Engineering Materials

UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE-ELGON
Sub-module 1: Materials Properties

• Hardness, toughness, brittleness, heat and electrical conductivity,
resistivity
• Corrosion; its causes, effects and prevention
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The mechanical properties of a material are those that affect the mechanical
strength and ability of a material to be molded in a suitable shape. Some of
the typical mechanical properties of a material include:
• Strength
• Toughness
• Hardness
• Hardenability
• Brittleness
• Malleability
• Ductility
• Creep and Slip
• Resilience
• Fatigue
Strength
It is the property of a material which opposes the deformation or breakdown
of material in presence of external forces or load. Materials which we
finalize for our engineering products, must have suitable mechanical strength
to be capable to work under different mechanical forces or loads.
Strength is the mechanical property that enables a metal to resist deformation
load.
The strength of a material is its capacity to withstand destruction under the
action of external loads.
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The stronger the materials the greater the load it can withstand
Toughness
It is the ability of a material to absorb the energy and gets plastically
deformed without fracturing. Its numerical value is determined by the
amount of energy per unit volume. Its unit is Joule/ m3. Value of toughness
of a material can be determined by stress-strain characteristics of a material.
For good toughness, materials should have good strength as well as ductility.
For example: brittle materials, having good strength but limited ductility are
not tough enough. Conversely, materials having good ductility but low
strength are also not tough enough. Therefore, to be tough, a material should
be capable to withstand both high stress and strain.
Hardness
It is the ability of a material to resist to permanent shape change due to
external stress. There are various measure of hardness – Scratch Hardness,
Indentation Hardness and Rebound Hardness.
1. Scratch Hardness
Scratch Hardness is the ability of materials to the oppose the
scratches to outer surface layer due to external force.
2. Indentation Hardness
It is the ability of materials to oppose the dent due to punch of
external hard and sharp objects.
3. Rebound Hardness
Rebound hardness is also called as dynamic hardness. It is
determined by the height of “bounce” of a diamond tipped
hammer dropped from a fixed height on the material.
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Hardenability
It is the ability of a material to attain the hardness by heat treatment
processing. It is determined by the depth up to which the material becomes
hard. The SI unit of hardenability is meter (similar to length). Hardenability
of material is inversely proportional to the weldability of material.
Brittleness
Brittleness of a material indicates that how easily it gets fractured when it is
subjected to a force or load. When a brittle material is subjected to a stress it
observes very less energy and gets fractures without significant strain.
Brittleness is converse to ductility of material. Brittleness of material is
temperature dependent. Some metals which are ductile at normal
temperature become brittle at low temperature.
Malleability
Malleability is a property of solid materials which indicates that how easily a
material gets deformed under compressive stress. Malleability is often
categorized by the ability of material to be formed in the form of a thin sheet
by hammering or rolling. This mechanical property is an aspect of plasticity
of material. Malleability of material is temperature dependent. With rise in
temperature, the malleability of material increases.
Ductility
Ductility is a property of a solid material which indicates that how easily a
material gets deformed under tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized by
the ability of material to get stretched into a wire by pulling or drawing. This
mechanical property is also an aspect of plasticity of material and is
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temperature dependent. With rise in temperature, the ductility of material
increases.
Creep and Slip

Creep is the property of a material which indicates the tendency of material
to move slowly and deform permanently under the influence of external
mechanical stress. It results due to long time exposure to large external
mechanical stress with in limit of yielding. Creep is more severe in material
that are subjected to heat for long time. Slip in material is a plane with high
density of atoms.
Resilience
Resilience is the ability of material to absorb the energy when it is deformed
elastically by applying stress and release the energy when stress is removed.
Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed
without permanent deformation. The modulus of resilience is defined as the
maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without permanent
deformation. It can be determined by integrating the stress-strain cure from
zero to elastic limit. Its unit is joule/m3.
Fatigue
Fatigue is the weakening of material caused by the repeated loading of the
material. When a material is subjected to cyclic loading, and loading greater
than certain threshold value but much below the strength of material
(ultimate tensile strength limit or yield stress limit), microscopic cracks
begin to form at grain boundaries and interfaces. Eventually the crack
reaches to a critical size. This crack propagates suddenly and the structure
gets fractured. The shape of structure affects the fatigue very much. Square
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holes and sharp corners lead to elevated stresses where the fatigue crack
initiates.
Heat Conductivity:
Heat conductivity, also known as thermal conductivity, is the ability of a
material to conduct heat. It is the rate at which heat flows through a unit area
of a material when there is a temperature gradient. Heat conductivity is
crucial in various applications, such as thermal insulation, heat sinks, and
heat exchangers.
Variations in Heat Conductivity:
Heat conductivity can vary significantly among different materials due to
factors such as atomic structure, crystal arrangement, and density. Some key
points to consider include:
• Atomic Structure: Materials with a regular, closely-packed atomic
structure, such as metals, tend to have high heat conductivity. This is
because vibrations (phonons) can propagate easily through the lattice.
• Crystal Orientation: Heat conductivity can vary with the crystallographic
orientation of the material. Anisotropic materials, like wood or layered
composites, can have significantly different heat conductivities in different
directions.
• Temperature: Heat conductivity often decreases with increasing
temperature due to increased phonon scattering, especially in non-metals
and alloys.
• Porosity and Density: Materials with high porosity or low density generally
have lower heat conductivity since air or voids impede heat transfer.
Electrical Conductivity:
Electrical conductivity is the measure of a material's ability to conduct
electric current. It is determined by the movement of charge carriers
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(electrons or ions) in response to an applied electric field. Electrical
conductivity is a crucial property in applications such as electronic
components, wires, and conductive coatings.
Variations in Electrical Conductivity:
Electrical conductivity varies widely among materials due to factors like the
availability of free charge carriers and their mobility. Key factors include:
• Electron Mobility: Metals generally have high electrical conductivity due to
the presence of free electrons that can move easily through the lattice.
• Band Structure: Intrinsic semiconductors have moderate conductivity due

