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第七章 测试与试航(Trials and Sea Trials)

1. SAJ 与 NEWBUILDCON 标准格式的有关条文

这方面在 SAJ 是 Article VI 如下:


“1 Notice:
The BUYER shall receive from the BUILDER at least fourteen (14) days prior notice in
writing or by cable confirmed in writing of the time and place of the trial run of the VESSEL,
and the BUYER shall promptly acknowledge receipt of such notice. The BUYER shall have
its representative on board the VESSEL to witness such trial run. Failure in attendance of the
representative of the BUYER at the trial run of the VESSEL for any reason whatsoever after
due notice to the BUYER as above provided shall be deemed to be a waiver by the BUYER
of its right to have its representative on board the VESSEL at the trial run, and the BUILDER
may conduct the trial run without the representative of the BUYER being present, and in such
case the BUYER shall be obliged to accept the VESSEL on the basis of the certificate of the
BUILDER that the VESSEL, upon trial run, is found to conform to this Contract and the
Specifications.

2 Weather Condition:
The trial run shall be carried out under the weather condition which is deemed favourable
enough by the judgment of the BUILDER. In the event of unfavourable weather on the date
specified for the trial run, the same shall take place on the first favourable day thereafter that
the weather condition permits. It is agreed that, if during the trial run of the VESSEL, the
weather should suddenly become so unfavourable that orderly conduct of the trial run can no
longer be continued, the trial run shall be discontinued and postponed until the first
favourable day next following unless the BUYER shall assent in writing to acceptance of the
VESSEL on the basis of the trial run already made before such discontinuance has occurred.

3 How Conducted:
(a) All expenses in connection with the trial run are to be for the account of the BUILDER
and the BUILDER shall provide at its own expense the necessary crew to comply with
conditions of the safe navigation. The trial run shall be conducted in the manner prescribed in
the Specifications, and shall prove fulfillment of the performance requirements for the trial
run as set forth in the Specifications. The course of trial run shall be determined by the
BUILDER.
(b) Notwithstanding the foregoing, fuel oil, lubricating oils and greases necessary for the
trial run of the VESSEL shall be supplied by the BUYER at the Shipyard prior to the time of
the trial run, and the BUILDER shall pay the BUYER upon delivery of the VESSEL the cost
of the quantities of fuel oil, lubricating oils and greases consumed during the trial run at the
original purchase price. In measuring the consumed quantity, lubricating oils and greases
remaining in the main engine, other machinery and their pipes, stern tubes and the like, shall
be excluded. The quantity of fuel oil, lubricating oils and greases supplied by the BUYER
shall be in accordance with the instruction of the BUILDER.

4 Method of Acceptance or Rejection:


(a) Upon completion of the trial run, the BUILDER shall give the BUYER a notice by cable
confirmed in writing of completion of the trial run, as and if the BUILDER considers that the
results of the trial run indicate conformity of the VESSEL to this Contract and the
Specifications. The BUYER shall, within three (3) days after receipt of such notice from the
BUILDER, notify the BUILDER by cable confirmed in writing of its acceptance or rejection
of the VESSEL.
(b) However, should the results of the trial run indicate that the VESSEL, or any part or
equipment thereof does not conform to the requirements of this Contract and/or the
Specifications, or if the BUILDER is in agreement to non – conformity as specified in the
BUYER’s notice of rejection, then, the BUILDER shall take necessary steps to correct such
non – conformity. Upon completion of correction of such non – conformity, the BUILDER
shall give the BUYER a notice thereof by cable confirmed in writing. The BUYER shall,
within two (2) days after receipt of such notice from the BUILDER notify the BUILDER of
its acceptance or rejection of the VESSEL.
(c) In any event that the BUYER rejects the VESSEL, the BUYER shall indicate in its
notice of rejection in what respect the VESSEL, or any part or equipment thereof does not
conform to this Contract and / or the Specifications.
(d) In any event that the BUYER fails to notify the BUILDER by cable confirmed in
writing of the acceptance of or the rejection together with the reason therefor of the VESSEL
within the period as provided in the above Sub-paragraph (a) or (b), the BUYER shall be
deemed to have accepted the VESSEL.
(e) The BUILDER may dispute the rejection of the VESSEL by the BUYER under this
Paragraph, in which case the matter shall be submitted for final decision by arbitration in
accordance with Article XIII hereof.

5 Effect of Acceptance:
Acceptance of the VESSEL as above provided shall be final and binding so far as conformity
of the VESSEL to this Contract and the Specifications is concerned and shall preclude the
BUYER from refusing formal delivery of the VESSEL as hereinafter provided, if the
BUILDER complies with all other procedural requirements for delivery as provided in Article
VII hereof.

6 Disposition of Surplus Consumable Stores:


Should any fresh water or other consumable stores furnished by the BUILDER for the trial
run remain on board the VESSEL at the time of acceptance thereof by the BUYER, the
BUYER agrees to buy the same from the BUILDER at the original purchase price thereof,
and payment by the BUYER shall be effected upon delivery of the VESSEL.”

在 NEWBUILDCON 的第 23 与第 27 条文也是针对这一方面,如下:
“23 Inspections, Tests and Trials
(a) To enable the Buyer’s Representative and assistants to carry out their duties and inspect
the work being done, the Buyer’s Representative and/or assistants shall have the right to
inspect the Vessel throughout the period of the construction of the Vessel and until its
delivery and acceptance.

(b) The Buyer’s Representative and/or assistants shall have the right to attend all tests, trials
and inspections, including those supervised by the Classification Society and Regulatory
Authorities, on any parts of the Vessel whether or not installed. The Builder shall give the
Buyer reasonable notice in advance of all such tests, trials and inspections to enable the
Buyer’s Representative and/or assistants to attend. If the Buyer’s Representative and/or
assistants becomes aware of non-conformity of any aspect of the design, construction,
material or workmanship arising out of such tests, trials and inspections he/they shall notify
the Builder as soon as possible.

(c) For the purposes of attending such inspections, tests and trials the Builder shall, at any
time during working hours or at any other time when work is being performed, provided the
Buyer’s Representative and/or assistants with unimpeded access to the Shipyard, Vessel,
workshops, and anywhere else where work on or storage of items connected with the
construction of the Vessel is being performed. The Builder shall use its best efforts to arrange
similar access for inspection purposes to sub-contractor’s premises during working hours or at
any time when work is being performed.

(d) Neither the Buyer’s Representative’s and/or assistant’s inspection and/or attendance at
any inspection, test or trial, nor the Buyer’s Representative’s and/or assistants’ failure to
notify the Builder of any non-conformity shall relieve the Builder from its obligations under
this Contract or be deemed to be or construed as a waiver of any obligation to, or any
acceptance of, faulty design, construction, material and/or workmanship, or any admission
that any materials or workmanship are of the standard required for due performance of this
Contract.”

27 Sea Trials
The times and number specified in this Clause shall apply unless otherwise stated in the
Specification.

(a) Notice
The Buyer’s Representative, together with a suitable number of assistants, officers and crew,
shall have the right to be present at sea trials. The Builder shall give the Buyer at least
fourteen (14) days notice of time and place and expected duration of sea trials and the Buyer
shall promptly acknowledge receipt of such notice.

If neither the Buyer’s Representative nor any authorized assistants attend the sea trials for any
reason after such notice to the Buyer, such absence shall be deemed to be a waiver by the
Buyer of its right to be present. The Builder may then conduct the sea trials without the
Buyer’s Representative being on board, provided that a representative of the Classification
Society and Regulatory Authority is present. In such circumstances, the results and conditions
of the sea trials shall be as confirmed in writing by the Classification Society and/or
Regulatory Authorities.

(b) Weather Conditions


The sea trials shall be conducted in weather conditions as described in this Contract and/or
Specification. If the sea trials are interrupted or prevented by weather conditions in excess of
the stated conditions, any resulting delay in delivery of the Vessel shall be deemed a
Permissible Delay in accordance with Clause 34 (Permissible Delays). In such an event, the
sea trials shall be discontinued or postponed until the first favourable day thereafter when
weather conditions permit.

(c) Conduct of the Sea Trials


(i) The sea trials shall be conducted in the presence of representatives from the Classification
Society and Regulatory Authorities and in the matter described in this Contract. The sea trials
shall be of sufficient scope and duration to enable the Parties to verify and establish that the
Vessel conforms in all respects with the performance requirements of this Contract. The
Builder shall have the right to repeat any sea trials, subject to appropriate notice to the Buyer.

(ii) The Builder shall provide sufficient crew necessary for the safe navigation of the Vessel.

(iii) All expenses in connection with the sea trials, including the provision of bunkers,
lubricating oil, grease, fresh water and stores needed to undertake the sea trials shall be for the
Builder’s cost the expense. Together with the Final Instalment, the Buyer shall reimburse the
Builder at cost price for any quantities of bunkers and unbroached lubricating oil, grease,
fresh water and stores remaining on board at delivery.

(d) Method of Acceptance or Rejection


(i) Upon completion of the sea trials the Builder shall give the Buyer the result of the sea
trials in writing. If the Builder considers that the results thereof demonstrate that the Vessel
conforms to the requirements of this Contract, the Builder shall give the Buyer notice of when
delivery will take place. Such notice shall state where and when the Vessel will be ready for
delivery, which will be at least fifteen (15) running days after the notice is given. Within five
(5) running days after receipt of this notice and the trial results, the Buyer shall notify the
Builder in writing of its acceptance for delivery or rejection of the Vessel.

(ii) If the results of the sea trials demonstrate that the Vessel or any part or equipment
thereof does not conform to the requirements of this Contract, or if the Buyer rejects the
Vessel for other reasons which the Builder accepts as valid, the Builder shall take all
necessary steps to rectify such non-conformity. If necessary the Builder shall for its own cost
and expense carry out a further sea trial in accordance with this Clause to ascertain that the
Vessel complies with the terms of this Contract. Upon demonstration by the Builder that the
deficiencies have been corrected, the procedure set out in this Sub-clause (d) shall apply.

(iii) If the Buyer gives notice of rejection under (i) above or rejects the Vessel under (ii)
above, the Buyer shall state in which respects the Vessel does not conform to the
requirements of this Contract (hereinafter ‘Delivery Defects’).

(iv) If the Delivery Defects are of minor importance and do not affect the Class or the
operation of the Vessel in its intended trade but the Builder is unable to rectify the matter
within a reasonable time and in any event before the accrual of the Buyer’s right to terminate
in accordance with Clause 39 (Suspension and Termination), the Builder may nevertheless
require the Buyer to take delivery of the Vessel, on condition that the Builder first:

(1) undertakes to remedy the Delivery Defects for its own cost and expense as soon as
possible; and

(2) agrees in writing to indemnify the Buyer for any loss incurred as a consequence thereof,
including loss of time; and
(3) provides the Buyer with a guarantee issued by the party named in Box 32 (or if Box 32
is not filled in, a bank guarantee from a first class bank) substantially in the form and
substance set out in annex A(iv) for a sum which the Buyer reasonably requests to cover (1)
and (2) above, failing agreement such sum to be resolved in accordance with Clause 42
(Dispute Resolution);

whereupon the Buyer shall accept delivery of the Vessel

(v) If the Builder disputes the rejection of the Vessel by the Buyer, the dispute shall be
resolved in accordance with Clause 42 (Dispute Resolution).”

2. 测试与试航的原因及它与英国 1979 年《货物销售法》的关系

虽然买方/船东的代表通常会去从头到尾地监督造船过程、批准图纸等等,所以对建造
中船舶的工艺与质量都会有一定的认识,但直到真正去进行测试,船东甚至是船厂都
不会很清楚或者肯定船舶与其机件的实际操作与状况。所以,造船合约通常明示要求船
厂要先显示给船东看该有关船舶是完全符合该造船合约所要求的标准,之后才存在可
以去交船。去显示的做法就是我们所讲的测试与试航。去这样做也是符合英国 1979 年
《货物销售法》,就是针对将来的货物(future goods)(即在双方订约的时候,作为买
方的船东还没有机会见到他所购买的船舶),买方是要有一个合理机会去检查有关的
货物,看是否符合买卖合约规定。如果发生货不对版,买方是有权去拒绝该货物,也就
是可以去取消合约并且索赔(如果有损失的话)。这方面在英国 1979 年《货物销售法》
的条文是:
“Section 34 Buyer’s right of examining the goods
Unless otherwise agreed, when the seller tenders delivery of goods to the buyer, he is bound
to afford the buyer a reasonable opportunity of examining the goods for the purpose of
ascertaining whether they are in conformity with the contract.

Section 35 Acceptance

(2) Where goods are delivered to the buyer, and he has not previously examined them, he is
not deemed to have accepted them … until he has had a reasonable opportunity of examining
them for the purpose –
(a) of ascertaining whether they are in conformity with the contract, and
(b) in the case of a contract for sale by sample, of comparing the bulk with the sample.

