reasons. For example, risks among people of low socio-economic class can run
through generation because the cycle of poverty creates conditions which
contribute to the incidence of disabilities.
Disabilities may be developmental or acquired and may arise from prenatal,
perinatal factors, acquired neonatal factors and early childhood factors. These may
include genetic factors, infections, traumatic or toxin exposure or nutritional factors,
which result in perinatal or postnatal damage.
Prenatal causes of disabilities
The prenatal period extends from conception from the time of birth. Disabling
conditions can occur at any point in the developmental process between those two
events. Prenatal development can be divided into three phases. The first phase, the
germinal stage, last from conception until implantation, when the developing
organism firmly attached to the wall of the uterus. This period is about 10-14 days
long. The second phase, which extends from the second to the eight week, is the
embryonic stage. It is characterized by cell differentiation. The last phase, from 8
weeks until delivery, is the fatal stage. It is characterized mainly by growth. During
this time the various body systems, which were led down rudimentary from the
earlier, become quite well developed and begun to function.

36
 Some biological causes of disability involve the basic building blocks of life:
genes and chromosomes which the person inherits. Other handicaps result from
the prenatal environment within the womb. These causes can be considered
separately, but it should be realized that heredity and prenatal environment work
together to produce the infant.

(i) Biological disorders

(a) Genetic disorders
Chromosomes are made up of genes which alone or in combination,
govern all our inherited characteristics. Some disabilities are caused by
specific genes that create damaging biological conditions. Genetic errors are
congenital. There are over 3,000 different genetic causes of disability. They
occur as a result of inheritance factors involving specific genes. Most
genetic errors are rare, but a few that result in disabilities like mental
retardation occur with sufficient frequency that diagnostic and treatment
approaches have been developed. One such condition is Phenylketonuria
(PKU). This is common Europeans and very rare among blacks. Another
example of a genetic defect is Sickle Cell Disease, a blood disorder caused
by recessive genes. Children only have the disorder if they receive the gene
from both parents. If the gene vis paired with a normal one, the individual
does not have the condition, but can pass it on to his or her descendants.
These individuals are called “carriers”.

(b) Rh factor
When an Rh-positive man and an Rh-negative woman have children together,
they can sometimes be adverse consequences for their offspring. If their
baby has Rh-positive blood, the mothers’ blood may begin to form antibodies
against the “foreign” positive Rh factor. During the next pregnancy the anti-
bodies in the mothers’ blood the Rh-positive blood of the unborn baby. The
resulting destruction may be limited, causing only mild anemia, or excessive
cerebral palsy, deafness mental retardation, or even death. Fortunately, a
way of preventing these consequences has been developed. The blood of the
new unborn child is tested immediately after birth, using a blood sample

37
 from the umbilical cord. If Rh-positive child has been born to a Rh-negative
mother, the mother is given a vaccine that will seek and destroy the baby’s
Rh-positive blood cells before the mother’s body begins to producing many
anti-bodies. The cells of later children will not be attached because the blood
of the mother was never allowed to develop the anti-bodies.
(c) Chromosomal causes of disability
Chromosomal abnormalities can involve the loss, gain, or exchange of
genetic material from a chromosome pairs. Such abnormalities usually
cause miscarriages, but may occasionally result in a baby with some kind of
disability.
Down syndrome, a congenital condition which includes health
problems and mental retardation, is caused by an abnormality of the
chromosomes. This occurs when there is an incorrect number or
configuration of chromosomes in the body. In a normal chromosomal
configuration, the 21st chromosome is a pair. When there are three or more
chromosomes in position 21 there is likely to be an abnormality. Down
syndrome is associated with the mother’s age. The incidence rate is high
when mothers are extremely young, low for mothers in early adulthood, and
increases with the mothers; age after 35 years.
Where there is a total of 45 chromosomes present with only a single X
sex chromosome, the child has a condition known as Turner’s syndrome.
The child is nearly always a girl. The gonads are rudimentary; no secondary
sex characteristics develop at puberty, and there may or may not be other
physical characteristics such as bow leggedness, webbed neck or
abnormalities of the kidney and heart.
Klinefelter’s syndrome, which occurs in males only, involves two or
more X One or more Y chromosomes in at least some cells. At puberty, the
boy may begin to develop secondary sex characteristics typical of a
pubescent girl and the male gonads are usually underdeveloped rendering
the individual sterile.
Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, and mercury can result in
severe consequences including mental retardation.
(ii) Environmental risks

38
(a) Child abuse and neglect
Children who are abused are likely to suffer from emotional trauma.
Some children may suffer from emotional behaviour disorders as a result of
an unstable home.
(b) Socio-economic conditions
Lower socio-economic conditions (poverty) have a telling effect on the
quality of life. A pregnant woman who lives without basic medical care, poor
housing and nutrition is likely to give birth to low weight infant. Without
proper medical care (ante natal services) disorders or other diseases that
may affect the fetus may not de detected and treated in time.
(c) Maternal age
The age of the expectant mother and the number of previous
pregnancies are a significant factor in placing an infant at risk. Very young
mothers or mothers over the age of 40 years are most likely to have infants
who suffer early pregnancies.
(d) Substance abuse
Maternal drug abuse is another factor that places an infant at risk. Drug
abuse has been associated with inadequate growth during fetal life.
Expectant mothers who smoke give birth to growth retarded infants two to
three times compared to those who do not smoke.
Serious damages to the fetus may also be inflicted by maternal
alcohol consumption. Heavy alcohol consumption by an expectant mother
may cause “Fetal Alcohol Syndrome”. This causes a variety of problems
including facial abnormalities, cardiac defects, defects in limbs as well as
low brain weight and mental retardation
(e) Nutrition
Numerous investigations have provided clear evidence that dietary
deficiencies can delay growth during pre-natal and post-natal periods. The
extent of growth retardation depends on the severity, duration and time of
onset of undernourishment. For example, if severe, chronic malnutrition
occurs the first four years of life, there is little hope of catching up to one’s
age mates in terms of mental development, because the critical period of
brain growth has passed. The physical growth process can be interrupted at

39
 any time between the gestational period and infancy. The poor nutrition
between the gestational periods may exert potential damage to the central
nervous system of an infant. Malnutrition may also contribute to the
development of certain diseases that affect physical growth. For example,
lack of vitamin D in the diet can result in rickets; Vitamin B-12 deficiencies
may cause pellagra and the chronic lack of vitamin C results in scurvy. These
diseases though now rare in developed countries are still very common in
Least Developed countries of Sub-Sahara Africa.
(f) Illness
While the standard acute childhood illnesses (chickenpox, colds,
measles, and mumps) do not have a marked effect on growth to the extent of
other illnesses and diseases retard growth depends on the severity and
duration and timing.

Causes of
disabilities

Prenatal Peri-natal Childhood

 Chromosoma  Maternal use  Injuries

l of drugs  Childhood
 Genetic  Prematurity disease s
 Rh factor  Oxygen  Rh factor
 Maternal deprivation  Environmen
stress tal causes
 Environment
al Causes
 Maternal

40
 diseases
 Mothers’ age

(figure 8.1, general causes of disabilities)

8.3 Professional intervention

(a) Early intervention
This can greatly reduce incidence of high – risk children. Government and
other stakeholders should enhance reproductive health education.
Expectant mothers must be encouraged to attend ante natal clinics.
Additionally, poor families and those in rural areas should be encouraged
to eat cheap nutritional foods especially for expectant mothers.
Some of the genetic conditions and chromosomal aberrations
mentioned can be dealt with effective through professional intervention.
Older couples should be urged to exercise birth control methods or at
least be informed of the possible consequences of having children at
more advanced ages.

(b) Genetic counseling

This should be encouraged for perspective parents Analysis of
prospective parent’s blood and history of disabilities in their families
should be done to determine the risk of their children having disabilities.
(c) Screening
This is done just at birth especially for children born in hospital. It is
usually done one minute and five minutes after birth. It is known as the
APGAR TEST named after the nurse who invented it – Virginia Apgar in
1952. A mnemonic is used aid to learning: Appearance (skin color), Pulse
(heart rate), Grimace (reflex irritability), Activity (muscle tone), and
Respiration
During the test, the midwife looks for the following;

41
  Heart condition
 Respiratory effort
 Muscle tone
 Skin colour
 General physical state.

The five criteria of the Apgar score:

Component of
Score of 0 Score of 1 Score of 2
backronym

blue at
no cyanosis
Skin blue or pale extremities
body and Appearance
color/Complexion all over body pink
extremities pink
(acrocyanosis)

Pulse rate Absent <100 ≥100 Pulse

grimace/feeble
no response cry or pull away
Reflex irritability cry when Grimace
to stimulation when stimulated
stimulated

flexed arms and

Muscle tone none some flexion legs that resist Activity
extension

weak, irregular,
Breathing absent strong, lusty cry Respiration
gasping

The test is generally done at one and five minutes after birth, and may be repeated
later if the score is and remains low. Scores 3 and below are generally regarded as
critically low, 4 to 6 fairly low, and 7 to 10 generally normal.

A low score on the one-minute test may show that the new born baby requires
medical attention but is not necessarily an indication that there will be long-term

42
problems, particularly if there is an improvement by the stage of the five-minute test.
If the Apgar score remains below 3 at later times such as 10, 15, or 30 minutes,
there is a risk that the child will suffer longer-term neurological damage. There is
also a small but significant increase of the risk of cerebral palsy. However, the
purpose of the Apgar test is to determine quickly whether a new-born needs
immediate medical care; it was not designed to make long-term predictions on a
child's health.
A score of 10 is uncommon due to the prevalence of transient cyanosis, and is not
substantially different from a score of 9. Transient cyanosis is common, particularly
in babies born at high altitude.
Among Europeans, a blue cast to the skin for example may indicate breathing or
heart problems. Yellow eyes and pale skin is an indication of Jaundice. Jaundice is
the failure of the liver to process bilirubin adequately.
A child who scores below average five minutes after birth may need medical
intervention.

Unit Summary
There are several factors that may lead to children developing disabilities or
health problems. These may be biological and congenital in nature and they may
also be adventitious - acquired after birth. In adventitious case, the environment
plays a big role. Intervention is very important has it has both short and long term
benefits for young children with disabilities and those who are at risk for
developmental delay.
Special education service involves different professionals and is provided in
different settings. Provision of special education begins with the identification of
learning difficulties. This may be brought to the attention of school authorities
through the class teacher or the parents. An evaluation of the child is done usually
through an interdisciplinary team comprising individuals from different professional
specialization.
It is after evaluation that a child will be placed in an appropriate programme.
The settings of this programme range from an ordinary classroom to a special
school or home based.

43
UNIT 4: INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Study time : 5 hours

Introduction

Try to reflect from your school days. Did you live or had a friend in the
neighborhood with a disability? Did they attend school together with you? If not
which school did they attend? You may have observed that children with SEN were
sent to different schools despite that at home you played together.
Most people abhorred this practice of sending children with disabilities to
school far away from the ones they should have attended in their localities.
Because of this, mainstreaming became a practice. Mainstreaming is a term which
was in use during the early years of the movement toward integration of students
with special needs, but which has been replaced by the term "integration" Also, it
can be defined as an educational placement of a person in the setting that allows
the most interaction with peers who do not have disabilities. This typically requires

44
the special education student to perform all elements of the class required of
general education students (Calvin &Luker, 2003)

The usual educational placement of a child, frequently used synonymously

with "regular education." To mainstream a special education child is to place
him/her in a regular class rather than in a self-contained special class. The extent
to which a special education child is mainstreamed is determined by the student's
IEP team who consider least restrictive environment and how to enable the student
to benefit from the special education services and supports.

These practices gave rise to the inclusive education movement. It aimed at

challenging the exclusionary policies and practices. It has gained momentum in the
last two decades. Inclusive education has become the most effective approach to
address the learning needs of all pupils in the regular schools and classrooms.
International initiatives from the United Nations and other Non-Governmental
Organizations have jointly contributed to the growing consensus that all children
have a right to be educated together, regardless of their disability or learning
difficulty and that inclusive education is a human right that makes good educational
and social sense. However, these beliefs have gone without opponents who feel it is
an exercise in futility. Thus unit will look at what inclusive education entails and the
debates surrounding it.

7.1 Why Inclusion? - Rationale and rights

Exclusions from meaningful participation in the economic, social, political
and cultural life of communities is one of the greatest problems facing individual in
our society today. Such societies are neither efficient nor desirable.
Despite encouraging developments, there are still an estimated 115-130
million of children not attending school (UNESCO, 2005). Ninety percent of these
children live in low income countries especially Africa. There is also an alarming
and countless children who are excluded from the education system. Among those
who enroll in school a large number drop out before completing primary education.
Current strategies and programmes have not been sufficient to meet the
needs of children and youths who are vulnerable to marginalization or exclusion. In
the past, efforts have consisted of specialized programmes, institutions and
specialist educators. The unfortunate consequence of such differentiation,

45
although well intended, has often been further exclusion. Some of the strategies
that national government has used to provide special education include integration,
normalization and mainstreaming.
7.2 Integration
You have read in the previous units that, the education of children with
disabilities was provided in segregative settings. Integration is an attempt to
provide the same education found in ordinary schools to pupils with special
educational needs. Integration is one of the major strategies used to achieve
inclusion. With integration, students with special needs are included in educational
settings with their peers who do not have special needs, and provided with the
necessary accommodations determined on an individual basis, to enable them to
be successful there. The principle of "placement in the most enabling learning
environment" applies when decisions are made about the extent to which an
individual student is placed in regular classrooms, or assigned to an alternate
placement.
Integration is of three types;
(i) Locational integration: This relates to physical location of special
education provisions. Usually special education units are attached to
ordinary schools.
(ii) Social integration: This is where children from a special class are allowed
to be together only on the social level. They are allowed to eat, play and
socialize with their peers from the ordinary classes.
(iii) Functional integration: This is the combination of physical and social
integration. Pupils attend classes and participate in joint activities with
their non-disabled peers.
7.3 Meaning of inclusive education
In the recent past you may have heard about the word inclusive education or
inclusive schooling. In the press it may have even been used to refer to certain
political process. In education what exactly do we mean when we by inclusive
education? This is the process of bringing children with special education needs in
the regular classroom.
Inclusive education has evolved as a movement to challenge exclusionary
policies and practices has gained momentum over the past decade. Inclusion has

46
become the most effective approach to address the learning needs of all pupils in
regular classrooms.
On the other hand, Inclusive Education is an approach in which learners with
disabilities and special needs, regardless of age and disability, are provided with
appropriate education within regular schools. Inclusive education is a concept that
refers to the provision if educational services for all students with disabilities in
their neighborhood schools in classes with age appropriate non-disabled peers with
support from special education teachers and support personnel (Calvin &Luker
(2003).
International initiatives from the UNESCO, the World Bank and Non-
Governmental Organizations (NGOs) jointly contribute to growing consensus that
all children have the right to be educated together, regardless of their disability or
learning difficulty, and that inclusive education is a human right that makes good
educational and social sense.
7.2.1 How is Inclusion defined?
Inclusion is seen as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity
of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and
communities and reducing exclusion within and from education. It involves
changes and modification in content, approaches, structures and strategies, with a
common vision which covers all children of the appropriate age range and
conviction that is the responsibility of the regular system to educate all children
(Chitiyo, 2006).
In defining inclusive education in the Zambian context, Simui et al., (2009)
noted that inclusive education is a “continuous process of increasing access,
participation, and achievement for all learners in general education settings, with
emphasis on those at risk of marginalization and exclusion” (Simui et al., p.9).
Inclusion emphasizes providing opportunities for equal participation of persons
with disabilities (physical, social and /or emotional) wherever possible into general
education, but leaves open possibility of personal choice and options for special
education and facilities for those who need it (Parasuram, 2006).
Inclusion also means providing accommodations and supports to enable all
students to receive an appropriate and meaningful education in the same setting,
including participation in extracurricular and non-academic activities and full

47
participation in the general education curriculum. We can also say that inclusion
describes the principle that all students are entitled to equitable access to learning,
achievement and the pursuit of excellence in all aspects of their education. The
practice of inclusion is not necessarily synonymous with integration and goes
beyond placement to include meaningful participation and the promotion of
interaction with others.
In highlighting inclusion, it is important to highlight the following elements:
Inclusion is about Inclusion is not about
 Welcoming diversity  Reform of special education
alone, but reform of both the
formal and non-formal education
system
 Benefiting all the learners and not
targeting the excluded  Responding only to diversity, but
also improving the quality of
education for all learners
 Children in school who feel
excluded  Special schools but perhaps
additional support to learners
within the regular school system
 Providing equal access to  Meeting the needs of children
education or making certain with disabilities only
provision for certain categories of
children without excluding them

Meeting one child’s needs at the
expense of another child.
(Adapted from UNESCO Guidelines for Inclusion –Ensuring access to Education for
All)
The Inclusive Education Debate
Inclusion has not only become a catch word in the delivery of special
education but is increasingly becoming a norm in many Zambian schools. However,
the practical part of inclusion still remains elusive. This is not only peculiar to
Zambia but to most countries of the world. Inclusion remains a controversial
concept in education because it touches on educational and social values, as well
as our sense of individual worth. Some view inclusion as an unattainable academic
exercise driven by an unrealistic expectation that money will be saved by placing all
children in one classroom (Praisner, 2003). They continue to argue that those
advocating for inclusion are running away from the ballooning costs of special
education and the only economical way out is through a radical reconsideration of

48
the delivery system (Sharma, Forlin, Loreman, & Earle, 2006).
On the other side of this debate are those who believe that all pupils belong
in the regular education classroom regardless of their needs. This group views the
existence of segregated learning settings as a serious violation of pupils' human
rights. They argue that segregation on grounds of disability, learning difficulty or
emotional need is against international human rights agreements including the
UNESCO Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action (1994).
7.3 The efficacy debate
The argument for the efficacy of inclusion from a research standpoint has
roots from early research evidence that asserted that contact by handicapped
children with non-handicapped peers is likely to increase the social and behavioural
skills of children with special education needs. For instance, the amount of contact
non handicapped children have with handicapped peers has been shown to be
associated with increases in social skills and reciprocal interactions (Sze,2009),
positive parental expectations and attitudes development of friendships and
improved behavioural outcomes for such children. As a result of such reports,
much of the early research on inclusion sought to examine the social efficacy of
inclusion, rather than its academic efficacy.
Non-handicapped pupils are also beneficiary of inclusion in that they learn to
work alongside children with special needs. Activities like peer tutoring serves as
enrichment exercise for both the handicapped and the non-handicapped children.
During peer tutoring, socialization takes place allowing for acceptance of the
special education pupils by non-handicapped peers through the establishment of
some forms of friendship, which in turn gives them a better understanding of each
other’s strengths and weaknesses. The children begin to see more of similarities
among themselves than differences.
Opponents of the efficacy studies on the other hand have claimed that the
approach researchers have used to carry out their studies is loop sided because it
has concentrated much on physical placements than what goes on in class and has
methodological defects. Much of the research in the area of attitudes of teachers
has been in the form of paper and- pencil approach. Few studies have been made to
include other sources of data, such as interviews, or observations. Most
researchers have based their conclusion on the assumption that the reported