Section 35A Right of partial rejection


(1) If the buyer –
(a) has the right to reject the goods by reason of a breach on the part of the seller that affects
some or all of them, but
(b) accept some of the goods, including, where there are any goods unaffected by the breach,
all such goods,
he does not by accepting them lose his right to reject the rest. …”

在这里顺便一提就是现在全中国的造船热下,产生了一些很不寻常的现象。就是部分船
厂在没有订立造船合约的情况下就去建造了一艘远洋船舶,然后去把她当作现货
(present goods)出售。在这种情况,也就可以让船东在订立合约之前就上船检查了。但
这一来,有关的合约再也不能说是造船合约,更加接近二手船买卖合约了。

《货物销售法》同样的条文去适用在不同的商业活动会根据行业的要求而作出不同的明
示规定。例如在国际上大量的货物买卖(FOB 与 CIF),由于都是涉及将来的货物,所
以也是有必要去提供给买方一个检查的机会,并且发现货不对版的话可去拒货。这针对
大宗货物通常就是在卸港,而涉及集装箱运输的话更加会是在目的地的内陆城市。显然
在那时才作出检查并可能带来买方的拒货的话,会对远在千里外的卖方带来严重的不
便与损失。所以不少国际货物买卖会去加上一条明示条文,说明在装港所作出的检验
(可以是共同的检验)就是对货物质量的最终证据。这种条文就是去把 1979 年《货物销
售法》针对货物检验的时间去提前了,因为在装港作出货物检验并非是给买方一个合理
的 机 会 去 检 验 。 但 该 条 文 是 完 全 有 效 并 有 过 大 量 先 例 针 对 : Alfred C. Toepfer v.
Continental Grain Co (1974) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 11;Galaxy Energy International Limited (BVI)
v. Eurobunker S.p.A. (2001) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 725 ; Veba Oil Supply and Trading GmbH v.
Petrotrade Inc (2002) 1 All ER 703;The “Kriti Palm” (2007) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 555。

同样的道理适用在造船合约,测试与试航就是让买方 /船东去作出检查,满意后就接收
船舶。

在时间方面,测试与试航是在船舶建造与装配完成之后进行,会安排在估计交船日子
之前的 1/2 星期去进行。在测验与试航满意后还需要一段短时间才能去交船是因为船厂
还需要做一点准备工作,其中最重要的就是对测试与试航满意的船级社与有关当局要
去签发各种证书(例如是《国际海上安全公约》所要求的一些船舶安全证书如“货船设
备安全证书”)给船舶,而这些证书是交船时候与船舶将来经营必需要的。这里船厂在
时间上想尽量赶,因为交了船才可以收到大部分的船价,而且可以大功告成而舒一口
气。另外也要注意到对船厂的保单可能有的限制,例如在英国的“ Institute Clauses for
Builders’ Risks”,它的第 3 条文说明测试与试航完成后的 30 天,保险就中止,除非船
厂去加保。该条文是如下:
“Held covered at a premium to be arranged in the event of delivery to Owners being delayed
beyond the provisional period(s) mentioned above, but in no case shall any additional period
of cover extend beyond 30 days from completion of Builder’s Trials.”

针对一些比较复杂的船舶,很可能船厂会比较小心,在真正去邀请船东去测试与试航
之前,可能船厂已经进行了一连串的船厂测试(Builder’s Trials),其中也包括了试航。
这些船厂测试在造船合约是没什么特别意义的,也没有去针对。它只不过是船厂内部的
安排,希望去正式邀请船东与船级社参与的测试与试航的时候就不会有什么出错。在船
厂的测试,很可能船东的总管也会参与,但不会有船级社或者其他权力机构的代表参
与。

3. 测试(trials)包括些什么

针对试航以外的测试(trials),应该是双方在订约前去同意进行哪一些测试,但也经
常会发生双方并没有去同意做一些什么测试。在 NEWBUILDCON,它的第 23 条文说明
船东代表的总管可去参与所有船舶在建造过程中的测试,不论这些测试是否有船级社
或其他当局的参与。双方通常会在造船合约中去约定有哪些测试,例如是液体天然气船
(LNG)就要来一个天然气测试(gas trial),冷藏船就要来一个冷冻测试,等等。

如果双方没有去明示规定,船厂要在交船前进行哪些测试让船东参与,以满足 1979 年
《货物销售法》下买方的合理检查权利就会有争议。大原则上这测试是要显示给船东看
即将交出的船舶是符合造船合约规定的要求与规范说明。也可以说是显示面比较广的,
只 要 是 造 船 合 约 的 规 范 说 明 有 去 针 对 。 而 这 可 以 在 McDougall v. Aeromarine of
Emsworth Ltd (1958) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 345 先例中感受到。案情涉及了一艘游艇的建造,其
中合约第 6 条文说明如果在测试的时候该船舶的表现是买方/船东感到合理满意
( provided that the performance of the Craft during such trial run is to the reasonable
satisfaction of the Purchaser ),船厂可被视为完成工作与交船。但什么是“表现”
(performance)有争议,Diplock 大法官判是“表现”一词应该被给与广泛的解释,并
包括了工艺与物料的标准以及该游艇是否符合合约的规范说明。不能去给这一词一个狭
窄的解释而导致即使是船舶的内部装修还不完整,只要是船舶能够航行,卖方 /船厂就
已经算是履行了他的合约,这样解释显然是不合理的:
“… construe the expression [i.e. ‘performance of the craft’] widely and as including the
standard of workmanship and materials and the compliance of the craft with the specification.
To read the words … in a narrow sense would result in the seller being deemed to have
fulfilled his contract even if the interior fittings were incomplete so long as the vessel sailed
well.”

在 Hobson v. Bartram & Sons Ltd (1950) 83 Lloyd’s Rep. 313,该先例的一审就提到了检


查货舱是测试的一部分。
4. 试航(Sea Trial)包括些什么

虽然很多时候该步骤被称为试航,试航主要分两部分工作,第一部分工作就是船舶挂
靠 船 厂 码 头 所 做 的 船 舶 测 试 , 其 中 包 括 了 一 个 名 为 “ 倾 斜 测 试 ” ( inclination
experiment)去确定船舶的轻排水量(lightweight)与载重吨(deadweight),第二部分
是出海航行。

而试航第一部分工作是要船舶去真正航行以确定船舶在船速与动力、持久力
(endurance)、操纵灵活性(maneuverability),以及其他船舶在海上航行时的状况
(例如是否有很严重的震动或者是螺旋桨是否会“唱歌”:Okura & Co Ltd. v. Navara
Shipping Corporation SA (1981) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 561; (1982) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 537 ; Stone
Vickers v. AS [1991] 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 288 等)。

5. 预先的通知

造船合约也会有条文针对船厂在试航之前要给船东多少天的通知,例如
NEWBUILDCON 的第 27 (a)条文规定了 14 天的预先通知。显然,有了预先通知船东可
以作充分的准备(例如去进行试航的同时可以安排船长与轮机长上船熟悉操作),毕
竟离交船日期也近了。如果不去明示规定的话,恐怕法律也会默示船厂需要给船东通知,
但要预先几天给通知就会根据不同案情的合理时间,这样就会带来争议与不稳定。如果
还有其他的枝节例如是船厂说:”你们船东的总管已经知道或者已经口头和他说过
了”,就会令整个争议更加不稳定了。所以去明示规定多少天预先通知是有其好处的。
条文也会规定如果船厂给了通知,但到时候船东或者他的代表没有出现的话,这样就
表示船东对这个船舶检查的弃权。如果当时有船级社(或者其他权力机构)的代表的参
与 , 在 这 种 情 况 下 船 东 就 只 能 依 赖 船 级 社 去 在 一 份 符 合 证 明 ( certificate of
compliance)签名并确认船舶状况是良好且符合造船合约的规范说明与标准,然后准备
接船。

如果船东代表并不是想去弃权,而是有理由觉得不应该进行试航,例如是认为船舶还
没有充分完成工程可去进行试航。这一来,如果据理力争不成功,船东最好还是去参与
试航,但去书面向船厂说明是“在抗议下”(under protest)参与。

6. 试航的天气状况与地点

造船合约另外针对试航的规定就是当时的天气状况(这包括风力、海浪与潮流),试航
的距离,水的深度,船舶的前后吃水,并且必须有船级社确认船舶是符合造船合约的
规范说明。如果准备试航的那一天天气不理想,就会要作出等待。这种延误会去规定是
允 许 的 延 误 ( permissible delay ) , 在 SAJ 是 在 Article VI (2) 的 最 后 一 段 , 而 在
NEWBUILDCON 中就是第 34 (a)(11)条。

试航也要小心不要去太远的水域,这是因为在船厂的保险会有限制。例如根据英国的
“Institute Clauses for Builders’ Risks”就有限制船舶不能开离造船地点超出 250 海里,
如果超出的话,船厂要马上通知保险公司并去加保。这是在第 9.1 条文如下:
“With leave to proceed to and from any wet or dry docks, harbours, ways, cradles and
pontoons within the port or place of construction and to proceed under own power, loaded or
in ballast, as often as required, for fitting out, docking, trials or delivery, within a distance by
water of 250 nautical miles of the port or place of construction, or held covered at a premium
to be arranged in the event of such distance being exceeded.”

试航通常会覆盖的路程是一海里,而走的方向是要看情况而定,例如顺风或逆风,与
不受水流影响。这些都属于船厂自己去决定,在 SAJ 是在 Article VI (3)(a)在最后一句。
但如果造船合约有任何明示规定,船厂必须依照。

7. 物权与风险谁属?

试航的期间,物权与风险仍是归船厂,所以试航通常是在船舶并没有注册的情况下进
行的。在试航期间发生了什么风险的话,例如是搁浅、碰撞等,这也是船厂的风险。遇
上这种意外像油污责任或碰撞责任,产生海事优先权也是船厂的风险。但在正常情况下
这些都会是承保的风险。在同样的精神下,试航也是需要船厂来提供船员并负责操纵船
舶。虽然在试航中船厂会邀请其他人士的参与,例如是船级社以及船东的代表/总管。另
也会包括船东在接船后的高级船员,显然让他们参加试航是让他们熟悉船舶的操作。反
正是,所有这些邀请上船参与试航的人士,身份都属于是观察员(observer),他们不
允许去参与船舶的操作与航行。而他们在船上如果有伤亡,除非这是涉及船厂的疏忽,
否则船厂是不必负责的。在 Hobson v. Bartram & Sons Ltd (1950) 83 Lloyd’s Rep. 313 先
例,原告是一位船厂分包商的雇员(他在船上是为了去装配冷冻设备),他在船舶试
航的时候掉落船舱重伤,证据显示了船舱本来是封舱(battened down)的,表示在舱
盖上行走也不会掉下去。但后来被船东上船观察的阿根廷船员偷偷把封舱木板移走,而
导致了原告踏空跌落船舱。而该船东的船员是去私下与没有授权地偷偷去检查船舱。原
告在法院说该船东的船员实际上是船厂的雇员,只要他们这一段时间是在船上。所以,
船员的过错也就是船厂的过错,船厂要负责。在一审,判是原告胜诉,原因(一)是认
为船厂与船东是对船舶的测试成功是有共同利益与关心的事情,(二)是船东的船员
在船上是受到船厂的直接指引,(三)所以,船东的船员在船上检查的时候是属于船
厂的代理人。但去了上诉庭,该判决被推翻,Tucker 大法官判船东的船员是船东代理人,
但并非是船厂代理人。船员与任何去检查货物的买方代理人是一样地位,他的过错不是
船厂/卖方的错,说:
“The learned judge has found that unless these Argentino sailors are to be regarded as the
agents of the defendants (船厂), the defendants were not in breach of any duty owed by them
as invitors on the ground that they have not been guilty of negligence. They have not failed to
take reasonable care to have the premises reasonably safe for the invitee. They were quite
unaware of the fact that the hatch covers had been opened up and removed, unless, of course,
these Argentino sailors were their agents. If they were their agents, then they were liable for
their acts, and the knowledge of the Argentino sailors would be attributable to the
defendants….

They (船东的船员) were in exactly the same position as the agents of any purchaser who
goes to inspect goods before the purchase is completed. It is quite true that there is a common
interest in the success of the trial between the builders of the ship and the purchasers, but that
is not sufficient to make the servants of the purchasers the agents or servant of the builders.”

船厂对船东参加试航的代表/总管与船员,以及船级社检查员唯一有的责任就是在侵权
方面。这在英国也已经有了立法,分别是 1957 与 1984 年的《物业占有人责任法》
(《Occupier’s Liability Act》)。前一个立法是适用在被船厂合法邀请或合法进入船厂范
围内的人士,这一来船厂就应该有一个与普通法一致的小心责任(duty of care)不要
让他在其间受到伤害。后一个立法是适用在非法侵入人士(trespasser),船厂的责任就
会是轻微得多,尤其是针对成年人。责任只局限在船厂(或居所)有一些隐蔽的危险,
是非法侵入人士无法合理可以估计到,但船厂(或居住者)本人是知道。举一个简单例
子,居所会有狼狗看门是小偷应该知道。所以,小偷非法进入该居所被狼狗咬伤,这是
不存在对小偷的伤害有什么责任。但如果居所被居住者设下了“地雷阵”或是找了一只
老虎看门,后果就会不一样了。这种案例也有不少,显示了成年的非法侵入人士会是向
居住者索赔是十分困难:Donoghue v. Folkstone Properties Ltd (2003) 3 All ER 1101 ;
Tomlinson v. Congleton BC (2003) 3 All ER 1122 ; Keown Conventry Healthcare NHS
Trust (2006) EWCA Civ 39。

虽然在中国的船厂,上一段提到的两个立法不适用。但是估计所有船厂的所在地都会有
道理相似的法律去针对。Hobson v. Bartram & Sons Ltd 一案如果发生在 84 年立法生效后,
估计船厂也不应该负有责任。

8. 试航中物料的供应

在同样的道理下,试航所要使用的物料也是归船厂的责任,由他来提供。这包括像船员
所需要的食用水、压舱水,等。如果在一些特别的液化天然气(LNG)船舶,提供足够
数量的天然气可让船舶去进行货物处理测试以及去显示货舱汽化(boil-off)的特性。但
最重要的还是要去提供试航所要使用的燃油、润滑油与黄油(grease),这照理也是由
船厂提供,但通常总会有在试航后剩余下来,要船厂在交船前把这些剩余的燃油与润
滑油从船舶上泵走会是对双方都没有好处与麻烦。但它们的价值也不低,所以一种惯常
的做法就好像 NEWBUILDCON 之第 27(c)(iii)条文的规定就是买方必须在交船前的最后
一次船价支付把船舶上剩余的燃油与没有开罐的润滑油,以及其他船舶上剩余的食用
水供应(这些应该不会值多少钱)去同时支付给船厂。文字的写法如下:
“…Together with the Final instalment, the Buyer shall reimburse the Builder at cost price
for any quantities of bunkers and unbroached lubricating oil, grease, fresh water and stores
remaining on board at delivery.”