49
attitudes will be expressed in behaviour.
7.4 The rights and ethic discourse of inclusion
In recent years, you may have heard many people and civil society groups
advocating for inclusion of children with special education needs in the classroom
on grounds of human rights. They have argued that children have an inherent right
to an education that is the same as their peers. Law suits have been filed based on
the premise that children with special education needs who have been denied
enrollment in their local school amounts to discrimination. It is actually the success
of these law suits that has made many people to question the segregated practice
of inclusion. The rights movements have further argued that special education has
been used for so many years as a veil to marginalize children with disabilities.
Professionals like special education educators, medical specialists and
physiotherapist have all advocated segregations in school for the purpose of
maintaining their privileged status. Proponents further contend that poor
performance of children with special education needs is a reflection of their
restrictive experiences and not necessarily their abilities.
7.5 Reasons for inclusive education
Inclusion is aimed at addressing legitimate needs of all learners within the regular
classroom using all available resources efficiently and effectively to create a
diversity of opportunities to all children for active economic and social life
(i) Inclusive education as a human right
 All children have a right to learn together
 Children should not be devalued and discriminated against by
being excluded or sent away because of their disability or
learning difficulty
 There are no legitimate reasons to separate children for their
education
(ii) Inclusive education as good education
 Research shows children do better academically and socially,
in integrated settings.
 There is no teaching or care in a segregated school which
cannot take place in an ordinary school.
 Given commitment and support, inclusive education is a more

50
 efficient use of educational resources
(iii) Inclusive education as good social sense
 Segregation teaches children to be fearful, ignorant and breeds
prejudice.
 All children need an education that will help them develop
relationships and prepare them for life in the mainstream.
 Only inclusion has the potential to reduce fear and to build
friendship, respect and understanding.
(Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education – UK)

Activity 5.1
The debate for and against inclusive education is still going on. Try to give answers
to the following questions:
1. Why do we need inclusive education?
2. Will disabled pupils be accepted by their non-disabled peers?
3. Is inclusive education feasible in a high school?
4. Don’t disabled children learn more in special schools?
5. What will happen to special education teachers if inclusion is fully
implemented in schools?

7.6 Teacher’s attitudes towards inclusion

If you visited any school today, you will observe that some teachers are for
inclusion while others are reluctant to implement it. What is your perception of
inclusion? A teacher practicing inclusion is likely to express more positive attitudes,
a greater sense of self-efficacy, and confidence in his/her teaching and
management of behaviour.
Leyser, Kapperman and Keller (1994) carried a cross-cultural study of
teacher attitudes towards inclusion in the USA, Germany, Israel, Ghana, Taiwan and
the Philippines. They reported positive attitudes in the USA and Germany and mixed
attitudes in the rest of the countries. Countries with mixed attitudes tend to have
low development of special education. This is mostly attributed to ad hoc
organization of special education. You will observe that in these countries special

51
education is not well developed, has no systematic modifications of standard
curriculum, instructional strategies and a guaranteed resource provision.
In some communities’ examinations are used as a yard stick to measure the
effectiveness of a teacher. Parents do not appreciate a teacher who spends time
teaching content that will not be examined at the end of the year. A teacher to
produce what is seen as good results in the eyes of the community must do away
with individualized teaching. This leads to negative attitudes (Subban, & Sharma,
2006) and Naylor (2001) found negative attitudes toward inclusion prevalent in
schools that lacked proper support systems for children with special education
needs. They explain that teachers saw it inappropriate and irresponsible to place
children with special education needs in inclusionary settings without the needed
resources. They viewed support from government and local authorities as essential
in the realization of inclusive practices.
In Zambia this is seen through the indifference teachers and education
managers has portrayed towards children with special education needs. While the
Ministry of Education (1996) has acknowledged the existence of children with
special education needs in the school system, nothing has been done to make their
learning easy. If you look at schools that have been constructed in recent in years,
not a single school has a ramp. It’s not true that no official is aware that at one time
in the history of the school no child with special education needs will be enrolled.
Assessment of children with special needs is arbitrary. Again no specific
mechanism has been done to make sure that children with special needs receive
proper service delivery (Morberg and Kasonde-Ngandu, 2001).
7.7 Training in special education
Research has shown that training is one important factor in accelerating the
implementation of inclusion. Teachers who are exposed from time to time to in-
service training to update their instructional strategies tend to have positive
attitudes. The skills acquired through these course gives them confidence to face
any challenges that may arise in inclusive classrooms. Teachers who do not get
updated through constant in-service training tend to resist new innovations. Their
instructional strategies may not be effective in inclusive classrooms.
Special Education Legislation and International Conventions
If you go back and read the unit on the historic origins of special education,

52
you will observe that most communities in the past treated the people with
disabilities according to the prevailing social attitudes. You realize that for a
democratic society to remain viable there has to be a direct correspondence
between the laws of that society and the equal application of those laws to all
citizens.
You may also have realized that all concerns of education come under the
framework of promoting health morals, and general welfare. There has been a
general agreement that schools have the responsibility to prepare pupils to take
their place in society. It, therefore, follows that pupils who do not or are unable to
benefit satisfactorily from ordinary instructions have a right to alternative education
that should meet their needs. For this type of education to be provided adequately
there is need for procedural safeguards in the form of policies and laws.

Activity 3.1
1. Draw up education procedures that you think may help safeguards the rights of
children with SEN.

You may have come up with good a number of them. Your list may include
some of the following:
 Pupils and parents to be fully informed and included in all decisions
concerning identification, assessment, evaluation, educational
planning and programming
 Confidentiality
 Child to receive free and appropriate education
 Child to receive government assistance
 Placement will be in an appropriate class near the child’s home
 The right for the parent to obtain an independent evaluation of the
child.

3.1 Special Education Policy

You might have come across the expression “government policy”. You may have
been wondering what it means. When it comes to education it refers to the

53
principles that the government sets on which the education system is run.
Educational policies are intended to guide, determine present and future decision
concerned with schools, pupils and the roles to be played by each stakeholder in
the education system. They are usually laid down and implemented by the
government with the help of professionals like teachers.
Zambia since independence has had three policy documents. You may have
already discussed them. Our concern in these policy documents is with the area of
special education.
(i) Education Reforms Proposal and Recommendation - 1977
This document focused on the following:
 The designing of special education curricular and teaching
materials
 Prescribing building specifications
 Providing professional supervision of special education
(ii) Focus on Learning - 1992
This document focused on the following:
 Introduced pre-service training in special education
 Introduce special education in pre-schools
 Establish a special education structure in the Ministry
 Establish an appropriate progression system for pupils with
SEN
(iii) Educating Our Future – 1996
This document focused on the following:
 Ensuring equality of educational opportunities
 Providing education of particularly good quality to pupils with SEN
 Improving and strengthening the supervision and management of
special education across the country

Activity 3.2.
Read through the section dealing with special education in the National
Policy on Education – Educating Our Future, the Ministry of Education has

54
 proposed a number of strategies on how special education can be effectively
delivered in Zambia. Discuss challenges the Ministry may face in
implementing these strategies.

3.2 Special Education Legislation

If you surveyed the Zambian laws, you may find no specific written safeguards on
special education in form of a legal framework. The Education Act of 1966 which
was revised in 1994 to administer schools and colleges of education is completely
silent on aspects of special education.
The constitution of Zambia in its Bill of rights does not directly specify whether
education is a right or a privilege. Part III Article 23 forbids discrimination of any
forms but has failed to guarantee the right to education (GRZ, 1996). One former
Minister of Education is on record to have told parliament that public education was
not a right in Zambia and can be withdrawn at any time (The post:2004).
However, the Persons with Disabilities Act number 33 of 1996 (GRZ; 1996)
forbids discrimination in the education system but does not state any safeguards or
procedures of how special education should be run.
The education of Act (2011) included closes with regards to children with
special needs. The following are contained in the education Act No 23. Of 2011:
a. The Minister shall, for purposes of ensuring equality of access to,
participation and the benefit of educational institutions for learners
with special education needs, promote interventions at all levels of
the educational institutions.

b. Without prejudice to the generality of subsection (1), the Minister

shall, in collaboration with the Minister responsible for health,
establish a decentralised system for the identification, diagnosis
and assessment for the placement, of learners with special
education needs in educational institutions.

c. An educational institution shall, in determining the placement of

learners with special education needs, take into account the rights
and wishes of the learner or the parent.

55
 d. An educational institution shall adopt a policy of positive and
affirmative action in relation to learners with special education
needs.

e. A learner with special education needs shall, to the greatest extent

possible, be integrated into mainstream educational institutions.

f. A learner with an exceptional degree of special education needs

may, where need is established, be transferred from an inclusive
education institution to a special education institution or from a
special education institution to an inclusive education institution.

g. The Minister shall ensure that educational institutions provide

learners with special education needs with quality education in
appropriately designed and well-resourced educational institutions,
staffed by qualified and dedicated teachers

This has subsequently led to all higher institutions of learning to offer special
education as an independent course at both public and private universities and
colleges.