但在 SAJ 标准格式,它在 Article VI(3)(d)却去约定了一种与 NEWBUILDCON 截然不同


的结算办法。它是去把燃油、润滑油与黄油去与其他试航的费用区分开来,要船东去承
担与负责提供,然后将来去结算看看在试航中实际使用了的燃油与润滑油等,并去让
船厂支付给船东。这样的安排虽然也有好处,例如船东可以去保证燃油与润滑油的质量
与价格(船东可能与某些石油供应商有私下的协议),但也有其坏处,例如船东去在
一艘他还没有接过来的船舶作出供应会有一定的犹豫,就是万一交不了船而只去把燃
油收回就很不现实了。另一个问题是如果船厂想进行试航,但船东不认为是时候去进行,
并不想去参与,这一来船东就不供应燃油与润滑油。虽然这也不一定难倒船厂,因为船
厂坚决要进行试航的话可以去安排在抗议下自己去提供,但这一来就增加了双方的争
议。SAJ 标准格式的结算办法还有其他的问题,例如去确定润滑油在试航中实际的耗量
与留在船舶的主机与管道的数量会是有争议。

9. 试航的技术方面

整个试航可以是在技术上非常复杂,所以会有一些指引去更详尽的对待。其中一种著名
的 就 是 海 事 建 筑 师 与 海 事 工 程 师 协 会 ( Society of Naval Architects and Maritime
Engineers 或简称 SNAME)在 1989 年的指引,它甚至会合并进一些造船合约里面说明
试航会根据该指引。在 Cenargo Ltd v. Empresa Nacional Bazan de Construcciones Navales
Militares SA (CA [Civ Div]) CA (Civil Division), 26 March 2002 中有类似的规定,如下:
“The specified sea trials will be performed, in general, in accordance with SNAME Code,
except as per counter agreement … Speed, manoeuvring and steering trails as well as other
trials will be carried out with the vessel in a Ballast condition with the maximum ballast
compatible with even keel, and according to Builder’s sea trials procedure. Mean draught in
these conditions will be as close as possible to that in a Ballast condition tested in the Towing
Tank …”

该海事建筑师与海事工程师协会在 1989 年的指引可节录如下:


“Speed trials will be made in a measured mile or measured by electronic means, as the
Raydist system, DGPS or similar. The approaching run will be long enough to ensure that the
ship’s speed is stabilized before entering into the measured course.
Two double runs will be performed (each consisting of two single runs in opposite direction).
One double run with the main engines developing a power about 90% of the MCR specified
in 108, and the others developing a power of 60%, 70% and 80% of MCR.

The mean values obtained during sea trials will be compared with those in the same condition
in the model test. Correction factors will be obtained between the actual values and test
values. If these factors were not equal, lineal variation with speed should be considered.
Making correction with the final correction factor to the model test curve for the design
draught, other curves corresponding to this condition will be obtained.

These speed and rpm from these true new curves will be considered as the contractual results.

A torsion-meter will be used to read each shaft power, and also the power developed by main
engines will be controlled by comparison to data taken during bed tests.

Speed trials will be conducted in deep water. If they are carried out under environmental
conditions not in accordance with those specified in 108, trial results will be corrected by the
Towing Tank Institute by using the Isherwood method for the wind added resistance, with
coefficients derived from Wagner and Towsing method or computer calculations together
with model tests results of smaller ships for the added resistance in waves.”

特别是对于速度快的船舶,试航的数据会有很多技术上困难的争议,例如在 Cenargo
Ltd v. Empresa Nacional Bazan de Construcciones Navales Militares SA (CA [Civ Div]) CA
(Civil Division), 26 March 2002。它的重要性显而易见,因为它会决定议定赔偿的高低,
甚至会导致船东可否有选择权去取消造船合约。举例说,在该先例的其中一个争议是涉
及了海浪有多高,是 1.5 米或是 2 米,等。而双方的争议与期租合约下的航速争议
(performance claim)颇为相似,包括像以航海日志的记录为准或是当地气象台记录为
准等等。最后法院接受航海日志的记录,因为双方的代表都在上面签了字。

另一个争议是涉及了造船合约没有去针对的舵机有角度所带来的舵面水压力与航向成
垂直方向的分力(drag),船厂认为这一方面的调整应该会为船舶的船速增加 0.08 节。
这舵机角度所带来的问题就是除非是海流或风向是顺风、顺流、逆风或逆流,否则风向
和海流会带来一个来自侧方的力使得船舶偏离航线,这就需要用舵机来制造反方向的
力来抵消这风向或海流带来的力,使船舶保持直线航行。但舵机在制造这个反作用力时
会同时制造一个与船舶航线一致的力,这个力会影响船舶真正船速的计算。而顺风顺流
逆风逆流情况下不用舵机,试航得出的船速只要与风速或海流速度作相应调整即可。法
官接受舵机的角度会影响船速,然而双方订约时对这一方面没有约定。法官也接受试航
经常是在顺流或逆流的情况下进行,虽然这也不一定,但是单凭这一点也不能认定将
舵机方向对船速的影响考虑在内是合适的做法。最后判是只有约定的内容才能对船舶的
船速进行修正,这不包括舵机的使用带来的船速减慢,因为这方面的调整双方没有约
定。

以上主要涉及了试航去确定船速,至于其他的测试也是技术性很强。笔者是外行,无法
去多说。只多举一个例子就是刚见到一个在诉讼中的争议,涉及了天然气船舶的天然气
测试,期间发现了许多严重的问题,包括像氮气输入系统( nitrogen injection system)
显 示 了 气 舱 有 严 重 的 泄 漏 ( tank leakage ) , 另 在 二 层 气 舱 膜 板 ( secondary tank
membrane)有数以百计的接合处有缺陷,等等。

10. 试航完结后的船东接收或者不接收

在试航完结的时候,也是双方利益矛盾最尖锐的时候。这是因为在时间上到了最后的关
头,所谓的“Date of Reckoning”的时刻已经来临。这变了双方有什么不满或者要什么
好处都要在这个时刻一并去解决。在现实中,一个复杂的工程例如象造船,很难在试航
及其他的测试中会百分之百的完美。几乎肯定会有一些缺陷出现在船壳、主机与其他的
设备。这会是一些完全不成比例的缺陷,例如一些只需要 25,000 美元就可以修理好的缺
陷,但有关的船舶是一艘造价高达 35,000 万美元的旅游船舶。但也会是在技术上十分严
重,会导致船舶的安全与影响船舶的营运,例如是舱盖关不紧与无法水密。但在一般的
情况下,一些有经验与有水平的船厂建造一艘普通的散装船或者油轮,通常是不会有
大的缺陷。这一来,在试航完结,如果光是局限在船舶的质量方面理论上是不应该有太
大的矛盾。但问题又会出在当时的航运市场,这是一个非常重大的因素导致了这一个时
刻的争议与利益上的矛盾变得更加尖锐。

10.1 航运市场不景气的情况

在当时如果航运市场不景气,这种争议会是最尖锐。因为船东不心急去接船,反正接了
也可能要抛老锚。反而,如果船东能够坚持船厂要把试航发现的缺陷进行补救,而船厂
也肯去让步,就可能给船东带来非常大的利益,如:
(一)在作出这种补救所要花的时间并不是允许的延误(permissible delay),所以有
可能船厂要支付每天的议定赔偿。这笔钱有可能比去在市场营运能赚的钱更多。

(二)看租船合约有关条文与当时情况,会有可能去补救缺陷的延误带来了死亡日期
的届临,这给了船东一个黄金机会可去把在航运市场高涨时候订立的造船合约取消,
并去在还款担保要回他预付了的船价。

(三)一天还没有接受试航与交船,希望就在人间,可能会出现一些其他的变数,例
如是船厂发生事故如火灾、地震等。如果这些事故对建造中的船舶造成了损坏,这对不
想接船的船东是好事,因为去修复肯定带来更严重的延误。如果严重到使船舶全损,对
船东也是好事,因为造船合约受阻。至于船东去要回他预付了的船价,这一点应该是不
成问题,因为他或是他的融资银行会有还款担保与造船保险的保障。

由于这种争议是十分尖锐,因为不愿意接船的船东会千方百计,或真或假地去提出一
大串的缺陷。也等于是船东不接受试航的结果。而如果船厂觉得船东是无理取闹,或是
有缺陷也是非常轻微的,这里的谁是谁非就涉及了在英国法律下,去交出的船舶情况
到底是否是在可交接的状况下(deliverable state)。这种争议与二手船买卖以及其他货
物的买卖(特别是比较复杂的机器或设备)基本上是一致。基本上,根据 SAJ 之 Article
VI (4)(e),就是去交给仲裁庭作出决定。但这会带来延误,因为一天不解决的话,船厂
也交不了船,因为船东还没有接受试航的结果。

10.2 航运市场高涨的情况

如果在接近交船的时候航运市场高涨,相比下造船合约价格廉宜,这表示船东会希望
尽快接船去投入市场营运。更会有可能是船东已经在这个时候订立了船舶第一航次租约
或者是一个更长期的期租合约,它们都会有一个比较紧凑的销约期。船东在这种心态下,
会是很愿意尽快接船,除非是技术上绝对过不了关,例如舱盖关不紧:A/B Gotaverken
v. Westminster Corporation of Monrovia (1971) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 505。如果在建造中遇上了
技术过不了关,估计船东的总管会在更早的时候已经与船厂商讨与谈判去作出补救,
把问题解决,不会留到这么晚。或会是,船东想去尽早接船,但船舶上发现的缺陷就去
在接船后向船厂提出索赔,就像 The “Fayronz I-IV” (1989) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 73。但去这样
做有一定的风险,因为像 SAJ 标准格式之 Article IX (4)(a)有清楚写明说:“船厂对任
何其他船舶的缺陷都不必负责,除了在本条文第一段所针对的就是在担保期 12 个月内
发 现 的 船 舶 缺 陷 ” ( The BUILDER shall have no responsibility for any other defects
whatsoever in the VESSEL than the defects specified in Paragraph 1 of this Article. )。在
The “Seta Maru” (2000) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 367 在一条十分相似的条文有争议:“The Builder
shall have no obligation under this guarantee for any defect discovered after the expiration of
the guarantee period specified hereinabove and for any defects whatsoever in the Vessel other
than the defects specified in Section 1 of this Article.”。该先例的案情是涉及了在担保期
后发现的潜在缺陷,Thomas 大法官判是除了 Section 1 的 12 个月担保期内发现的缺陷
外,船厂是被豁免其对船舶缺陷的明示合约责任。

如果船东想尽早接船,并把在试航中发现的缺陷去以抗议下的方式试图接船,船厂的
对策是把他视为不接受试航,并坚持去作出修理后才交船。如果这最终能够逼使船东不
要求修理,或可争辩说是船东对船厂修理弃权或禁止翻供,船东也就不可能在 SAJ 标
准格式下在交船后再想向船厂提出索赔交船前就发现的缺陷。
10.3 NEWBUILDCON 的有关交船时船舶有轻微缺陷的条文

但在同样的情况下,NEWBUILDCON 就有极大的灵活性的条文,除了对希望提早去接
船的船东有利外,对船厂也有一点利(因为主动权在船厂,船厂不希望这样做就可以
不去提出船东在没有补救交船前缺陷就接船的要求。这是在第 27(d)(iv)条文,如下:
“(iv) If the Delivery Defects are of minor importance and do not affect Class or the
operation of the Vessel in its intended trade but the Builder is unable to rectify the matter
within a reasonable time and in any event before the accrual of the Buyer’s right to terminate
in accordance with Clause 39 (Suspension and Termination), the Builder may nevertheless
require the Buyer to take delivery of the Vessel, on condition that the Builder first:
(1) undertakes to remedy the Delivery Defects for its own cost and expense as soon as
possible; and
(2) agrees in writing to indemnify the Buyer for any loss incurred as a consequence thereof,
including loss of time; and
(3) provides the Buyer with a guarantee issued by the party named in Box 32 (or if Box 32 is
not filled in, a bank guarantee from a first class bank) substantially in the form and substance
set out in Annex A(iv) for a sum which the Buyer reasonably requests to cover (1) and (2)
above, failing agreement such sum to be resolved in accordance with Clause 42 (Dispute
Resolution);

Whereupon the Buyer shall accept delivery of the Vessel.”。

在 NEWBUILDCON 的上述条文下,即使是在交船前已经发现的缺陷(这种缺陷通常
是轻微的)并且不影响船级或者船舶的营运(这也是理所当然,因为如果影响的话船
东想早日接船并投入营运也不可能),如果船厂不能在合理时间内与在死亡日期前作
出补救,船厂有权要求船东接船,条件是船厂必须:
(一)保证把这些交船前的缺陷尽早修妥/补救,费用由船厂承担;
(二)文书同意补偿船东所有的损失,包括了时间上的损失;
(三)提供给船东一个担保(是买方在造船合约中接受的担保或一流银行提供的担
保),金额是船东合理要求的数目,足够去包括(一)与(二)的估计费用,而如果
不能同意,双方就去仲裁。