3.3 International Conventions and Treaties Related to Special Education

International
You may have heard in the media of government officials declaring the
launch of a week commemorating an international day for persons with disabilities
which usually falls on the 3rd of December every year. These international days are
actually commemorated as a result of governments signing treaties. Zambia is a
signatory to a number of conventions related to children’s’ rights and education.
The Zambian Government has ratified unreservedly almost all these conventions.
What is worrying though is that most of these treaties have not been incorporated
into domestic laws.
3.4.1 UN Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with
Disabilities (1994)
The most important document of the UN is undoubtedly for the moment the
one describing the Standard Rules on Equalization of Opportunities for Persons

56
with Disabilities. Twenty-two standard rules were adopted by the General Assembly
of the UN in December 1993.
A panel of experts was constituted and a special rapporteur was designated.
During it meeting in 1995, the panel made its recommendation concerning the
monitoring of implementation of the Standard Rules and defined priority areas
among these is Education.
According to the document, the term ‘Equalization of Opportunities’ means
the process through which the various system of society and the environment,
such as services, activities, information and documentation are made available to
all, particularly to persons with disabilities. It further specified that “Persons with
disabilities are members of society and have the right to remain within their
communities. They should receive the support they need within the ordinary
structures of education, health, employment and social services.
3.4.2 Standard Rule Number Six (Education)
States should recognize the principle of equal primary, secondary and tertiary
educational opportunities for children and adults with disabilities, integrated
settings. They should ensure that the education of persons with disabilities is an
integral part of the educational system.
1. General educational authorities are responsible for the education of persons
with disabilities in integrated settings. Education for persons with disabilities
should form an integral part of national educational planning, curriculum
development and school organization.
2. Education in mainstream schools presupposes the provision of interpreter
and other appropriate support services. Adequate accessibility and support
services designed to meet of persons with different disabilities should be
provided.
3. Parent groups and organization of persons with disabilities should be
involved in the education process at all levels.
4. In states where education is compulsory ids should be provided to boys and
girls with all levels of disabilities, including the most severe.
5. Special education should be given in the following areas:
(a) Very year children with disabilities
(b) Pre-school children with disabilities

57
 (c) Adults with disabilities especially women.
6. To accommodate educational provisions for persons with disabilities in
mainstream, states should:
(a) Have a clearly stated policy, understood and accepted at the school level
and by the wider community;
(b) Allow for curriculum flexibility, additional adaptation:
(c) Provide for quality materials, ongoing teacher training and support
teachers
7. Integrated education and community-based programmes should be seen as
complimentary approaches in providing cost-effective educational and
training for persons with disabilities. National community-based
programmes should encourages use and develop their resources to provide
local education for persons with disabilities
8. In situation where the general education system does not yet adequately
meet the needs of all persons with disabilities, special education may be
considered. It should be aimed at preparing students for education in the
general school system. The quality of such education should reflect the
same standards ambitions as general education and should be closely be
linked to it. At a minimum, students with disabilities should be afforded the
same portion of educational resources as students without disabilities.
States should aim at the gradual integration of special education services
into mainstream education. It should be acknowledged that is some
instances, special education may currently be considered to be the most
appropriate from of education for some students with disabilities.
9. Owing to the particularly communication needs of deaf and deaf/blind
persons, their education may be more suitably provided in schools for such
persons or special classes and units in mainstream schools. At the initial
stage, in particular, special education needs to be focused on culturally
sensitive instruction that will result in effective communication skills and
maximum independence for persons who are deaf or deaf/blind (UN
Standard Rules,19993)
3.4.3 UNESCO Salamanca Statement on Inclusive Education (1994)
UNESCO is one of the important that take up advocacy for inclusive

58
education. This was demonstrated through the “World Conference on Special
Education” held in a town of Salamanca in Spain in June 1994. The conference
was described as a milestone in the evolution of thinking and practice regarding
the education of children with SEN. The conference addressed the fundamental
changes to be made in educational policy and provision in order to create the
conditions for inclusive education, which is the most righteous and effective
form of education for all children. As the title of the conference makes it clear,
inclusion is just not only the question of “access” but and above all of “quality”.
Inclusion, therefore, is of tremendous challenge for regular schools, which are
called upon to take into account the wide diversity of children characteristics
and needs, and to accommodate them within a child-centered methodology. The
“Salamanca Statement for Action on Special Needs Education” explains this
conceptual framework and puts forward concrete guidelines in planning action
for national government, international organizations and Non-Governmental
Organizations (NGOs) in order to implement principles and recommendations of
the Salamanca conference.
The guidelines for action at national level addresses several important topics
like policy and organizations, school factors (curriculum flexibility), school
management, recruitment and training personnel, external support services,
community perspectives and resource requirements.
The guiding principle that forms the Framework of Action is that schools
should accommodate all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social,
emotional, linguistic or other conditions. It also recognizes that many children
experiences learning difficulties and thus have SEN at some time during their
schooling. The reasons why some children may experience learning difficulties
at school are complex and not rooted simply within the child. Therefore, what
matters is not the reasons for special needs but how they can be met. Human
differences are normal and teaching must accordingly be adapted to the needs
of the child rather than the child fitted to preordained assumptions regarding the
pace and nature of the learning process. The challenge the inclusive school is
that of developing a child- centered methodology capable of successfully
educating all children, including those who have serious disadvantages and
disabilities. The conference adopted, reaffirmed and proclaimed the following:

59
 We, the delegates of the World Conference on Special Needs Education
representing ninety-two governments and twenty-five international
organizations, assembled here in Salamanca, Spain, from 7-10 June 1994,
hereby reaffirm our commitment to Education for All, recognizing the necessity
and urgency of providing education for children, youth and adults with special
educational needs within the regular education system, and further hereby
endorse the Framework for Action on Special Needs Education, that
governments and organizations may be guided by the spirit of its provisions and
recommendations.
The proclamation of the conference was that:
 every child has a fundamental right to education, and must be given the
opportunity to achieve and maintain an acceptable level of learning,

 every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and learning

needs,

 education systems should be designed and educational programmes

implemented to take into account the wide diversity of these
characteristics and needs,

 those with special educational needs must have access to regular

schools which should accommodate them within a child centred
pedagogy capable of meeting these needs

 regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effective
means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming

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 communities, building an inclusive society and achieving education for
all; moreover, they provide an effective education to the majority of
children and improve the efficiency and ultimately the cost-
effectiveness of the entire education system.

 inclusive and that lead to improved outcomes for all students, including
those with disabilities. Attention is also directed to the professional
development needs of teachers to enable the acquisition of knowledge
and skills to implement inclusive classroom practices.

Activity 3.3
Interpret the UNESCO Salamanca Statement on Inclusive Education. What is
its implication for special education in Zambia?
Unit Summary

Ministry of education has clear policies on special education. These policies

however have not been backed with any legal framework. The enactment or
inclusion of aspects of special education provision in the law may help in reducing
discrimination and improving the quality of education for learners with special
needs. Government has made a lot of strides though there still remain a lot of
challenges in terms of legislation and policy implementation. There are several
international agreements concerning people with disabilities that Zambia has
signed and ratified that still need to be domesticated into law.
In summary, the teaching strategies, classroom adjustments and
distinctions that are effective for students with disabilities are effective for other

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students in the classroom. Head teachers, teachers, parents and the community
play a vital role in promoting inclusive practices. The achievement of satisfactory
learning outcomes by students with disabilities is dependent on the supportive
culture and policies in all school settings.
Inclusion is a philosophy built on the belief that all people are equal and should be
respected and valued. It is an issue of human rights. It is an unending set of
processes in which children and adults with disabilities have the opportunity to
participate fully in all community activities offered to persons without disabilities. It
also means educating pupils in schools they would attend if they did not have
disabilities.
However, there are arguments for and against inclusion based on different
research findings. Research results supporting inclusion asserts that contacts
disabled children have with their non-disabled peers improves the both their
academic and social well-being. Opponents on the other end argue that there are no
benefits in including disabled children in regular classroom.

Unit 5

62
 Learners with Hearing Impairment

Time [5 hours]

Introduction

Have you ever imagined what life would be without the sense of hearing? Human
beings have five very important senses that help them to understand the
environment in which they live and be able communicate with one another. The
sense of sight, touch, taste, smell and hearing are key to understanding ourselves
and our environments. Without one of these, there is limitation in the way we sense
our environment. Learning in particular requires the sense of hearing off course
complimented by other senses. In this unit we examine the sense of hearing and its
impact on learning. The sense of hearing is integral to one of the most fundamental
of human activities that is the use of language for communication. Through hearing
children acquire a linguistic system to both transmit and receive information,
express thoughts and feelings, learn, and influence the behaviours of their parents
and peers. Problems with hearing can negatively affect a child in the areas of
language and speech, social-emotional development, literacy, and learning abilities
in school; therefore, early identification and intervention are imperative for children
with hearing loss and their families. This unit reviews the human auditory system,
hearing loss and its effects on the development of a child’s communication skills,
and various approaches to treating and educating children with hearing loss.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you should be able to;

 Define hearing impairment

 Education audiology

 Identify the signs for hearing loss in learners

 Explain the causes of hearing loss

 Describe the methods and strategies for teaching learners with hearing loss.

Content

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1.1. What is hearing impairment?
In order to define hearing impairment and deafness, it is necessary to clarify
two terms: ‘frequency’ and ‘intensity/amplitude’.

Frequency concerns the rate at which sound waves vibrate and is usually
expressed as cycles per second (c.p.s.), some countries, such as the United
Kingdom, use the term Hertz (Hz). Sound frequency is perceived as pitch, with
rapidly vibrating sound waves being perceived as high-pitched sounds and slower
vibrating waves being perceived as low-pitched sounds. The human ear is normally
responsive to sounds between 60 and 16,000 c.p.s. but it is most responsive to
sounds between 500 and 4,000 c.p.s. Speech sounds occupy the most responsive
band and particular speech sounds involve several frequencies. Vowels tend to
occupy the lowest frequency range while fricatives, such as ‘s’, ‘f’, ‘th’ and ‘sh’, tend
to occupy the higher ones. Hearing loss rarely affects all frequencies equally, so
hearing is usually distorted. With low frequency loss, the ability to hear vowels is
impaired. Should there be higher frequency loss, the capacity to hear fricatives and
sibilants is reduced and because consonants make speech intelligible, high
frequency hearing loss is usually more serious.

Categorisations of hearing impairment relate to intensity/amplitude. The intensity

of a sound is experienced as loudness and is measured in a decibel (dB) scale on
which the quietest audible sound is given a value of 0 dB and the loudest sound has
a value of 140 dB. Normal conversation is carried out at around 40 to 50 dB.
Hearing impairment can be measured on the dB scale in terms of dB loss.
Categories of hearing impairment are recognised, although the cut-off points for the
different bands vary from country to country (Westwood, 2003: 48).

The following ranges give a broad indication.

Slight loss: 15–25 dB

Mild loss: 25–40 dB

Moderate loss: 40–65 dB;

Severe loss: 65–95 dB;

Profound loss: above 95 dB (Westwood, 2003: 48).

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Hearing impairment is a reduction in hearing sensitivity or inability to perceive sound.
Deafness is a hearing impairment that is so severe that a child is impaired in
processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification,
which adversely affects educational performance

Supporting students who are deaf or have hearing impairment requires an

understanding of the nature of hearing loss including the impact on the student’s
learning environment, communication style and cultural identity.

A student who has hearing impairment may not have access to the full
range of speech and environmental sounds. Hearing impairment varies greatly
between individuals and may impact on each individual differently. No two hearing
impairments are the same. Hearing impairment is described using a range of
variables including:
 when the hearing loss occurred
 the type of hearing loss
 the severity of the hearing loss
 how similar the hearing loss is across all frequencies?
 whether the hearing loss is in both ears
 whether the hearing loss is stable over time.

1.1.1 Defining Hearing loss takes three considerations;

i. The degree of loss. One can be completely deaf or be unable to perceive

sound.

ii. The age at which the loss occurred. This takes cognizance of time at
which the loss occurred whether before birth (pre-lingual deafness) or
after birth (post-lingual deafness).

iii. The type of loss- where the loss occurs, whether in the out ear or inner
ear.

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 iv. Prevalence

v. It has been estimated that at a specified time almost 20 per cent of

children in the range 2 to 5 years are affected by otitis media with
effusion (one of the causes of conductive hearing loss), making it a very
common disease, although the number of persistent cases is relatively
few. Sensory-neural deafness occurs in about 1 in a 1,000 babies.

The process of sound travels from outer, middle and inner hear
Sound waves pass through the air, water or other medium and cause the eardrum
to vibrate. The vibrations are carried to the inner ear, passing through the receptor
cells that send impulses to the brain. The brain then translates these impulses.
Sound waves are caught up by the ear pinna (auricle), channelled through auditory
canal to the middle ear. The middle ear is an air filled chamber that contains the
tympanic membrane (ear drum), and the Eustachian tube which equalises the
pressures on the two sides of the ear drum. Sound waves cause eardrum to vibrate
and the vibrations cause the hammer (malleus) and the Anvil (incus) to move and
stir up (stapes) to oscillate. These three tiny bones are called ossicles. The eardrum
converts the pressure variations to mechanical vibrations which are then
transmitted to the fluid contained in the compartments of the inner ear: the cochlear
and the semi-circular canals (which help keep the balance). The cochlear is a
hollow, spiral shaped bone that actually contains the organs of hearing where the
vibrations are transmitted to the basilar membrane. The membrane supports the
hair cells which respond to different frequencies of sound. Each hair cell has about
a hundred tiny, rigid spines or cilia at its top. When they move, they displace all
liquids that surround them and produce electrochemical signals which are sent
through the nerve cells along the auditory nerve (the eighth cranial nerve) to the
brain where signals are transmitted as tones. An example of a cochlear is illustrated
in the figure below:

66
Heward .L. W. (2013). Exceptional Children: Pearson New International Edition: An
Introduction to Special education (10th ed.). Pearson: The Ohio State University.

1.4 Types of Hearing Loss

The following are the types of hearing loss;
1.4.1 Conductive Hearing Loss
Conductive hearing impairment, as its name implies, involves a problem with the
conduction, or transmission, of sound vibrations to the inner ear. The conductive
hearing loss occurs where there is some obstruction, infection or other interference
with the physical transmission of sound waves through the outer and middle ear.
Blokage can be caused by wax, ear infections (ottis media) or any type of
malformation of the ear canal. Conductive hearing losses make hearing faint
sounds more difficulty. Conductive hearing loss can occur if the eardrum or
ossicles do not move properly. Surgery or other medical treatment can often correct
a conductive hearing loss, and hearing aids are usually beneficial. This type of

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hearing loss is temporal and can be corrected by sugery or medication.

1.4.2 Sensorineural

A sensory hearing impairment entails damage to the cochlea, while neural hearing
impairment is attributed to abnormality or failure of the auditory nerve pathway.
Both types are often subsumed by the term sensorineural hearing impairment.
Sensori neural hearing loss occurs where the neural mechanisms of hearing
(particularly the cochlea- where sound waves are translated into neural messages
and the neural pass-ways of the brain) have not developed adequately or have
become damaged. This often results in severe hearing disability. This hearing loss
may be caused by genetic syndromes, diseases, injuries, or exposure to louder
noise. Hearing aids may not help people with sensorineural hearing impairments
because the electromechanical energy corresponding to sound is delivered to the
brain in distorted fashion or not delivered at all. Surgery or medication cannot
correct most sensorineural hearing loss

1.4.3 Mixed Hearing Losses

Any combination of conductive, sensory, and neural hearing loss is called a
mixed hearing impairment. These result from problems of the outer ear as well as
the inner or middle ear. Persons with this loss hear distorted sounds and have
difficulties with sound levels. Medical treatment and amplifictaion of sounds by
use of hearing aids can alleviate the problem and thus depedning on the sight of
the problem.

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1.4.4 Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD)

Victims may have difficulties with sound localisation, auditory

discrimination, understanding speech sounds against a nosie background, auditory
sequencing, memory and pattern recognition, sounding out words and reading
comprehension.

1.5 Causes of hearing impairment

The causes of hearing loss can be categorised according to the causes, genetics
and the environment. Each type has its own causes, though to some extent, there is
overlap in the causes. For example, middle ear infections may bring about sensori
neural hearing loss as well.

Some possible causes of hearing loss are as follows:

1.5.1 Conductive Causes of hearing loss

The following are the causes of conductive hearing loss;

 Fluid in the middle ear from colds

 Ear infection (otitis media)

 Allergies (serous otitis media)

 Poor Eustachian tube function

 Perforated eardrum

 Middle ear tumours

 Impacted earwax (cerumen- ear wax)

 Infection in the ear canal (external otitis)

 Presence of a foreign body particles.

 Absence or malformation of the outer ear, ear canal, or middle ear

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These causes affect the effective transmission of sound from the outer ear through
the middle ear to the inner ear. Conductive hearing loss is therefore obstructive to
the channel through which sound travels.

1.5.2 Sensori neural causes

 Malformation or under development to neural pass ways

 Tumour on the 11th Nerve
 Damage to sensory hairs
1.5.3 Genetic causes
The genetic causes may include;
 Down syndrome ( a genetic disorder related with intellectual and
developmental delays) . These children have narrow canal and are prone to
middle ear infections which cause hearing loss.

 Cleft palates (an opening in the lips and aboral ridge) have middle ear
infections which can result in conductive hearing losses

 Congenital conditions such as RH hypherbilirunemia can develop when a

mother who has a negative RH factor carries a fetus with a psotive RH factor.
When RH incompatibility occurs, the mother’s immune system begins to
destroy the fetus’ red blood cells as they enter the mother’s circulatory
system. As a result, the may become anemic and die in utero. If the child
survives he is likely to have high frequecy hearing losses. Fortunately these
problems can be avoided with early prenatal care. The drug rhoGAM is
availabe to block the formation of antibodies in the mother’s system.

1.5.4 Environmental causes

 Infectious diseases during mothers pregnacy. Rubella also called
Germany meascles cause hearing loss, blindness and retardation. Other
infections in the mother’s womb that affect the baby’s hearing include
meningitis and syphilis, herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus (CMV)
toxoplasmosis.

 Noise pollutions particularly if loud and persistent

 Lack of oxygen (Asphyxia) during birth

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 Low birth weight babies particularly below 4 kg are at gretaer risk of
hearing loss.

 Ottitis media, a most cause of hearing loss in pre school children.If not
treated early, it can affect language development and hearing. Ottitis
media affects the middle ear where the malleus, the incus and the stapes
are found, thus fluid collects making the hearing ability reduced. Children
are more prone to infections because their eustachian tubes are so small
that fluid fails to drain out easily.

 Educational Audiology

 Educational audiology is an applied science of audiology in the
classroom. Audiology is the branch of science that studies hearing,
balance, and related disorders. It is the health-care profession devoted to
hearing. It is a clinical profession that has its unique mission for the
evaluation of hearing. Those who practice the applied field of audiology in
education are called Educational Audiologists.

 Audiology is a related service that includes identification,

determination of hearing loss, including referral for medical or other
professional attention for the habilitation of hearing, provision of
habilitative services (such as auditory training, lip-reading, hearing
evaluation and speech conservation), creation and administration of
programs for prevention of hearing loss, counselling and guidance of
parents, children and teachers regarding hearing loss, determination of
children’s needs for group and individual amplification, selecting and
fitting an appropriate aid and evaluating the effectiveness of amplification.

 Educational audiologists use data from the clinical field to

understand learners with audio loss (hearing impairments), to improve
the learning and the teaching environment. Teachers can work with
audiologists (the professionals) in performing certain tasks that help the
child. Educational Audiologists provide comprehensive support and
management to children with listening and/or hearing difficulties. Their
responsibilities also include management of early childhood and school
hearing screening programs, assessment and management of auditory

71
 disorders, determination and management of hearing instrumentation
devices, provision of auditory rehabilitation activities, management of
hearing conservation programs, and counselling and training for school
staff and parents. Educational audiologists are the professionals uniquely
qualified to ensure that all students have adequate access to auditory
information in the learning environment. Using knowledge from
audiology, educational audiologists can assess hearing, evaluate and fit
hearing aids, as well as assist in the implementation of rehabilitation.
 Here is an example of audiogram results for a child with severe hearing
impairment:

 Adapted from: Heward .L. W. (2013). Exceptional Children: Pearson New

International Edition: An Introduction to Special education (10th ed.).
Pearson: The Ohio State University.