在上述的先决条件下,船东去接船。

在上述 NEWBUILDCON 的条文,可能会有的争议会是:


(一)船厂向船东提出接船的要求,但船东不愿意,就会带来一些争论例如是缺陷是
否轻微与船厂是否不能在合理时间内作出补救。因为像轻微,合理等都是一些非常有争
议性的措辞。看来,船厂与船东可以在订约时去约定一个“轻微缺陷”的定义,例如是
指一些可以在 3 天或 5 天内补救,而花的金钱上不超过 20 万美元不等的缺陷。

(二)遇上交船前的有争议缺陷,即船厂不接受是一个缺陷导致所交的船舶不符合造
船合约的规范说明与标准,船厂就会不愿意去作出上述条文的三个要求,即保证修妥 /
补救,承担所有损失以及提供担保。

(三)如果在航运市场好景的时候,而船东希望提早接船,但同时想保留将来想船厂
索赔的权利,就会有机会在该条文下作文章。包括指称是船厂要求买方接船,虽然没有
履行所要求的先决条件。而船厂在对这些交船前局限有争议的时候,的确会去要求买方
接船。但问题是这一个要求与上述条文的要求是两码事,而且口头上是否有提出过要求
也是很难辨别其真假。

总结说,这一个条文虽然一开始笔者是说对双方都有一定的好处,但很可能还是对船
东更有利。因为这是需要去看没有这一条明示条文的情况下的英国法律默示地位,这包
括了英国普通法与 1979 年《货物销售法》针对轻微缺陷(minor defect)的说法。这就是,
法律的地位下是船东不能以此理由去中断造船合约。这表示在法律普通法下,船东会是
被迫要去接船,否则会构成违约/毁约。去接了船,船东可以提出索赔损失,但在没有
担保下去向船厂(特别是不少发展中国家的船厂)去索赔金钱上的损失会是困难重重。
但现在有了上述 NEWBUILDCON 的第 27(d)(iv)条文,明示规定了交船时船舶有轻微的
缺陷,在船厂的要求下,船东可以把责任明确(就是船厂同意支付补救的费用以及其
他带来的损失如时间损失)外,还可以取得船厂的担保。这些好处都不是法律普通法下
可以享有的。

10.4 AWES 的有关交船时船舶有轻微缺陷的条文

不像是 SAJ 标准格式没有去针对,AWES 标准格式倒也有一条针对交船时有轻微缺陷


的条文,这方面好像 NEWBUILDCON。该条文是 Article 4 (d)如下:
“The PURCHASER ( 船 东 ) shall be obliged to take delivery of the VESSEL, if it is in
conformity with the CONTRACT, unless there are any deficiencies or conditions or
recommendations imposed by the Classification Society and/or Regulatory Bodies preventing
the VESSEL from carrying out its intended operation. It the deficiencies or the
conditions/recommendations are of minor importance and do not prevent safe operation of the
VESSEL, the CONTRACTOR (船厂) may require the PURCHASER to take delivery of the
VESSEL provided the CONTRACTOR undertakes for its own account to remedy the
deficiency or fulfill the requirement as soon as possible, however latest by the end of the
guarantee period.”
在上述的文字下,船东拒绝船厂交船看来必须是证明:
(一)船舶交船时的缺陷或船级社/有关当局的条件或批注;
(二)它们是有重大的重要性(major importance);或
(三)它们影响船舶依照原来的订约意图是去安全营运。

如果是船舶确实有缺陷或船级社 /有关当局的条件或批注,但不达到上述(二)与
(三)的程度,船厂可以要求船东接船,而对船厂唯一的要求是去保证会在 12 个月担
保期内把缺陷补救或去消除船级社/有关当局的条件或批注。换句话说,也是在船厂不
去提供这一个保证的情况,船东才可以拒绝接船。

去 比 较 AWES 的 有 关 条 文 与 NEWBUILDCON 的 有 关 条 文 , 就 马 上 可 以 看 得 到
NEWBUILDCON 对船东的有利之处,例如是:
(一)AWES 的有关条文下去对船舶缺陷作出补救可以是在整个 12 个月的担保期内,
但 NEWBUILDCON 是要求船厂尽快(as soon as possible)补救;
(二)NEWBUILDCON 要求船厂以文书同意赔偿船东因为该缺陷造成的损失,包括时
间的损失。但 AWES 并没有去这样承诺,并在 Article 19 清楚说明船厂责任在限制如下:
“The liability of the CONTRACTOR shall be limited to the remedies provides for the
PURCHASER in this CONTRACT and there shall be no further liability whatsoever for any
direct or indirect losses, damages or expenses depriving from the obligations of the
CONTRACTOR under this CONTRACT.”
(三)船厂不必去在 AWES 提供一个担保(会是一流银行的担保)给船东。这是一个
非常重要之处,因为去提供与维持担保的有效会是一大笔支出,不少船厂包括是中国
的船厂也不会容易提供得了。至于担保金额方面,会是看缺陷的严重程度与数量,但可
以想得到的就是船东总会是狮子大开口,加上他在 NEWBUILDCON 的有关条文下显
然是处于强势地位。最后,要去谈妥这一个担保,包括在有关的文字 /措辞,其是要银
行与船东都能够接受,这也会需要一段时间才能交船。这些延误不属于允许的延误
(permissible delay)。

接下去是去谈判交船时船舶的缺陷,不论大小,是否是船东可以拒绝接船的理由。这里
先要去看普通法的有关地位。

10.5 普通法的地位

10.5.1 条件条文,保证条文还是中间条文之争

从前在英国法下合约条文分为条件条文(condition)与保证条文(warranty)两种,这
也是在 1979 年《货物销售法》第 11 条文的法律地位。违反前者合约就可以让受害方有一
个选择权去中断并提出损失索赔,而违反后者受害方只能向违约方索赔损失。这法律地
位直到 The “Hong Kong Fir” (1961) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 478 有了改变,增加了一种中间条文
(intermediate/innominate term),也就是能否根据违反中间条文中断合约要看违约的
具体情况而定。在现实中,合约中的大部分条文都是保证条文或中间条文,违反这些条
文通常并不会带来合约中断的严重后果,受害方只能寻求索赔金钱上损失的救济。但中
间条文的违反如果是十分严重,会是“ 达至合约的根 基”( goes to the root of the
contract:The ‘Hansa Nord’ [1975] 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 445)或违反会去“足够去剥夺无辜方
在 合 约 中 意 图 得 到 的 所 有 利 益 的 大 部 分 ” ( deprives him of substantially the whole
benefit which it was the intention of the parties that he should obtain from the contract :
Photo Production Ltd v. Securicor Transport Ltd. [1980] 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 545),这就会将其
提升至条件条文的地位,允许无辜方在索赔损失以外去中断合约。。

中间条文特别是适用在一些后果可大可小的违约,例如是船舶的不适航(后果大是像
焊接不妥使得整艘船舶沉没:The “Seta Maru” (2000) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 367;后果小是像少
了一件救生衣)或在交船时的船舶缺陷(不论是新造船还是二手船)。怎样去区分
Scarman 勋爵在 Bunge v. Tradax (1981) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 1 中说到:
“If the stipulation is one which on the true construction of the contract the parties have not
made a condition, and breach of which may be attended by trivial, minor or very grave
consequences, it is innominate and the court (or an arbitrator) will, in the event of dispute,
have the task of deciding whether the breach that has arisen is such as the parties would have
said, had they been asked at the time they made their contract, ‘It goes without saying that, if
that happens, the contract is at an end.’.”

有关区分条件条文与保证条文等方面,在笔者大部分著作的书籍中都有去涉及,在此
只去节录与造船合约有密切关系的二手船舶买卖一书《船舶买卖法律与实务》第四章 9.1
段如下:
“9.1 违约分条件条款、保证条款余中间条款
众所周知,破坏 /违反合约条文可大可小,法律救济各有不同。根据条文的重要性,条
文 分 为 ‘ 条 件 条 款 ’ ( condition ) 、 ‘ 保 证 条 款 ’ ( warranty ) 与 ‘ 中 间 条 款 ’
(intermediate terms)。‘条件条款’针对重要事情,违约可让受害方获得双重的救济:
即可以索赔损失,也可以有权去中断合约。相反‘保证条款’针对次要事情,违约只让
受害方有权索赔损失的救济。而合约中最多的会是一种处在‘条件条款’与‘保证条
款’之间的‘中间条款’。它一发生违约的后果与救济是要看每一案件的不同事实而定。
若是整体看重要,它会提升为‘条件条款’,反之会是‘保证条款’。

表面看来,‘中间条款’好像挺追求公平 /公道,不会一早说死,要每一次根据不同事
实去决定。但现实中操作,这带来很大的不稳定。这在笔者的《国际商务游戏规则—英
国合约法》一书第九章之 4.1 小段有略及,说:
‘4.1 今天太多中间条款带来的不稳定
结果是,今天的合约,特别是像租约,绝大多数的条款会是中间条款。以前曾有先例说
某种违约是条件条款(比方说船东对船级的保证),今天也不能完全安心依赖。比如船
东去把日本船级社改为巴拿马船级社会被判为破坏租约的一个条件条款,但另一案从
劳合社改为美国船级社可能判是无关紧要。这变得不肯定,而且会是危险。租方可能会
认为船东有严重的违约,足够构成条件条款,如船速慢了一半或是载重少了一半。但这
案子去了仲裁庭,很可能在法官或仲裁员所谓客观的看法,索赔已是足够,不必去允
许租方中断租约。这一来,对已去中断租约的租方来说会是大灾难。他本是受害方,可
是因为‘过火反应’,没有权去合法中断而去中断合约,变得毁约方不是船东而是他
承租人。他反而要面对毁约( repudiation)的指控及可能面对船东的巨额反索赔。船东
也有同样的危机矛盾,在面对承租人各种不同的违约,如装了不准装的货,签发了不
该去的地方的提单等,他应如何反应?

再说,失去了法律的肯定而去追求个别案子的公道就会很公道吗?完全不见得。法院或
仲裁庭不光是‘客观’就足够能找出公道、相对准确的答案。今天,水平低、不懂业务
(因此不知道轻重)、糊涂的法官与仲裁员为数不少,香港也有。这一来,带来不稳定、
矛盾,甚至是错误的判决、裁决,又何曾可以个别案子去主持公道?任何好的主意仍是
要高水平的人才可去发挥效果的。

看来,法律也是永远走不出这个矛盾,永远在这两点之间摇摆:要肯定( certainty )
还是要公道(equity)?’

最后一题是法院 /法律不鼓励中断合约,而是尽量希望履约,所以令被承认的“条件条
款”或提升至同样地位的“中间条款”不会多。绝多数的违约仍只停留在索赔损失的层
次,只要金钱上的赔偿作为救济已经是足够。

这方面经典的是 Roskill 大法官在 The ‘Hansa Nord’ (1975) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 445 的说法:
‘… In my view a court should not be over-ready unless required by statute or authority so to
do to construe a term in a contract as a condition, any breach of which gives rise to the right
to reject, rather than as a term, any breach of which sounds in damages. I deliberately avoid
the use of the word ‘warranty’ at this juncture. In principle contracts are made to be
performed and not to be avoided according to the whims of market fluctuation, and when
there is a free choice between two possible constructions, I think the court should tend to
prefer that construction which will ensure performance and not encourage avoidance of
contractual obligations.’”

10.5.2 交船时船舶如果有缺陷是条件条文,保证条文或中间条文?

介绍了普通法的条件条文,保证条文与中间条文后,接下去就可以看有关的针对交船
时候船舶有缺陷是否可让买方拒绝接船的先例。这法律默示地位(即去客观看违约本质
是严重或轻微以决定该中间条文到底是接近条件条文还是保证条文)在造船(或二手
船舶买卖)合约与其他合约的地位是一样。当然,在订约自由下可以明示条文去改变法
律 的 默 示 地 位 , 但 订 得 不 够 明 确 下 仍 是 不 足 可 去 改 变 的 。 如 在 Docker v.
Hyams(1969)1 Lloyd’s Rep. 487,合约内有一条文(第 5 条)针对“重大缺陷”允许
买方/船东取消合约,说:
“After the completion of … survey, if any material defect or defects in the yacht of her
machinery shall have been found, the Purchaser may give notice to the Vendor… of his
rejection of the yacht indicating the nature of the defect or defects. On receipt of notification
of such defect or defects, the Vendor shall forthwith either indicate his willingness to make
good such defect or defects without delay, or make a mutually agreed cash allowance in lieu.
If the Vendor shall decline to make good the defect or defects or if the parties hereto fail to
agree the amount of the cash allowance in lieu either party may by notice in writing to the
other cancel this agreement.”