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Activity 1
Draw a diagram of the ear and label its parts. While reflecting on the causes, from
the diagram identify some parts that are likely to be affected thereby bringing about
hearing loss can result.

1.6 Identification and assessment for hearing loss

Hearing impairment may be identified through neonatal screening or by the parent,
health practitioner, or later by the school through screening programmes. The
American Joint Committee on Infant Hearing set out screening risk criteria for
congenital or early onset deafness. In summary, (and with brief explanations of
some of the terms) this is as follows:

i. family history of hearing impairment;

ii. congenital perinatal infection;

iii. anatomic malformations involving the head or neck (e.g. cleft palate);

iv. birth weight below 1,500 grams;

v. hyperbilirubinaemia (a raised blood level of bilirubin, a waste product

formed from the destruction of red blood cells) at a level exceeding
indications for exchange transfusion;

vi. bacterial meningitis (a life-threatening inflammation of the meninges, the

membranes covering the brain and spinal chord), especially due to the
bacterium Haemophilus influenza and

vii. severe asphyxia (suffocation).

Types of test include:

a. Pure tone audiometry

Pure tone audiometry involves the use of an audiometer to produce and measure
sounds of different frequency and intensity. The sounds are transmitted through an
earphone into one ear while the other ear is prevented from hearing. First, the sound
is reduced in intensity until it cannot be heard, then the intensity is gradually
increased until the person signals they can detect it.

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b. Auditory evoked response

Auditory evoked response is the brain’s response to sound stimulation provided by

the audiometer, analysed using electrodes placed on the scalp. The technique is
sometimes used if the child cannot indicate hearing thresholds, for example
because of cognitive impairment.

c. Impedance audiometry

Impedance audiometry is a test determining middle ear damage associated with

conductive deafness. A probe fitted to the entrance of the outer ear canal emits a
continuous sound while air is pumped into the probe. A microphone fitted to the
probe detects the differing reflections of sounds from the eardrum as pressure
changes in the ear canal, indicating the elasticity of the eardrum and the bones of
the middle ear. This points to the type of disease causing the deafness

Learners with hearing loss can be identified from the following signs;

1.6.1 Physical signs

 Draining ears e.g. pus coming out through the ear
 Earache often reported
 Reports of ringing and buzzing in the ears
 Mouth breathing
 Dizziness
 Sore throats, many colds, tonsillitis
 Absence of pinna

1.6.2 Classroom signs

 poor articulation of sounds

 Confusion of similar sounding words
 extreme watchfulness when persons are speaking in an attempt to lip-read
 frequent requests for repetitions (come again)
 speaking very quietly, inattentive in class

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  speaking in a monotone
 showing strain in trying to hear
 talking too loudly or too softly
 turning one side of the ear towards the speaker or the source of sound
 responding slowly to instructions
 often giving inappropriate answers to questions

1.7 Assessment and screening for hearing loss

There are several tests used to screen and or assess hearing loss. However, we will
provide you with one standard assessment instrument that can help detect the
degree of hearing loss a learner may have.

1.7.1 Pure tone Audiometer

Hearing loss is mostly measured using a pure tone audio meter, an electronic
device which produces pure tones near the outer ear and the subject states whether
he or she hears the sound at a certain intensity and frequency. The tests are
conducted in acoustic rooms to avoid distraction from extraneous sounds. Pure
tone audiometer can be used to children of three years and older. The audiometer,
an instrument for measuring hearing acuity presents pure tones (not speech) to the
individual who receives the tones in a headset. When screening children, the
audiometer is set at an intensity of 15 to 20 dB. Perception of sound between 15
and 20 or slightly above is considered normal hearing. Children that are unable to
perceive sound beyond 70 or 90 decibels (the units for measuring sound) are rated
as severe and profound and can depend on sign language for communication
unless cochlea implant is conducted.

1.8 The Communication systems for the deaf and the hard of hearing

1.8.1 Sign language.

Sign language is the most traditionally known language for the deaf. It is a means
of communicating using gestures, facial expression and body language. It is mainly
used by the deaf people with hearing impairment in various localities. Sign
Language is a language on its own with its own grammar and syntax. It uses word
order that differs from English word order, and often an idea is expressed in Sign

75
language very differently than simply translating word-for-word what English
speakers would say. One sign in sign language may be used for a number of
English words that are synonyms. Sign language is not universal because there is
significant variation from city to city with in each country or region such as accent
found in spoken language. Each country has its own sign language which are
completely unrelated. This is because there are different sign languages all over the
world, just as there are different spoken languages. However, there are attempts to
teach the hearing impaired other forms of communication such as ordinary speech,
Speech reading, finger spelling and cued speech.

1.8.2 Cued Speech

This is a way of augmenting speech reading. According to Hallahan (2009:357),

Cued speech was developed by Orin Cornett in 1966 and has since been adapted to
more than 40 languages and major dialects. “In cued speech, the individual uses
hand shapes to represent specific sounds while speaking. Eight hand shapes are
cues for certain consonants, and four serve as cues for vowels. Cued speech helps
the speech-reader differentiate between sounds that look alike on the lips.” Cued
speech is neither a sign language nor a manually coded system that uses signs
from a sign language in a spoken word order. Cued speech operates at phonemic
level conveying traditionally spoken languages. According to Marschark and
Spencer (2003), a cued speech is made up of two parameters, the hand shape and
the hand location around the mouth.

1.8.3 Lip reading

Lip reading therefore complements cued speech. Phonemes that are

distinguishable by lip-reading are coded by a same handshape (like /p/, /d/ and
/zh/ are at the same location. Similarly, phonemes that have similar lip shape are
coded with different handshape (like /p/, /b/ and /m/ and hand location (like /i/ and
/e/. Information given by cues and information by lip reading is thus
complementary. For example, when saying the words /pat/ and /bat/, two different
handshapes would be used for initial consonants.

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1.9 Teaching methods

a. Auditory-Oral Approach
In this approach the (auditory-oral approach) students with hearing
impairments can develop listening/receptive language and oral language
expression skills. It emphasizes the use of residual hearing, amplification,
and speech/language training. When using this approach, the objective is to
facilitate the development of oral (spoken) English. The method of
communication used by a student would be oral (spoken) English. Learners
exhibit significantly improved language development with the use of this
method.

b. Total Communication Approach

The position of the total communication approach is that simultaneous use
of multiple communication techniques enhances an individual's ability to
communicate, comprehend, and learn. When using this approach, the basic
objective is to provide a multifaceted approach to communication in order to
facilitate whichever method works best for each individual. The method of
communication used by a student should be a combination of sign language,
finger spelling, and speech-reading or spoken language with the choice of
methods being based on children’s individual requirements.

c. Bilingual Approach
The position of the bilingual approach is that the natural language of Deaf
and that natural language should be the primary language choice for deaf
students, with English considered a second language. When using this
approach, the objective is to provide a foundation in the use of vocabulary
and syntax rules, and, at the same time, to provide instruction for English
vocabulary and syntax rules in the classroom. It is a whole-language
approach to literacy and in education two languages learnt complement
each other. Additionally, language development was not delayed.

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1.9.1 Instructional strategies and interventions for teaching the hard of hearing
When teaching the hearing impaired, consider the following guidelines;
 Make speech louder and clearer. Get down to the child’s eye level to talk
whenever possible. Get close (not more than three feet away) and face the
child to provide clear visual and auditory information. Gain the child’s
attention before speaking to make sure the child is listening, remind the chid
child to listen when necessary. Speak clearly and repeat important words
used but use natural speaking intonation or pattern. When possible use
visual support. Allow the child to sit close to you or the speaker if you are
using a speaker but where the child can see other children.

 Minimize background noise- turn of record players, radios, televisions

playing in the background. Repair noise appliances, reduce distracters and
create small groups that allow for one to one interactions among learners.
Hang washable draperies over windows to absorb sound and close windows
and doors if there is noise coming from outside.

 Promote language learning- show interest in what the child likes doing, play
interactive games, give quick and positive feedback, elaborate what the child
says by adding words to what the child says.

 Increase children’s attention- play word and listening games and read
frequently with children.

 Use assistive technology- reproduce classroom dialogue on computer

screen, thus speech to print system, use computer sign language instruction
software to interpret your lessons to learners with hearing losses.

 Use multimedia teaching strategies where videos that are in sign language
are used in teaching. Learners with hearing impairments learn better by
seeing. Written text with sign language readers can be given to such learners
to learn from both text and watching the interpretation signed.

 Encourage lip reading. Learners with hearing impairments usually look at the
teacher’s lips closely when the teacher is speaking in order to lip read. Look
at the learners directly when speaking.

78
  Provide hearing aids- where possible assist learners with moderate loss with
amplifying devices such as hearing aids or sound amplifiers e.g. speaking
through a mic in a sound acoustic room classroom.

 Use Bilingual approach or total communication- using sign language and

oral language simultaneously during instruction can help.

 Teachers can as well teach with sign language interpreters as assistant

teachers
 Refer such learners for medical examinations and possible cochlea implant.
Cochlea implants in western world have proven effective in reducing the
numbers of children with hearing impairments

1.9.2 The learning environment for learners with hearing impairments

Learners with hearing impairment may use suspicion to guess about what is going
on within their environments.

 Free off negative attitudes that make them detect that they are being looked
down upon

 Teach in acoustically treated rooms

 Hearing aids can help learners who are hard of hearing

Activity

1. List at least five causes of hearing impairment.

2. Why is total communication encouraged in the teaching of learners
with hearing loss?
3. Describe how a teacher can detect that a learner has limited sound
perception abilities while teaching.