买家以船舶(一艘游船)的多项缺陷拒绝接收,认为属第 5 条文的“重要缺陷”
(material defects)。这种缺陷是如一些钢板要更换,辅助发电机要修理或更新,通风
系统要翻新,等。卖家认为第 5 条所针对的“重要缺陷”何谓重要是由仲裁员来决定,
不是买家自说自话,但买家指他可去自说自话,只要他诚实(当然天知道买方是否内
心是诚实)。但上诉庭不同意买家说法,Edmund Davies 大法官说他无法接受“只要买
家诚实,事实上不是重要缺陷也可变为‘重要缺陷’”(provided he is honest, the
purchaser is free to point to anything and call it a material defect even though it in fact is
not)。

在笔者看来,“重要缺陷”应该不必达到一个太严重的程度,否则是不必有这一个明
示条文。若是缺陷本身是严重到违反了条件条文,默示地位已经足以让无辜方 /买方去
取 消 合 约 , 拒 绝 接 船 。 加 上 因 为 该 条 文 提 到 了 双 方 去 同 意 一 个 现 金 补 偿 ( cash
allowance),目的显然是为了避免去在补偿金额上将来有争议。但一般会被视为是违反
了条件条文或可去中断合约的中间条文,通常不光是金钱上就足够去作出救济的损失。
去加了“重要”一词,想以此去改变普通法地位的允许中断 /取消合约必须是违反条件
条文或严重至“足够去剥夺无辜方在合约中意图得到的所有利益的大部分”( the event
resulting … has the effect of depriving the other party of substantially the whole benefit
which it was the intention of the parties that he should obtain from the contract. )的中间条
文,就被英国法院视为是不够清楚明确了。如果在上述条文把“重要”一词删除,就变
了任何大小的缺陷都适用,即买卖双方谈不拢现金补偿,买方或就可以取消合约了。但
这也说不定,在期租合约下,就曾经有判例针对 NYPE46 标准格式的第 5 条文明示说
明船东可以在承租人有“任何违约”(any breach)的情况下去撤船,但贵族院 The
“Antaios” (No. 2) (1984) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 235 判“任何违约”是指“任何造成毁约的违
约”(any repudiatory breach)。否则,任何轻微的违约都可以让船东去中断租约就不
会有长期租约的存在了。

接下去介绍的是重要的 The “Aktion” (1987) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 283 先例,它虽然是有关二


手船买卖的交船,但同样适用在造船合约下的交船。在高院,Hirst 大法官根据 The
‘Hansa Nord’ (1975) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 445 先例判针对交船时候的船舶状况的有关卖方承诺
如保持船级(class fully maintained),所有船舶证书必须有效与没有被延期直至交船
后 6 个 月 ( all certificates clean, valid and unextended for a minimum of 6 months after
delivery)与船舶机器是在“正常操作状况”(normal working condition)都属于中间条
文而并非是条件条文。所以在一些比较轻微的问题,不难去作出补救,是不允许买方去
拒绝接船。有关这一个先例,在笔者的的二手船舶买卖一书《船舶买卖法律与实务》第
四章 9.3 段如下:
“9.3 判交船时状况与各样保证只属中间条款的主要先例:The ‘Aktion’

这个先例的 The ‘Aktion’ (1987) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 283 有关递交准备就绪通知书( Notice of


Readiness)方面已经在第一章之 2.8.2 小段详及,这里去探讨案例的另一个重要方面。
案件是以挪威格式为基础的二手船买卖。合约中有一条常见的附加条文第 18 条说:
‘Vessel to be delivered with her class fully maintained, free of recommendations and
average damages affecting her class and with all her national/international and trading
certificates to be clean, valid and unextended for a minimum of six months after delivery. All
continuous survey hull, continuous survey machinery items to be up to date on delivery.
Vessel to be delivered in the same basic condition as when inspected, fair/wear/tear excepted.
Engine/deck/machinery/wireless/station/navigation aids to be in normal working condition at
the time of delivery.’

上述条文把许多已经详及的各种卖方明示交船保证或承诺都包括在内。这是惯常做法,
但不是好的与细致的做法。因为它把大小事情都包括在一起,用字 /措辞也是一致(如:
交船时应如何)。这一来,条文被判作是‘中间条款’的可能性十分大,也是最公平 /
合理,即每次出争议是要去看该争议有关事实的大或小、严重或轻微,才下结论是‘条
件’(condition)或‘保证’(warranty)。而由于法院倾向去解释为“保证”以利合
约可被履行而非被中断,更可去断言绝大多数的在本章第 8 段所讲的各种交船质量保
证遭受卖方违反,只要是可去以金钱作出足够赔偿(理论上可去计算),即不会被视
为是‘条件’。这显然对买方不利,因为他难以这方面为由去中断买卖合约,而事后索
赔又往往是徒然。

可去节录 Hirst 大法官在 The ‘Aktion’先例中对上述第 18 条文的解释说:


‘Here there is no requirement of either statute or authority which constrains me to construe
any part of clause 18 as a condition precedent; neither the clause as a whole, nor the two last
sentences individually, are categorized by the parties in terms as condition precedent, as they
could so easily have been if they intended them to be so; furthermore, by reason of the very
widely variable gravity of potential breaches, by far the most reasonable result is to interpret
these two sentences as no more than innominate terms.
For all these reasons I reject the submission that these two sentences constitute conditions
precedent any breach of which, however trivial, entitles the buyers to cancel the contract. ’

在 The ‘Aktion’先例,买方原先挑了 14 个毛病/不妥状况与卖方争议。但到了法官审理时,


只减为是 4 个地方,冷气(air-conditioning)、发电机(generator)、第三舱损坏(Hold
3 damage )与“外加电流阴极防腐蚀系统”( Impressed Current Cathodic Protection 或
简称 ICCP)。

Hirst 大法官判冷气与发电机根本不被证明(unproven)有所不妥。至于第三舱的损坏,
美国船级社(ABS)的一位高级检验师在检验后认为无关紧要,不加批注。但买方的验
船师与买方专家证人指船旁钢板陷入 3 吋与 3 条龙骨/肋骨移了位,需要全部更换。这肯
定去下一个船级批注( recommendation)。但 Hirst 大法官相信美国船级社验船师的判
断,认为他有责任感( responsible )与在此争议没有“利益冲突”( with no axe to
grind)。所以,判“这个损坏没有什么严重之处”(I hold that this damage to hold 3 was
not serious)。

而最后一项的 ICCP,判是根本不属于船级社的项目,故可能适用只是第 18 条文的最


后 一 句 / 一 个 保 证 的 : ‘ Engine/deck/machinery/wireless station/navigation aids to be in
normal working condition at the time of delivery. ’但 Hirst 大法官判 ICCP 并非是一种
‘机器’(更不会是航行仪器[navigation aids]),所以不包括在保证内,说:
‘In my judgment, as a matter of plain common sense, it is extremely difficult to categorize
this system as either ‘engine machinery’ or ‘machinery’. Its function is simply and solely to
pass an electric current into the hull in order to counteract the natural and harmful potential
between the steel and other metals. The current itself is per se fulfilling this purpose, and
there is no machine in the ordinary sense of the word nor indeed any moving parts …’

会 否 是 , 同 样 一 个 保 证 若 是 使 用 的 文 字 是 像 在 8.6 小 段 的 ‘ 所 有 设 备 ’ ( all
equipment ) 或 / 与 ‘ 所 有 机 件 ’ ( all gears ) , 会 去 包 括 这 ICCP 比 ‘ 机 器 ’
(machinery)的一词机会高?

当然在 The ‘Aktion’先例,怎样用字也帮不了败诉的买方,因为 Hirst 大法官根据证据也


判 ICCP 的工作状况良好。”

但上述的有关“完整保持船级”(class fully maintained)只是中间条文的判决,去适


用在造船合约是要小心对待,因为 The “Aktion”是一艘 5 年船龄的二手船买卖,而且在
事实上该案例也不像有真正的影响船级的缺陷。此外,虽然没有针对造船合约的先例,
但针对期租合约的交船,就曾经有过先例说针对船级是明确的属于条件条文: The
“Apollonius” (1978) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 53。所以,在 Simon Curtis 的《The Law of Shipbuilding
Contracts》一书第三版之 102-103 页认为在 SAJ 标准格式造船合约下,要求船厂针对船
舶在交船的质量方面只有针对船级是条件条文,但其他方面都只应该是中间条文,说
是如下:
“This will obviously depend entirely upon the precise terms of the contract. Under the SAJ
form, for example, the builder’s obligations as to quality, which are primarily contained in
Article I, require him to construct, equip and complete the vessel in accordance with the
contract and the specifications (Article I.1), with certain agreed dimensions and
characteristics (Article I.2) and with the requirements of the classification society and the
regulatory authorities (Article I.3). The builder also gives certain undertakings as to the
vessel’s speed, deadweight etc., although the remedy for breach of these terms is limited to a
right to claim liquidated damages and/or rescind the contract (Article III). It is further agreed
that neither the construction of the vessel nor her sale will involve a breach of patent or other
intellectual property rights vesting in third parties (Article XVI).
Although this will again depend on all the circumstances of the particular case, it is submitted
that, with the exception of the requirement that the vessel should be in Class (as to which see
below), these terms are innominate in nature rather than contractual conditions. Whether or
not the buyer is entitled to reject the vessel for non-compliance accordingly depends on
whether the breach in question deprives him of ‘substantially the whole benefit’ of the
contract.
The requirement that the vessel should be fully in Class is, however, of a different order of
importance. The confirmation of the classification society, evidenced by the granting of the
required notation, that the vessel has been constructed to an internationally recognised
standard is not only a vital assurance of quality to the buyer but also a virtually indispensable
prerequisite to his ability to insure and trade her in a commercially efficient manner.
It therefore seems probable that an English court or arbitration tribunal would be prepared to
hold that the vessel’s inability to obtain the agreed notation constitutes a breach of condition
automatically entitling the buyer to reject her.”

去总结,对船厂而言,他是希望早日交船,不必再去花钱花精神,另船东欠下的大部
分船价,也可早日得以支付。而对船东而言,他自然是希望所有的不妥不满意之处全部
修妥或作出补救,否则留下来将来会麻烦。更不用说船东往往会有因市场变化的不可告
人的企图。

10.6 试航后的接受
试航后的接受(acceptance),是与 Article VII 的交船时“接收”英文字一样,这有点
混乱。其实,试航后的“接受”只是船东去确认该船舶符合造船合约的规范说明而已,
这与另一个接受或接收针对交船的交接并不一样。

但首先去看看 SAJ 格式在(4)段针对这方面的步骤:

10.6.1 提供试航结果

先是在试航完毕后,船厂要去提供一份试航的结果给船东及船级社。内有所有的试航的
数据与资料:船速,耗油,轻载吨位,载重吨位,主机及其他船用设备,等。

10.6.2 船东的考虑

收到结果后,船东需要时间去与他的代表,船级社或有关当局研究才能去决定。所以 ,
SAJ 格式订明船东有 3 天时间考虑接收与否。注意是 SAJ 格式并没有去说明这 3 天是
“工作天”,变得船东要去小心与及时行动,因为周日或假期也算是一天。一过了时间
不回答,船东即被当作接受试航合格与符合造船合约。如果船东需要更长的时间,就最
好在谈判造船合约的时候就去约定。在 NEWBUILDCON,它在第 27 (d)(i)条文就是规
定了 5 天去让船东通知船厂是否接收船舶,这比 SAJ 的 3 天时间延长了 2 天。

10.6.3 接受的结果

船东一接受,则表示船舶建造已告一段落。船厂可去在余下一段时期(例如一个星期)
安排交船,主要是给船厂时间去准备有关文件(例如是船级文件,试航议定书,备件 /
零件议定书,船上燃油/润滑油议定书,船舶无债务宣誓,图纸与蓝图,船价发票,卖
据与船厂证明,等)。而船东也需要时间去把所有船员备妥上船接船,通知互保协会及
保险公司,添加燃油与其他物料,等等。之后,在约定一天的“法律交换”
(closing),往往在船厂进行,双方互相交换有关文件及支付余下船价,而船舶的所
有权也同时移交,成为船东所拥有。

这接受有以下的后果:
(A) 船东一接受测试与试航的结果,往往不能再事后去反悔或推翻(irrevocable)。在
SAJ 之 Article VI (5),内容是说明船东一接受试航就是针对船舶符合造船合约的规定与
规范说明作为最终与有约束力的,船东不能在交船时再以这些技术上的理由拒绝接受
船舶。

(B) 船东一接受后,他唯一的权利在 SAJ 格式下能再对存在的船舶缺陷索赔是 Article


IX 的交船后 12 个月保证期(guarantee period)内所发现的。该段文字是说:“provided
that the defects are discovered within a period of twelve months after the date of delivery ”。
而在 Article IX (4)说明船厂除了这一种情况外对任何一切其他缺陷不负责任,文字是:
“The builder shall have no responsibility for any other defects whatsoever in the vessel than
the defects specified in Paragraph 1 of the Article”。

在 NEWBUILDCON,船东一接受后,也有类似 SAJ 标准格式的同样后果,就是除了船


厂担保期内发现的缺陷与船厂所同意的补救办法外,船厂不对任何其他的缺陷负责,
这是在第 37 (b)条文如下:
“(b) Liability for Defects discovered after delivery
Except to the extent expressly provided in Clause 35 (Builder’s Guarantee), the Builder shall
have no liability in contract, tort (including negligence), breach of statutory duty or otherwise
for:
(i) any Defect discovered after delivery of the Vessel or
(ii) any loss, damage or expenses caused as a consequence of such Defect (which shall
include, but not be limited to, loss of time, loss of profit or earnings or demurrage directly or
indirectly incurred by the Buyer).”

(C) 这一来,加上 SAJ 之 Article VI (5)说明一经接受,既是确认“船舶符合造船合约


最终与约束性的判定”(shall be final and binding so far as conformity of the vessel to this
contract and the specifications is concerned),船东在明知有缺陷不妥去接受会令将来再
去索赔有困难。但在 The “Seta Maru” (2000) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 367,Thomas 大法官判是这
一句是一条不准拒绝接船条文(non-rejection clause)。它只是针对在试航被接受后,船
东再也不能到交船的时候拒绝接船(这一段时间通常是很短,航运市场应该不会有太
大变化),它不影响船东其他的权利,例如事后发现潜在的缺陷。他是这样说:
“The provision in article … (这就是指 Article VI[5]类似内容的条文) that acceptance was
to be regarded as final and binding as regards conformity with the contract and specifications
was made for the purpose of ensuring that the buyers could not thereafter refuse delivery.
Article … made this clear by stating that the buyers were precluded from refusing formal
delivery. It was a non-rejection clause. There were in the 1970s and 1980s numerous
instances known throughout the shipbuilding industry where refusal of delivery was made on
the basis that there was some non-compliance with the contract or specifications; this
provision was designed to exclude that possibility and prevent rejection, once the procedures
in article … had been complied with or acceptance made. It did no more than that.