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 4. Describe the assessment of hearing loss using a pure tone
audiometer.

Unit Summary

In this unit, you learned about hearing loss, what it is and how it comes about. We
said hearing is the partial or complete loss of the ability to perceive sound. The ear
is naturally endowed with the ability to perceive sound to alert human beings and
other animals of the dangers in their surrounding and indeed to learn about their
environments. Learning in the classroom is predominated by the sense of hearing
because even when we are not seeing, we are able to get what it is we are learning
about. However, certain impediments make it impossible for all of us to perceive
sounds the same way. Some of the causes of hearing loss are diseases of the ear;
others are genetic and or congenital. Children without or with limited sense of
hearing face serious difficulties in learning. The unit therefore explained the
strategies that teachers can employ to help learners with hearing impairments learn.
We hope you learned through this unit very well.

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 Unit 6
Learners with Visual Impairments

Time [4 hours]
Introduction
Welcome to unit of this module. This unit looks at visual impairments. Vision like
hearing is an important element in learning. The classroom is one important setting
in which vision plays a critical role in learning. For example, normal sighted pupils
are routinely expected to exercise several important visual skills. Children with
visual impairment, however, have deficits in one or more of these abilities. As a
result, they need special equipment and or adaptation in instructional procedures or
material to function effectively in school.

Learning Outcomes

After going through this unit you should be able to:

(i) Define visual impairment

(ii) State the causes visual impairment.

(iii) Describe classroom practices that enhance learning for learners with
visual needs

Content
2.1 Defining Visual Impairment

2.1.1 What is visual loss/impairment?

Reflective activities

1. Close your eyes tightly; do you see anything around you?

2. What would be your description of a life without sight?
3. Given chance to choose between blindness and deafness, which one would
you choose? What are the reasons for your answer?
Now that we had no chance of choice whether to be blind or deaf, we all had a

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probability of being blind or deaf before we were born. However, you perhaps were
lucky, but who knows whether being blind or deaf is good or bad. There seem to be
disadvantages to everything in life. Nevertheless, everyone would want to see what
is happening around them. Sight is one of the very important human learning tools.
It enables one to witness what goes on in the environment, one to master their
environment, ingest it and manipulate it.

2.1.2 Defining Visual Loss

Visual loss is a type of sensory impairment where the sense of sight is affected in
such a way that one is unable to see clearly or that one may not see at all, thereby
affecting the child’ educational performance. Thus there are people with visual loss
that are partially sighted and others that are blind. The complete loss of the sense
of sight or the ability to see is called blindness. Visual impairments can be
categorised as follows;

(i) A pupil who is totally blind receives no useful information through

senses of vision and must use tactile and auditory senses for all
learning.
(ii) A functionally blind pupil has so little vision that he/she learns
primarily through other senses; however, he/she may be able to
use her limited vision to supplement the information received from
auditory and tactile senses and to assist with certain task. Most
pupils who are blind use Braille.
(iii) A pupil with low vision uses vision as a primary means of learning
and generally to read print.
Structure and parts of the eye

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2.1.3 Determining Visual Loss
An eye specialist (Ophthalmologist) will examine the visual acuity, refractive errors
and binoculars difficulties. Visual acuity refers to the ability to see forms or letters
clearly from a certain distance. A Snellen chart is used as a visual screening test in
schools. The test is done at 20 feet from the chart i.e. the far point visual acuity. A
score of 20/20 means that the subject sees at twenty feet what the normal eye sees
at twenty feet. A score of 20/40 means that the individual sees at 20 feet what the
normal eye sees at 40 feet. Thus the numerator is the subject and the denominator
is the normal eye the victim is measured against.

The object is 40 feet away from Jimmy. Jack can only see it at 20 feet, i.e. half
Jimmy! This means Jack has a visual loss of half Jimmy. This type of visual loss is
called short or near sightedness. It is a refractive error caused by defect in the lens

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making focus possible for only items near. It can be corrected by putting on
divergence lenses. These diverge the rays to longer distances as well. Remember
when one is putting on the lenses, he or she is no longer disabled though the
impairment is still on.

This situation is a direct opposite situation to the above. In this case Jack cannot
see objects far away. If Jimmy (a normal sighted person) is able to see an object at
20 feet, Jack can only see that same object at 40 feet; it means Jack is long sighted.
He cannot see objects near him. This is a refractive error in the lens where the lens
cannot focus on near objects. It is correctable by using convergence lenses. Once
the sight is corrected, there is no disability at all, though impairment lingers.

The Snellen chart also called the ‘E’ chart can be used to measure the sight of the
children and the teacher will be in a position to place the learners either in front or
behind.

In the USA, a legally blind child can see at only 20/200 or less on a test of visual
acuity. This means that the child only able to see things that only within the
distance of 20 feet or less, where a normal child will see the same object at 200 feet.
A child who scores 20/70 and 20/200 on a visual acuity test is called partially
sighted.

2.2 Types of Visual Impairment

Visual impairments can be categorised into refractive and binocular errors. The

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refractive have to do with the abnormalities in the lens that refracts light rays of an
object onto the retina. The binocular difficulties have to with coordination
abnormalities making focus difficult.

2.2.1 Refractive errors

The commonly known refractive errors are Hyperopia, Myopia and Astigmatism.
a. Hyperopia

This is a condition resulting from refractive errors due to defects in the lens.
This condition is called farsightedness or long sightedness. The victim of
this condition sees objects that are far away from him or her than those that
are near. In this condition, light rays focussing on the retina diverge and
converge beyond or behind the retina.

The condition can be corrected by wearing contact lenses that converge light rays
on the retina. Thus convergence lenses help. Convergence lenses are also called
convex lenses.

b. Myopia

This is also a refractive error resulting from defects in the lens. This is a
condition where the victim only sees objects near him or her and not those that
are far. The condition is also called short or near sightedness. This is a
refractive error in which light rays converge before the retina.

85
The condition can be corrected by putting on contact lenses that diverge light rays
to the retina. Thus divergence lenses are helpful in this condition. Divergence
lenses are also called concave lenses.
c. Astigmatism

Astigmatism is a vision condition that causes blurred vision due either to the
irregular shape of the cornea. An irregular shaped cornea or lens prevents light
from focusing properly on the retina, the light sensitive surface at the back of the
eye. As a result, vision becomes blurred at any distance. It is an optical defect in
which vision is blurred due to the inability of the optics of the eye to focus a point
object into a sharp focused image on the retina. This may be due to an irregular
curvature of the cornea or lens. The symptoms are headaches, blurry vision,
fatigue, eye discomfort and squinting. Astigmatism causes difficulties in seeing
fine detail, and in some cases vertical lines (e.g., walls) may appear to the patient
to be tilted.

The astigmatic optics of the human eye can often be corrected by spectacles, hard
contact lenses or contact lenses that have a compensating optic, cylindrical lens
(i.e. a lens that has different radii of curvature in different planes), or refractive
surgery.

2.2.2 Binocular difficulties

There may also be binocular difficulties in the children with reading problems.
Binocular difficulties result from the two eyes not working together. There are three
binocular difficulties:

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 a. Strabismus

This is one of the visual impairments that results from lack of binocular co-
ordination. The condition is also called crossed eyes or squinty eyes. There is an
imbalance preventing the two eyes from focusing simultaneously on the same
object.

b. Inadequate fusion

This is the poor accommodation of focus of the eye to fuse two images. Two
images cannot be fused into one.
c. Aniseikonia

This is a condition of unequal size or shape ocular images in the two eyes.
Aniseikonia is therefore an ocular condition where there is a significant difference
in the perceived size of images. It can occur as an overall difference between the
two eyes, or as a difference in a particular meridian. This is corrected by contact
lens.

2.2.2 Colour Blindness

There are times some people do not tell well the colours we all experience in our
surroundings. The colours we see are not the colours they see. What makes the
difference? Let’s get onto another type of visual loss called colour blindness.

A condition in which one is unable to distinguish colours appropriately is called

colour blindness. Colour blindness or colour vision deficiency is the inability to
perceive differences between some of the colours that others can distinguish. It is
most often of genetic nature, but may also occur because of eye, nerve, or brain
damage, or exposure to certain chemicals.

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How colour blindness comes about
The average human retina contains two kinds of light cells: the rod cells (active in
low light) and the cone cells (active in normal daylight). Normally, there are three
kinds of cones, each containing a different pigment, which are activated when the
pigments absorb light. The technical names for these receptors are S-cones, M-
cones, and L-cones, but they are also often referred to as blue cones, green cones,
and red cones, respectively. The absorption spectra of the cones differ; one is
maximally sensitive to short wavelengths, one to medium wavelengths, and the
third to long wavelengths, with their peak sensitivities in the blue, yellowish-green,
and yellow regions of the spectrum, respectively. The absorption spectra of all three
systems cover much of the visible spectrum.

Although these receptors are often referred to as "blue, green and red" receptors,
this is not entirely accurate, especially as the "red" receptor actually has its peak
sensitivity in the yellow region. The sensitivity of normal colour vision actually
depends on the overlap between the absorption spectra of the three systems:
different colours are recognized when the different types of cone are stimulated to
different degrees. Red light, for example, stimulates the long wavelength cones

88
much more than either of the others, and reducing the wavelength causes the other
two cone systems to be increasingly stimulated, causing a gradual change in hue.

Many of the genes involved in colour vision are on the X chromosome, making
colour blindness more common in males than in females because males have only
one X chromosome, while females have two.

2.3 Causes of visual loss

There are many causes of visual loss, some of which have been described along
with the types we have just covered. However, below are some of the causes that of
visual loss.

2.3.1 Diseases of the eye

a. Glaucoma
Glaucoma is an eye condition that develops when too much fluid pressure builds up
inside of the eye. It is a disease in which the optic nerve is damaged, leading to
progressive, irreversible loss of vision. The nerve damage involves loss of retinal
ganglion cells in a characteristic pattern. There are many different sub-types of
glaucoma but they can all be considered a type of optic neuropathy. Raised
intraocular pressure is a significant risk factor for developing glaucoma. One
person may develop nerve damage at a relatively low pressure, while another
person may have high eye pressure for years and yet never develop damage.
Untreated glaucoma leads to permanent damage of the optic nerve and resultant
visual field loss, which can progress to blindness.

It tends to be inherited and may not show up until later in life. The increased
pressure, called intraocular pressure, can damage the optic nerve, which transmits
images to the brain. If damage to the optic nerve from high eye pressure continues,
glaucoma will cause loss of vision. Without treatment, glaucoma can cause total
permanent blindness within a few years.

Because most people with glaucoma have no early symptoms or pain from this
increased pressure, it is important to see your ophthalmologist regularly so that
glaucoma can be diagnosed and treated before long-term visual loss occurs.

Signs and symptoms

There are two main types of glaucoma: Open-angle glaucoma and Closed-angle

89
glaucoma.
i. Open-angle Glaucoma

It is painless and does not have acute attacks. The only signs are gradually
progressive visual field loss, and optic nerve changes.

ii. Closed-angle Glaucoma

Patients with closed angles present with acute angle closure crises characterized
by sudden ocular pain, seeing halos around lights, red eye, very high intraocular
pressure, nausea and vomiting, sudden decreased vision, and a fixed, mid-dilated
pupil. Acute angle closure is an ophthalmologic emergency.

b. Retinoblastoma
This is a rare, cancerous tumour of a part of the eye called the retina. It is caused
by a mutation in a gene controlling cell division, causing cells to grow out of control
and become cancerous. The cancer generally affects children under the age of 6. It
is most commonly diagnosed in children aged 1 - 2 years.

Symptoms
 They pupil may appear white or have white spots.

 A white glow in the eye

 Instead of the typical "red eye" from the flash, the pupil may appear white or
distorted.

Other symptoms can include:

 Crossed eyes

 Double vision

 Eyes that do not align

 Eye pain and redness

 Poor vision

 Differing iris colours in each eye

c. Diabetic Retinopathy
Retinopathy refers to damage to the blood vessels of the retina. The retina, at the

90
back of the eye, provides a window to the circulatory system. Diabetic retinopathy is
a deterioration of the blood vessels in the retina that usually affects both eyes. It is
the leading cause of blindness in North America. Almost all people with diabetes
show signs of retinal damage after about 20 years of living with the condition.

It's unusual for hypertension to impair vision, but hypertensive retinopathy can lead
to blockage of retinal arteries or veins, which in turn may eventually result in the
loss of vision. Smoking and diabetes increase the risk of developing hypertensive
retinopathy.

d. Cataract

A cataract is a clouding of the lens in your eye. It affects your vision. Cataracts are
very common in older people. By age 80, more than half of all people in the United
States either have a cataract or have had cataract surgery.

Common symptoms are;

 Blurry vision
 Colors that seem faded
 Glare
 Not being able to see well at night
 Double vision
 Frequent prescription changes in your eye wear

Cataracts usually develop slowly. New glasses, brighter lighting, anti-glare

sunglasses or magnifying lenses can help at first. Surgery is also an option. It
involves removing the cloudy lens and replacing it with an artificial lens. Wearing
sunglasses and a hat with a brim to block ultraviolet sunlight may help to delay
cataracts.

2.3.2 Other Causes

 Rubella (Germany measles affecting the mother during pregnancy)

 Infections during pregnancy such syphilis and gonorrhoea,

 Injuries and poisonings (accidents)

 Infections during pregnancy

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  Injuries and poisonings (accidents)

 Retinopathy or prematurity (fibroplasia)

 Exophthalmia- vitamin A deficiency

 Refractive and binocular errors (as discussed in cases of myopia, hyperopia,

strabismus to mention but a few).

 Genetics as in the case of colour blindness and albinism is an infrequent

genetically condition caused by lack of pigment in the eyes, hair and skin. In
some cases only eyes are affected.

2.3.4 Characteristics of learners with visual Impairment

 Difficulties in reading
 Difficulties in work requiring close use of the eyes
 Problems seeing what is written or illustrated on the blackboard
 Holds books close to the eyes
 Squints/ screws up one’s eyes
 Rubs eyes due to irritation or itching
 Shuts or covers one’s eye
 Unable to read continually for a longer period
 Headaches following close eye-work
 Passes by people/objects without recognizing them
 Often over-sensitive to light
 Shows little interest in looking at T.V
 Inflamed, red and watery eyes
 Blurred or double vision (astigmatism)
 inability to see the chalkboard and other distant objects
 irregularities of the pupils

2.4 Orientation and Mobility Training

Students with visual impairments often experience restrictions in movement within
their environments. In order to be independent at home, in school, and in the
community, the student must be able to recognize her or his surroundings and her
or his relationship to these surroundings—orientation. It is also necessary that the
student be able to move safely and effectively within these environments---mobility.
Training in these skills can, and should, begin at home as parents help the child
develop techniques that are unique to their child and their home. Formal mobility

92
and orientation training however should begin as soon as the student is enrolled in
a school program. Among the techniques and options available are the following:
 Use of a Sighted Human Guide
 Guide Dogs
 The Hoover Cane or white can which is used as an indicator in the terrain
(curbs or stairs).
 Electronic aids to mobility which can be worn around the neck and produces
a warning signal when objects are in the pathway of the person.

There are five elements to consider when orienting a learner who is new to an
environment. The following are the elements to consider:

(a) Clues
Landmarks
Indoor numbering system
Self-Familiarization
Compass direction

(b) Mobility
It is the ability to move from one place to another safely, efficiently
and independently. Mobility comprises of two specific components
namely:
(i) Locomotor
(ii) Mental organization

2.5 Special Devices which visually impaired children use:

(i) Lamps
(ii) Large Type Book – For these children who can read regular print at close
distance even with an optical aid, large type is helpful.
(iii) Cassette Tape Recorders
(iv) Talking calculators
(v) Abacus
(vi) Perkins Brailler
(vii) Writing Frames
(viii) Braille paper/stylus

2.6 Braille Reading and Writing

According to the educational definition discussed earlier, students are considered
to be blind if they cannot, even under special conditions, read print. For these

93
students, skill in reading and writing through Braille is critical for communication
and learning. Braille is a system that utilizes raised dots to represent letters,
numbers, and other symbols. It was invented in 1829 by Louis Braille, a blind
Frenchman. The system is based on a six-dot cell that is two dots wide and three
dots high. Standard English through openings in the slate. Raised dots are thus
formed on paper that is placed between the folding halves of the slate. Learning to
write using the slate and stylus can be quite difficult since in order for the raised
dots to be in the correct configuration for reading, they must be written in reverse
order. An easier method for writing Braille is the use of the Perkins Brailler.

Much like a typewriter, the Brailler consists of six keys (one for each of the dot
positions) and a spacing bar. All possible dot configurations can be formed by
depressing the appropriate keys simultaneously. Most students who are blind
receive instruction in Braille at the first-grade level. In learning Braille, students are
instructed to read with the index finger of one hand and to keep place vertically on
the page with the other. They are encouraged to read with a smooth, continuous
horizontal movement and to minimize vertical movements. Light and constant
finger pressure is necessary to sense the configuration of the raised dots as the
hand moves across them. Students learn to write Braille by using a slate and stylus
and the Perkins Brailler. When using the slate and stylus, the stylus is pressed.

2.7 Teaching Visually Impaired Learners

 Bring closer short sighted learners to sit in front and long sighted learners far
from the board.

 Use multisensory teaching strategies; use the sense of hearing, touch and
taste. Let learners experience.

 Use of multimedia teaching strategies where Braille material can read on

computers and students listen

 Handouts should be available in large print, audiotape, computer disk, and/or

Braille formats.

 If the student is partially sighted, be sure he/she is seated where lighting is

appropriate.

 Provide means for the acquisition and/or recording of data in an appropriate

mode for the student.

 When communicating with a student who has vision impairment, always

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 identify yourself and others who are present.

 Seat the student away from glaring lights (e.g. by the window) and preferably
in front of the class.

Activity

1. Differentiate the following types of visual loss

a. Myopia and strabismus
b. Hyperopia and colour blindness

2. What is meant by the concept ‘legally blind’?

3. Why is it necessary for the teacher to have knowledge of the signs of vision
loss
4. Describe how lack or loss of vision at whatever degree affects learning
5. Briefly explain the meaning of the following terms and concepts in relation to
visual impairments
a. Multisensory techniques
b. Glaucoma
c. Braillers

Unit Summary
We learned that visual loss can be partial or complete depending on the degree of
the loss. Legal blindness is defined as visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better
eye after correction with glasses or contact lenses or a restricted field of vision of
20% or less. An educational definition considers the extent to which a visual
impairment makes special education materials or methods necessary. We ALSO
learnt about the types of vision loss. Notable among them were myopia, hyperopia,
astigmatism, Aniseikonia, color blindness, inadequate fusion and strabismus.
Contact lenses and surgery helps to overcome some of the problems. We also
learned about how to identify learners with visual loss using a Snellen Chart and
suggested measures to help learners with such problems learn within the ordinary

95
 classroom. Children with low vision can learn can learn through visual channel and
may learn to read print. Besides impairment in visual acuity and field of vision, a
child may have problems with ocular motility or visual accommodation,
photophobia, or defective colour vision. The onset of visual impairment affects a
child’s educational needs.

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