Article … did not exclude any rights other than the right to reject; if there were latent defects,
article … did not affect the buyers’ rights when they were discovered.”
另在 Cenargo Ltd v Empresa Nacional Bazan de Construcciones Navales Militares SA (2002)
EWCA Civ 524,也明确了一些议定赔偿的缺陷,但不像船速不足或耗油量大,是无法
从测试或试航中能够及时或在交船前发现,如拖车数目或集装箱数目,也不受上述
SAJ 之 Article VI (5)的影响。该先例在第四章议定赔偿一章 5.1.1.4.3 段有介绍。

在 NEWBUILDCON,它只是在第 27 (d)(i)条文说明船东是否接收船舶要给船厂通知,
第 27 (d)条文接下去的内容就是关于船东拒绝接船的情况。它并没有像上述 SAJ 标准格
式中的“最终与约束性”(final and binding)或类似的字样,这会可造成的后果是针
对 NEWBUILDCON 的条文,船东会有可能去在交船时说:“我几天前接受试航其实
是不对的”。看来,根据 The “Seta Maru”的说法,船东在 NEWBUILDCON 是可以去这
样做,因为双方没有约定接受了就是最终与约束性。根据 Toepfer v. Continental Grain
Co. (1974) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 11,如果双方同意了最终与约束性,光是有错误是不允许去
改变或者重开(例如是船厂提供的试航数据有错误)。唯一能够去改变或者重开是在有
欺诈的情况。

另去一提 Norwegian Standard Form Shipbuilding Contract,也有一条条文说明接受了试


航后,就不能针以一些已经在试航中检查测试了的船舶部分去作为理由去拒绝接收船
舶。这是在 Article VII (5):
“Effect of acceptance
Acceptance of the Vessel as provided above, shall be final and binding and shall preclude the
Buyer from refusing formal delivery on basis of any alleged deficiency in any part or parts of
the Vessel which were tested during the sea trial, provided all other procedural requirements
for delivery have been met.”

在这条文下,看来是一些没有测试过的船舶部分在交船前被发现有缺陷,就 会在法律
认同下,不影响船东拒绝接收船舶,直到船厂作出补救。

10.7 试航后的不接受

已经说过一艘复杂的船舶往往会在试航中发现一些问题,这导致船东经常不接受试航
结果。这里的做法根据 SAJ 标准格式他会去准备一个通知给船厂说明不接受试航,并在
一起给另一份文件名为“缺陷清单”(defects list 或 punch list)(NEWBUILDCON 把
这份文件称为是交船缺陷[delivery defects]),详细列出他不满意,船舶有缺陷之处。这
不只是针对试航结果,也包括船东认为未完工之处及曾经在建造时船东代表曾提出通
知但没有去修妥的缺陷,等等。

这在 NEWBUILDCON 标准格式的有关条文规定做法是大同小异,是第 27(d)(ii)与(iii)


条文,如下:
“(ii) If the results of the sea trials demonstrate that the Vessel or any part or equipment
thereof does not conform to the requirements of this Contracts, or if the Buyer rejects the
Vessel for other reasons which the Builder accepts as valid, the Builder shall take all
necessary steps to rectify such non-conformity. If necessary the Builder shall for its own cost
and expense carry out a further sea trial in accordance with this Clause to ascertain that the
Vessel complies with the terms of this Contract. Upon demonstration by the Builder that the
deficiencies have been corrected, the procedure set out in this Sub-clause (d) shall apply.

(iii) If the Buyer gives notice of rejection under (i) above or rejects the Vessel under (ii)
above, the Buyer shall state in which respects the Vessel does not conform to the
requirements of this Contract (hereinafter ‘Delivery Defects’)”。

10.7.1 船厂同意缺陷清单

船厂如果同意全部或部分的缺陷清单内容,自然是要去开始作出补救了。这时间上的延
误与额外费用都是船厂要承担。要知道,船厂须注意他在造船合约中承诺了的交船日期,
延误会带来支付议定赔偿或甚至是在严重的情况下,超出了死亡日期被船东中断造船
合约。

修妥或补救后,船厂根据 SAJ 标准合约之 Article VI. 4(b)再去给通知,船东又再要


去在 2 天内考虑是接收或不接收船舶。这里不像 NEWBUILDCON,没有去提到如果有
必要,船厂需要进行另一次试航去让船东确认较早提出的缺陷已经做出了补救。这会导
致船东对要在一段很短时间内去决定接不接收船舶感到为难。虽然在建造的过程中(这
也包括了补救缺陷的过程),船东代表或总管会有权利根据 SAJ 第 IV 条参与所有船级
社或者其他有关当局的测试与检查,所以会对船厂做出的补救是否满意有一定的了解。
但毕竟做出补救后是没有规定再去进行测试或试航。NEWBUILDCON 对船东而言有更
好的针对,这是在上述节录的第 27(d)(ii)条。

如果船东仍不接收,只能是根据原来的缺陷清单去作为依据,就是一些项目要不是没
有去做出补救或补救并不满意。船东是不应该去提出其它新的缺陷。这精神与银行在信
用证的操作下不能对单证不符之处去分期挑出来一样,令受益人不能一次过做出对不
符点的补救并最终错过了有效期。银行应一次过提出全部的不符点,否则构成弃权或禁
止翻供:香港的 HipHing Fat Co. Ltd. v. Daiwa Bank(1991)2 HK LR 35。这一个地位已
经在针对信用证的 UCP600 明示说明在 Article 16 (c):“When a nominated bank acting
on its nomination, a confirming bank, if any, or the issuing bank decides to refuse to honour
or negotiate, it must give a single notice to that effect to the presenter.”。

SAJ 标准格式合约虽然没有像 UCP600 去说明这一点,但估计在大部分的情况下可以根


据弃权或禁止翻供的理论去指称船东应该在第一次的缺陷清单中把所有能够发现的缺
陷都列举出来,而不是分开一次次的。毕竟 Article IV(4)(a)有一个 3 天的时限。而且,去
一次过提出就可让船厂同时对多项不同的缺陷做出补救了。

在船东再度提出的缺陷清单,船厂如果同意就要去再度做出补救。反正是通过这样的做
法,船舶的缺陷会是不断减少,直到完全得到补救就可以去交船。这一个过程在岸上的
工程也是一样做法,可称为是清除障碍的过程(snagging procedures)。

这里还会另有一种情况,就是船厂对缺陷作出了补救,船东再也找不出毛病。但由于缺
陷是涉及一些复杂的设备或者机器,所以船东提出或要求船厂多去提供一些资料,例
如出的是什么毛病与作出了什么补救。如果船厂拒绝提供或合作,船东能否坚持船厂有
一个默示责任必须去这样做,否则船东可以拒绝接收船舶。这一个问题在 J H Ritchie
Ltd v. Lloyd Ltd (2007) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 544 出现,它涉及了一套复杂的农耕设备(power
harrow)的买卖,在交货时被发现有缺陷,卖方去作出了补救/修理,但拒绝进一步给
买方有关的资料。在贵族院,卖方被判是违约,根据的是他有一个默示责任去提供这些
资料,因为这是一套复杂的设备,不去提供给买方有关资料会导致买方无法去作出是
否拒收货物的决定。所以买方有权去拒收货物,即使卖方式事后证明该套设备实际上已
经修妥并且符合要求。Hope 勋爵是这样说:
“18. The harrow was a complex piece of power-operated agricultural machinery.
Information of the kind that Mr. Ritchie (买方负责人) was asking for was obviously needed
if the appellants ( 买 方 ) were to make a properly informed choice between accepting and
rejecting informed the equipment on being told that the harrow had been repaired to factory
gate standard. A condition that the seller would provide this information, if it was asked for,
was one which every buyer would seek for his own protection in such circumstances. It was
one which no reasonable seller, who was already in breach of contract, could refuse as a
condition of being given the opportunity to cure the defect and preserve the contract.
19. In these circumstances—which cannot be assumed to apply in every case—I would hold
that the respondents (卖方) were under an implied obligation to provide the appellants (买方)
with the information that Mr. Ritchie asked for. As they refused to give them that information
the respondents were in breach of that obligation. The appellants were deprived of the
information that they needed to make a properly informed choice. In my opinion they were
entitled to reject the equipment even although, as it turned out, the respondents were able to
prove afterwards that the harrow had been repaired to factory gate standard.”

10.7.2 船厂不同意缺陷清单

如果船厂全部或部分不同意船东不接受试航结果,认为船舶已经处在可以交船的状态,
就会拒绝去做任何补救,而去进行安排有关文件及交船,这一来,会造成僵局。如果进
一步发展下去,就会变为是双方互相指责对方毁约,并令造船合约因此而中断。这一来
也难免带来了庞大的损失索赔,令该争议最后要通过劳民伤财与耗时的法律行动,以
SAJ 格式的 Article XIII 去仲裁解决了。或说,在造船僵局的时候,可否去进行一个即时
裁决(instant arbitration)去看看船舶是否可以交船或是船厂必须先做出补救。这会可以
很快与省钱的解决争议。但即时裁决需要双方合作才行,加上这是涉及了事实与技术的
问题,需要证据与专家意见去做出裁决,这些都快不了。但笔者曾经听说过以前伦敦一
位著名的海事仲裁员,就是已故的 Cedric Barclay 先生,由于他有造船建筑师的背景,
而且的确是对技术方面非常熟悉。所以曾经被船厂与船东共同雇用并去到现场检查有关
的缺陷并即时做出裁决。但这种成功的例子毕竟不容易达至,所以眼前的问题是船东是
否可以拒绝接收船舶,交船最后期限已届,中断合约的问题。

这复杂性不光是在技术方面,而往往会掺杂了商业上不可告人的因素在内。这不只是在
造船合约,也包括了二手船舶买卖,都会面临经常发生的同一情况,就是船舶价格与
航运市场的波动会是很大与很快。这情况是:交船时市场下跌,船东也不急着要接收
(主要是还没有去订下下一个租约),于是找毛病与籍口去“拒绝接收”
(rejection)。船东的底牌倒也不一定是绝对不要这艘船舶,因为是好不容易安排了融
资,或是有了长期营运该船舶的计划,又或是市场下跌的幅度很小而且前景看好,等。
船东只是希望能去以拒绝接收为表面理由,然后去为未曾修复的缺陷清单(不管能否
站得住脚)去狮子大开口,逼船厂让步如在船价来个折扣后才肯去接收。

这情况在市场回落的时候据知非常严重,有说新船或二手船买卖遇上精明的欧洲船东
是十之八九会发生。而不发生的一次往往是市场上升,他心急去接收船舶,不在乎再去
敲一笔“小”钱。精明的欧洲船东面对象中国、日本等的亚洲船厂或卖家,相对怕事与
怕去仲裁,去敲一笔的甜头尝过不少吧。特别在造船合约,订约与建造完毕须时良久,
两、三年的时间通常会有,其间市场往往有变化。遇上交船的时候市场高涨,这是船厂
的运气(至少针对顺利交船而言)。如果市场回落,这种交船的争议就经常有。而在一
条复杂的船舶,要去挑一些技术上的缺陷是肯定容易。

如果船厂去让步,要小心几点。(一)是人心上的贪得无厌;(二)是去照船东要求什
么就照做会使代价太高,大失预算;(三)是会在其他方面兼顾,不要带来更被动的
后果,如过了最后的交船时间或死亡日期而面临船东有了新的,更明确的中断造船合
约权利。

所以船厂非要去清楚先了解它本身的法律地位,遇上船东看来是坚决不接受试航结果,
拒绝接收交船,列出一份好几十页的缺陷清单,了解后船厂才能去有板有眼的与船东
争辩,并且心里知道自己应否让步,让步到什么地步,何时必须坚守立场,否则会是
兵败如山倒。
10.7.3 合法与非法拒绝接收船舶的后果

10.7.3.1 合法拒绝接收船舶

这里的合法与非法只是针对有关造船合约下船东拒绝接收船舶是否正确。如果是,这代
表合法(lawful),如果不是,这代表非法(unlawful)。它们的后果会与毁约有关,即
无辜方可以去选择接受毁约去中断造船合约或坚持去要求对方履约。

如果船东在有关造船合约的确是有权去拒绝接收船舶,因为该船舶不符合买卖合约的
要求,例如是船级的问题。已经提到过,在一个造船合约,这一点会是对条件条文的违
反。问题是如果船厂交出这样的一艘船舶,船东能否去以船厂的毁约并去马上接受与中
断造船合约?这通常是这样去理解,而无辜方如果延误去接受一个毁约(包括违反条
件条文),超出了合理时间,这会导致他失去了中断合约的权利。除了这一个普通法的
地位,1979 年的英国《货物销售法》的 Section 11 (3)与(4)也去把买方有权拒绝货物并把
合约视为毁约连在一起,例如在 Section 11 (3)说:
“Whether a stipulation in a contract of sale is a condition, the breach of which may give rise
to a right to treat the contract as repudiated, or a warranty, the breach of which may give rise
to a claim for damages but not to a right to reject the goods and treat the contract as
repudiated, depends in each case on the construction of the contract; and a stipulation may
be a condition, though called a warranty in the contract.”

英国法律在这一方面并不是太明确,而且在不少商品的买卖,的确也是去这样对待。例
如一船的大米因为货不对版被买方拒绝接收,有关的买卖合约也就被中断了。后来的争
议往往就是针对到底是否是货不对版与买方的拒绝是否合法。如果是,买方胜诉。如果
不是,卖方胜诉。反正是不存在有第二次交货与补救这货不对版的机会。这一个法律地
位针对商品是可以接受,但针对复杂的货物例如是一座机器,或是一艘船舶,这一个
法律地位就受到批评。这是因为第一次交货的时候经常会出现有或大或小的缺陷,而即
使是大的缺陷,也会有情况可以很快作出补救,然后再来第二次交货。这方面的批评可
见 Goode 所著的《Commercial Law》第二版第 10 章,内中提到了 The “Kanchenjunga”
(1990) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 391 与 Borrowman Phillips & Co v. Free & Hollis (1878) 4 QBD 500
先例,另可参阅“The Right to Cure Defective Performance”(1994) LMCLQ 525 一文。

有关造船合约,这一方面有先例去说明交船时船舶的缺陷在可以作出补救的情况下,
船东不可以拒绝接船并马上中断造船合约。这一个先例是 McDougall v. Aeromarine of
Emsworth Ltd. (1958) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 345,Diplock 大法官是这样说:
“… it does not follow that because … the buyer is reasonably dissatisfied with her, he is
entitled to treat the defects then existing as a breach of condition, so as to enable him to treat
the contract as repudiated…. The buyer is entitled to refuse to accept delivery of the vessel in
its existing state, but, if the defect is one that can be remedied within a time which will still
permit the seller to deliver within the period of delivery permitted by the contract, the buyer is
not … entitled to treat the contract as repudiated by the seller….”

去总结,船厂去试图交一艘有缺陷并且不符合造船合约的船舶,这并不构成毁约。经常
会有情况是船厂多次去交船,但被船东拒绝接收,直到缺陷被作出补救或到了死亡日
期而被船东以另一个理由去中断造船合约。会构成毁约,并且让船东可以去马上接受以
中断造船合约的情况是如下:
(一)船厂在试图交船的时候摆出了十分强硬的态度,对船东说明“你要就接收该船
舶,否则就拉倒”(take it or leave it),而船东被逼选择拉倒。这一来,如果事后真的
是证明了该船舶确实有严重的缺陷而不能交船,这就是船厂的毁约,并被船东接受了。
船厂这种强硬的态度也表示他根本不会对有关的缺陷去作出补救。有关的先例可参阅
Ashmore & Son v. S.C. Cox (1899) 1 Q.B. 436。

(二)被船东拒绝接收船舶的有关缺陷是根本无法去补救,或者在死亡日期前不可能
及时作出补救:McDougall v. Aeromarine of Emsworth Ltd. (1958) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 345。

(三)如果船厂不断去试图交船,但没有去作出任何实质性的补救,有关的缺陷仍然
存在。在一些明显的情况下,就是船厂不会去作出补救,这也会可构成毁约。

最后去一提的是交船时的缺陷局限在 SAJ 的 Article III (2)-(4)的各项,即船速,耗油量


与载重,加上程度严重,船东可以根据造船合约的规定去拒绝接收船舶。但这是因为造
船合约的明示规定给船东这一个选择权,与上述的普通法地位无关。这可见 SAJ 的
Article 2 (c)是这样说:“ … then the BUYER may, at its option, reject the VESSEL and
rescind this Contract in accordance with the provisions of Article X hereof, …”

10.7.3.2 非法拒绝接收船舶

这一个倒过来的地位就表示船东拒绝接收船舶是不正确的,例如是交出的船舶没有缺
陷或只是轻微的缺陷。这一来,船东的行为就会构成了毁约,并允许船厂去接受,中断
造船合约并索赔损失(如果有的话)。

但是否明确构成毁约,船东的行为与言论十分重要,因为毁约方是否是意图去拒绝履
行合约是根据法官或仲裁员客观地来看。而如果船东说明不论船厂是否去作出补救他都
拒绝接收船舶,态度强硬,这明显是毁约。但另一个极端是船东坚持拒绝接收船舶,但
表示如果船舶被证明是符合造船合约要求的话,他不反对接收。这并非是毁约而只应该
是一种“诚实的错误理解”(honest misapprehension)自己的法律地位。这在贵族院的
先 例 Woodar Investment Development Ltd v. Wimpey Construction (U.K.) Ltd (1980) 1
WLR 277 有去针对。Wilberforce 勋爵是这样说:
“… in considering whether there has been a repudiation by one party, it is necessary to look
at his conduct as a whole. Does this indicate an intention to abandon or to refuse performance
of the contract? … so far from repudiating the contract Wimpey were replying on it in
invoking one of its provisions, to which both parties had given their consent and, unless the
invocation of that provision was totally abusive or lacking in good faith (neither of which is
contended for), the fact that it has proved to be wrong in law cannot turn it into a
repudiation.”

另 在 Spettabile Consorzio Veneziano di Armamento e Navigazione v. Northumberland


Shipbuilding Company (1919) 121 LT 628,案情是有关 4 艘船舶的建造。该意大利船东发
函给船厂说明他所签署的合约无效,但原因不肯说明。之后,船东在英国法院出了告票,
要求法院作出宣告有关该合约的无效。但不久之后船东去中断了该诉讼的行为,并作出
完全是反面的行为,就是去开始了另一个诉讼,出告票要求一个宣告有关该合约的有
效。高院与上诉庭判是船东的行为,也就是第一个诉讼并不构成毁约。船东的行为更加
接近交给法院去判该有关造船合约是否是无效,然后去遵从判决(当然船东是否会遵
守如果判船东败诉,但这种臆猜就不必去理会了,但既然船东主动要求法院作出宣告,
合理的推断就是船东想去在宣告后依照判决,否则何必去这样做)。 Atkin 大法官是这
样说:
“the Plaintiff in the [first] action are asking the court to declare whether they are any longer
bound by the contracts. It appears to me that that is an entirely different state of facts
altogether from an intimation by the plaintiffs, apart from the courts of law, that they in any
event are not going to perform the contracts. It is something quite different from a
repudiation. So far from expressing the intention of the parties not to perform the contract, it
appears to me to leave it to the court to say whether or not the contract is to be performed, and
if the court says it is, then it impliedly states that it will be performed. I think, therefore, there
was no repudiation of the contract.”

这样看来,如果毁约方的船东表示愿意改变他的决定,如果法院或仲裁庭的判决对他
不利,这可能就会是足够显示他并非是想去毁约。如果船东更去邀请船厂尽快来一个仲
裁去作出决定,甚至主动去开始法律行动要求宣告他是否有权拒收船舶,这就更加足
够去支持船东并非是想去毁约。船东也会可以有其他的行为去支持他并非是毁约,例如
愿意去为最后一期的船价支付提供付款担保,或是把这笔钱支付去一个共同帐号,等。

如果船东确是毁约去拒绝接收船舶,也不合作去解决有关争议,船厂就可以去马上接
受并中断造船合约。这里不存在要去给船东另一个或多个机会接收船舶了。只要是船舶
在交船的当时是在可交接的状况下(deliverable state),船东就要对其毁约负上责任。
这里的后果与损失的计算与索赔就是根据 SAJ 标准格式的 Article XI。
10.7.4 1979 年+1994 年《货物销售法》下的默示条件

已经提到过,建造新船在英国法律下是属于货物买卖,是买卖将来的货物( future
goods)。所以,英国《货物销售法》适用,包括该立法中的一些有关交货时货物质量的
默示条件。但在一些著名的造船合约,该默示地位通常被明示条文超越,导致了该立法
不适用。例如在 SAJ 标准格式的 Article IX.4(c)就是:
“… replaces and excludes any other liability, guarantee, warranty, and/or condition imposed
or implied by the law, customary, statutory or otherwise, by reason of the construction and
sale of the VESSEL by the BUILDER for and to the BUYER.”

这在 NEWBUILDCON 也有类似的条文,就是在第 37 (d)条文如下:


“(d) Implied terms
The guarantee contained in Clause 35 (Builder’s Guarantee) replaces and excludes any other
liability, guarantee, warranty and/or condition and/or innominate term imposed or implied by
the law, customary, statutory or otherwise, by reason of the construction and sale of the
Vessel by the Builder for and to the Buyer.”

但在订约自由下,肯定会有造船合约不去排除英国《货物销售法》的适用,所以有必要
去看看在该立法下的默示地位。

先去看看该立法是如何说关于将来货物的所有权交接,这是在 1979 年《货物销售法》


(Sale of Goods Act)的 Section18 (5)(i)有说明如下:
“Where there is a contract for the sale of unascertained or future goods by description, and
goods of that description and in a deliverable state are unconditionally appropriated to the
contract, either by the seller with the assent of the buyer or by the buyer with the assent of the
seller, the property in the goods then passes to the buyer;……”

换言之,这要是货物(船舶):
(i)符合订约时的描述(comply with description)。
(ii)是处于“可交接状态”(a deliverable state)。
(iii)无条件拨归去这个买卖 (unconditionally appropriated)。

10.7.4.1 默示条件之一:符合订约时的描述

有关“符合订约时的描述”,是由于买卖将来的货物通常会在合约中去规定了将来货
物的描述,所以在交货的时候也不能是货不对版,不能合约说明是买“糖”交的货变
了是“盐”。这一个地位也有默示在《货物销售法》的 Section 13 (1):
“Where there is a contract for the sale of goods by description, there is an implied [term]
that the goods will correspond with the description.”

在 1979 年及它的前身 1893 年《货物销售法》,立法当时主要考虑是一般商品买卖。在当


时的年代,也不会有太复杂的商品去进行贸易,更不用说是复杂的机器例如是飞机或
者船舶。一般商品买卖如果不是现货,就必须以描述或样品(sample)来进行,为了去
确立双方将来交接的什么样的货物,法律一直判法也是严格对待。毕竟这也公道,因为
规范说明上稍有差别,也可能是分别很大。正是“差之毫厘,缪以千里”。例如,规定
买卖的原油不准有蜡的成分,因为想用来做润滑油。但结果货不对版,虽然是原油,但
有蜡的成分,买方根本是得物无所用。

但一严格对待,也带来取巧的机会。例如在 Moore v. Landauer (1921) 2 K. B. 519,是买


卖 3 千罐水果罐头,每 30 罐一箱。但交货时是 24 罐一箱,虽然总的数字正确。但法院
判买方可以违反默示条件而拒绝接收货物。要是去争议,买方也可说出不符合描述令他
不便,分销困难等等。但现实中常有乘机赖掉合约,因为市场有了变化,或是去拒货后
并同时中断买卖合约,之后再找卖方另去压价。

这严格对待货物描述必须在交货时不能货不对版的法律地位开始有了改变,这是在
The “Diana Prosperity” (1976) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 621。Wilberforce 勋爵说这一个法律地位
“判得太严格,贵族院要再去重新考虑”(I find to be excessively technical and due for
fresh examination in this House)。该先例涉及了一个长期期租合约,该租约是在船舶还
没 有 开 始 建 造 就 已 经 订 立 了 。 所 以 在 租 约 的 船 名 是 被 描 述 为 “ Japanese flag …
Newbuilding motor tank vessel called Yard No. 354 at Osaka Zosen [Shipyard]”。但由于船
厂之间的调度,结果船舶的建造实际上是在离开大阪(Osaka)不远的另一个集团旗下
的名为 Oshima 的船厂进行,并且给了另一个船壳的编号“Oshima Yard No. 004”。这
也是日本造船业的习惯做法。在船舶建造并交船后,承租人拒绝接船,理由就是该新造
船舶不符合租约的描述。贵族院判承租人败诉,Wilberforce 勋爵说:
“Even if a strict and technical view must be taken as regards the description of unascertained
future goods (e. g. commodities) as to which detail of the description must be assumed to be
vital, it may be, and in my opinion is, right to treat other contracts of sale of goods in a similar
manner to other contracts generally so as to ask whether a particular item in a description
constitutes a substantial ingredient of the‘identity’of the thing sold, and only if it does to
treat it as a condition.”

另在 Ashington Piggeries Ltd. v. Christopher Hill Ltd (1972) A. C. 441,Diplock 勋爵也有


以下的说法:
“The ‘description’by which unascertained goods are sold is:confined to those words in
the contract which were intended by the parties to identify the kind of goods which were to be
supplied. It is open to the parties to use a description as broad or narrow as they choose. But
ultimately the test is whether the buyer could fairly and reasonably refuse to accept the
physical goods proffered to him on the ground that their failure to correspond with that part of
what was said about them in the contract makes them different goods from those he had
agreed to buy。”(即以规范说明买卖将来的货物是为了去确立这是什么货物,这规范
说明可去订得广泛或狭窄,随双方自由选择。但本意仍是去确立什么货物,所以将来买
方可否去拒绝接收货物,应以一个合理买方来判断这交的货物是否与他原先同意去买
的不一样)。

去 综 合 或 重 复 以 上 所 讲 , 实 是 1893 年 至 1979 年 立 法 只 去 顾 及 相 对 简 单 商 品
(commodity)买卖,以往像船舶,飞机,发电机等的复杂货物买卖未去加以考虑。这
一来,现实中是无法接受在买卖或建造一艘 3 千万美元的旅游船,买家的船东可以挑
一个只要花 1、2 万美元可以解决的不符合合约描述/规范说明的小毛病(也肯定找得
到),然后去马上中断合约。这一来,象 Diplock 勋爵,Wilberforce 勋爵,等实是去宽
松 解释何 为货物 描述 / 规范说明,认为 特别 是非商 品 的货物是可以“合理买方”
(reasonable purchaser)的看法为准则,再也不是买方(船东)随便去挑一个毛病,即
可去“拒绝接收”(reject)。

而在 1994 年的《货物销售法》,实是去把这个看法去立法。它是成为 Section 15 A,是写


作:
“……the breach is so slight that it would be unreasonable for him to reject them, then, if the
buyer does not deal as a consumer the breach is not to be treated as a condition but may be
treated as a breach of warranty。”

至于怎样去区分货不对版是严重至一位合理买方也认为不能接受,在极端的情况是很
清楚明确。例如造船合约约定是建造一艘散装货轮,结果船厂试图去交船是一艘油轮,
这肯定是可让船东去拒绝接收,并中断造船合约(因为不大可能船厂可以在死亡日期
内对这种货不对版作出补救)。但难就难在边缘案件,这也是本章提到了船东到底是合
法或非法拒绝接收船舶,而在有争议的时候最好就表示根据法院或仲裁员的判决作为
依据以避免构成毁约。

在 Simon Curtis 的《The Law of Shipbuilding Contracts》一书第三版之 107 页,也有举了


一些区分的例子。例如一艘船舶在造船合约说明是“有吊杆的散装货轮”(例如是可吊
25 吨),但交船时吊杆根本不符合描述(例如只是可吊 15 吨),这导致了船东无法去
安全与有效地营运该船舶。这种情况下,估计船东可以合法去拒绝接收该船舶。相反,
如果一艘船舶在机器或者设备有一些小毛病(例如在吊桥或者船员房间的中央空调)
这显然不影响船级或船舶的营运,就有可能是船东(作为一个合理买方)不能去拒绝
该船舶。至于接收该船舶后要花钱去作出修理,看来在这种情况下被迫接受(即船厂坚
持认为是船舶符合描述,没有说是去作出补救),船东是可以事后向船厂索赔这一笔
修理费用:The “Seta Maru” (2000) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 367。但这情况,即中央空调有问题,
去套用在一艘旅游船就可能会是不同了,因为这会影响该船舶的营运。总之是,“合
理”一词是十分危险,也不稳定。

10.7.4.2 默示条件之二:满意质量

这一个默示条件是在 1979 年《货物销售法》之 Section 14,它在 1995 年前是名为“商用


质量”(merchantable quality)。就是在没有明示条文的情况下,立法有一个默示条件
就是所交的货物必须是符合“满意质量”(satisfactory quality)。这“满意质量”又是
以一位合理买方的看法作为准则,这合理不合理的考虑是去包括了对货物的描述、价格
(比如是合约售价比市场价格来看有很大折扣,就表示满意的程度就可能低一点)与
其他的因素。这是在 Section 14 (2A)所说如下:
“For the purposes of this Act, goods are of satisfactory quality if they meet the standard that
a reasonable person would regard as satisfactory, taking about of any description of the
goods, the price (if relevant) and all the other relevant circumstances.”

立法在 Section 14 (2B)也提到了对货物质量的满意是包括了一些什么方面,例如是有没


有太多的小缺陷、安全与耐用等方面。该立法是说:
“For the purpose of this Act, the quality of goods includes their state and condition and the
following (among others) are in appropriate cases aspects of the quality of goods—
(a) fitness for all the purposes for which goods of the kind in question are commonly
supplied,
(b) appearance and finish,
(c) freedom from minor defects,
(d) safety, and
(e) durability.”

立法也去把消费者买的货物与其他非消费者的货物(例如是船舶买卖)区分开来。在后
者,其被视为小毛病,例如是表面的缺陷(cosmetic defects),不应该太轻易允许去拒
货,所以在 Section 15A (1)(b)是这样说:
“15A –(1) Where in the case of a contract of sale—

(b) the breach is so slight that it would be unreasonable for him to reject them,
then, if the buyer does not deal as consumer, the breach is not to be treated as a breach of
condition but may be treated as a breach of warranty.…”

请注意是小毛病只是不允许拒绝接收船舶,因为这不是违反默示条件条文。但上述条文
也说明了这仍是违反了保证条文,所以,船东虽然必须接收船舶,但向船厂索赔这小
毛病带来的损失仍是完全可以的。

在一些复杂的货物买卖例如是一艘船舶的买卖,什么是满意质量的案例很少见。但去以
一个“合理买方”从客观的角度来看,一些不影响船舶安全或船舶在市场上经营的缺
陷,通常不会被视为是不符合“满意质量”。这一个观点是 Simon Curtis 在其所著的
《The Law of Shipbuilding Contracts》一书第三版第 108 页所说如下:
“Applying the standards of the ‘reasonable purchaser’, defects which do not affect either the
safe operation of the newbuilding or her ability to compete effectively within the market for
which she was build will not normally render her ‘unsatisfactory’ in quality terms; even more
rarely will they permit a purchaser of a newbuilding to reject her outright following
completion of her construction.”

最后去一提的是“满意质量”除了船舶的实质方面,也包括了一些其他方面例如是船
厂没有提供足够或误导性的说明书: Wormell v. RHM Agriculture (East) Ltd (1987) 1
WLR 1091;船舶上有机件或设备侵犯了第三者的版权、商标或专利,有可能面对诉讼 :
Niblett v. Confectioners’ Materials Co. Ltd. (1921) 3 KB 387。

10.7.4.3 默示条件之三:合理适合有关的用途

另在 Section 14 (3),立法也针对了一个默示条件,就是货物必须合理适合有关的用途 :
“… there is an implied [term] that the goods supplied under the contract are reasonably fit
for that purpose, …”

这一个要求对造船合约关系不大,因为它主要是针对在订约前,买方告知了卖方有关
货物的特定用途,这一来就导致了卖方有了一个责任将来交货的时候是需要货物合理
适合有关的用途。而且,还需要买方在很大程度上要去依赖卖方的技术与判断,并且是
合理,例如是卖方比买方更加容易去掌握。

但在大部分的造船合约,有关的船舶不论是集装箱船、散装船或油轮都是对船厂与船东
来说十分熟悉她们的一般用途,不存在有一个过程是船东去在订约前告诉船厂某一个
特定用途。至于船舶的规范说明如果是不符合水准,这不是本默示条件所针对的。例如
在苏格兰法院的先例 Britain Steamship Co. Ltd. v. Lithgows Ltd. (1975) SC 110,是一艘
散 装 货 船 的 造 船 合 约 , 其 中 针 对 主 机 的 规 范 说 明 有 说 明 它 的 马 力 为 “ Power:—
continuous service output—16,800bhp …rpm: continuous service output—110”。该造船合
约并没有去排除《货物销售法》,所以该立法的 1893 年版本适用,其中包括了就是货物
必须合理适合有关的用途。在交船后,主机不断出问题,船东就根据立法的默示条件向
船厂起诉,包括说是主机的问题令该船舶不能合理适合作为散装船的用途。但这被法院
拒绝。另一个船东的争议是船舶的主机需要适合一个用途就是能够连续性的供应规定的
马力输出。但这也被法院拒绝,Maxwell 勋爵说:
“Commercial men do not buy ships for the ‘purpose’ of getting a machine which will
produce a particular power or speed of operation. They may require that their ship’s engine
shall have particular power or speed of operation because that is what they believe is required
in order that the ship may fulfil its purpose, but the horse-power and speed of operation are
themselves matter of quality, not ‘purpose’.”

但这一个默示条件会适用在一些特殊的船舶,例如是一艘破冰船,而且买方在订约前
告知了船厂她的用途是全年在北极港口作为破冰之用。这方面一个相关的先例是 Bristol
Tramways & Carriage Co. Ltd. v. Fiat Motors Ltd. (1910) 2 KB 831,案情是有关公共汽车
的买卖,买方是在布里斯托尔,该英国城市有一些坡度很大的公路。该些公共汽车只适
合一般用途,但不适合在布里斯托尔营运,而卖方是知道这一个用途。结果是判卖方违
反了这一个默示条件。

如果船东在船舶或者某一个机件/设备的特定用途是去依赖船厂,即使船东提供了一些
图纸或蓝图,也不代表船厂不会在这方面违约,这完全要看每一个不同案件的事实。在
Cammell Laird & Co. Ltd v. Manganese Bronze & Brass Co. Ltd. (1934) 48 Lloyd’s Rep.
211,被告(分包商)同意去铸造两个螺旋桨作为原告(船厂)造船之用。船厂并提供
了一些产品规范说明要求,但其他一些技术方面的问题,特别是螺旋桨叶片的厚度,
就让分包商自己去作出判断。在交货后,其中一个螺旋桨有问题,不符合船厂所要求的
规范说明。船厂向分包商索赔,指后者违反了货物必须合理适合有关的用途的条件。结
果是判船厂胜诉,原因是船厂提供的规范说明外还有许多地方是照顾不到,这是需要
去让分包商去使用他的技术与判断:
“there was a substantial area outside the specification which was not covered by [the
plaintiffs’] directions and was therefore necessarily left to the skill and judgment of the
[defendants].”

另最后可去举一个贵族院先例 The “Aquarius II” (1996) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 353,该船东雇佣


被告更换船上的凸轮轴(cam shaft)。但多次工程失败,最后被迫整个船舶主机被换掉。
而老的一套主机与凸轮轴,被他人买去安装在另一艘船上,该船舶并没有发生同样的
问题。估计是凸轮轴并没有不妥,但“Aquarius II”轮本身有“特别之处”(a particular
abnormality or idiosyncrasy),导致凸轮轴有过多的扭曲震动(create excessive torsional
resonance in cam shafts)。

船东向被告索赔近 70 万英镑,指被告的凸轮轴“不合理适合有关的用途”,破坏了
《货物销售法》Section 14 (3)的默示条件。船东说被告明知凸轮轴是要安装在“Aquarius
II”,安装工作也是被告做,所以该船舶有任何潜在的,不知悉的问题导致这凸轮轴不
适合用途,风险与责任均在被告。

但贵族院不同意,说这样去依赖被告(卖方)不公道,他根本无法去运用“技术与判
断力”(skill or judgment)。Keith 勋爵说大精神是:
“As a matter of principle, therefore, it may be said that where a buyer purchases goods from
a seller who deals in goods of that description there is no breach of the implied condition of
fitness where the failure of the goods to meet the intended purpose arises from an abnormal
feature or idiosyncrasy, not made known to the seller, in the buyer or in the circumstances of
the use of the goods by the buyer. That is the case whether or not the buyer is himself aware
of the abnormal feature or idiosyncrasy.”

最后去一提的是立法也像其他默示条件一样规定了如果是很轻微的违反,也不能允许
船东去以船舶并不合理适合有关用途为由拒绝船舶。

10.7.5 总结船东可去以船舶质量缺陷拒绝接收的合法理由

根据以上所讲,英国法律下可去让船东“拒绝接收”(reject)船舶的合法理由只是:
(A)船舶如果是处于“可交接状态”(a deliverable state),船东必须接收。这在 1979
年《货物销售法》之 Section 61 (5)有说明如下:
“Goods are in a delivery state within the meaning of this Act when they are in such a state
that the buyer would under the contract be bound to take delivery of them.”

(B)拒绝只可以是船舶并非是处于“可交接状态”( a deliverable state),而且缺陷


构成条件条文(或是中间条文的违反严重至“达至合约的根基”[goes to the root of the
contract] 或 违 反 会 去 “ 足 够 去 剥 夺 无 辜 方 在 合 约 中 意 图 得 到 的 所 有 利 益 的 大 部
分”[deprives him of substantially the whole benefit which it was the intention of the parties
that he should obtain from the contract])。

(C)如果没有明示条文去排除 1979 年《货物销售法》有关质量方面,它的 3 个默示条


件适用。1995 年 1 月 3 号之后才订立的造船合约,更已有 1994 年立法以“合理买方”
的准则去对待这 3 个默示条件,法律地位变得更加明确就是“合理买方”不能以小毛
病去拒绝接收船舶,小毛病只能去索赔金钱上的损失。

(D)造船合约所明示的可允许船东中断合约的理由,如过度延迟了交船日期(所谓的
死亡日期)以及其它保证规范说明的不符合(例如在船速,耗油量,载重量等方面) ,
它们的适用就完全看有关条文的解释了。如果双方约定船速慢了 0.1 节就可以让船东去
拒绝接收船舶,也就只能去解释与强制执行了,不再存在船厂去争论到底这一个缺陷
是否是太轻微,要怪就怪船厂自己为什么接受这一条文了。
(E)相反如果船厂谈判力量强自己又懂得把握,就可以在合约内以明示条文禁止船东
以轻微或不重要的缺陷为由拒绝接收船舶,并且去进一步对“轻微或不重要的缺陷”
给一个门槛高的定义。有谈判力量的船厂更加可以去以明示条文禁止船东拒绝接收船舶,
而唯一的救济就是在事后索赔金钱上的损失。但估计船东不会接受,笔者也没有见过这
样的条文。但在订约自由下,反正只要不违反公共政策,都可以由双方去约定且完全有
效,不存在合理与否。类似的条文可以是:
“The Vessel when delivered shall be completed to normal quality standard in all respects.
However the Buyer shall not refuse delivery of the Vessel because of any minor and/or
insubstantial defects/deficiencies which do not materially affect the commercial ability of the
Vessel to operate. Any such defects/deficiencies will however be dealt with by the
Shipbuilder per ‘Warranty of Quality’”

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