to the presence of a band gap that restricts electron movement. Doping can
significantly increase conductivity in semiconductors.
• Ionization State: Ionic compounds or electrolytes conduct electricity
through the movement of ions in a solution or a lattice. Conductivity
depends on the concentration of ions and their mobility.
• Temperature: Electrical conductivity can increase or decrease with
temperature, depending on the material. Metals often exhibit higher
conductivity at lower temperatures due to reduced lattice vibrations.
Resistivity:
Resistivity is the inverse of electrical conductivity and represents a material's
opposition to the flow of electric current. It is a fundamental property in
designing electrical components and circuits.
Variations in Resistivity:
Resistivity is influenced by the same factors as electrical conductivity, but in
an inverse manner. Key points include:
• Temperature: In metals, resistivity generally increases with temperature due
to increased lattice vibrations. However, in semiconductors, resistivity may
decrease with temperature due to more charge carriers becoming available.
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• Alloying and Impurities: The presence of impurities or alloying elements
can significantly affect resistivity in both metals and semiconductors.
Certain impurities can enhance or reduce conductivity.
• Crystal Defects: Crystal defects, such as vacancies or dislocations, can
contribute to higher resistivity by impeding the movement of charge
carriers.
What is corrosion?
Corrosion is the surface wastage that occurs when metals are
exposed toreactive environments.
Corrosion is the result of interaction between a metal and an
environment which resultsin its gradual destruction.
Corrosion is the deterioration of materials as a result of a
reaction with its environment.
Corrosion is the destructive attack of a metal by a chemical or
electrochemicalreaction with the environment.
Despite different definitions, it can be observed that corrosion is

basically the result of interaction between materials and their
environment. Up to the 1960s, the term corrosion was restricted only to
metals and their alloys and it did not incorporate ceramics, polymers,
composites and semiconductors in its regime. The term corrosion now
encompasses all types of natural and man-made materials including
biomaterials and nanomaterials, and it is not confined to metals and
alloys alone.
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Classification of Corrosion:
Corrosion can be classified in different ways, such as
1. Chemical and electrochemical

2. High temperature and low temperature
3. Wet corrosion and dry corrosion.
Electrochemical corrosion:
• Separable anode/cathode type.
• Interfacial anode/cathode type.
• Inseparable anode/cathode type.
Chemical Corrosion: Which involves a direct chemical reaction of
metal with its environment.
Wet corrosion: occurs when a liquid is present. This usually involves
aqueous solutions or electrolytes common example is corrosion of steel
by water.
Dry corrosion occurs in the absence of a liquid phase or above the dew
point of the environment. vapours and gases are usually the corrodents.
Dry corrosion is most often associated with high temperature an
example is the attacked of steel in the furnace gases.
There Are Three Primary Reasons For Concern About And Study
Of Corrosion:
• Safety, economics, and conservation. Premature failure of bridges or

structures due to corrosion can result in human injury or even loss of
life. Failure of operating equipment can have the same disastrous
results.
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• Economic Losses: Economic losses can be divided into direct and
indirect losses.
• Direct losses: are those losses associated with the direct replacement
of corroded equipment, components, and structures. Also included are
those costs, both of Labour and material, to maintain equipment and
structures to prevent corrosion from taking place or to control the rate
of corrosion. Falling into this category are such items as painting,
application of protective coatings or linings, operating costs for
catholically protected pipelines and structures.
Indirect Losses: Typical of these indirect losses are the following examples.
• Shutdown: Unplanned shutdowns because of the

failure of equipment resulting from corrosion lead to
loss of production and consequently loss of profit.
Although the actual cost of maintenance work may be
minimal, the value of the lost production can be
considerable. If this type of occurrence is frequent, the
cost is usually added to the cost of the product.
• Contamination: During the corrosion of a metal, the
fluid being transported, stored, processed, or packaged
in a metallic component can pick up metallic salts. This
metallic pick-up can be detrimental to the product; with
soap products a shortened shelf life, with dyes a colour
alteration, and in some cases of intermediate products
the inability to carry out succeeding process steps. For
many years, lead pipes were used to transport water
until it was determined that the lead pick-up in the
water caused lead poisoning in humans.
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• Loss of Efficiency: Corrosion in a piping system can
result in the buildup of a scale. This scale can cause a
reduction in heat transfer as well as an increase in the
power required to pump the fluid through the system.
The efficient operation of other mechanical equipment
can also be reduced by corrosion. This reduction in
efficiency can cause an increase in operating costs as
well as result in increased fuel consumption, lubricant
loss, and reduced work output. extra cost is involved.
In some instances, the actual corrosive effect Is not
known and consequently, for safety reasons, a much
thicker shell results.
The Most Common Types of Corrosion

1) Uniform Corrosion: is the most common type and is
characterized by attacks over the entire surface area of the metal
exposed to a corroding agent. This type of corrosion is typically
caused by chemical or electrochemical reactions that cause the
metal to be consumed while forming oxides or other compounds
over large visible areas. These reactions cause the metal to lose
thickness over time and can continue until the metal has been
dissolved entirely.
2) Galvanic or Bimetallic Corrosion: Bimetallic corrosion, also
known as galvanic corrosion, is the corrosion that occurs when
two dissimilar metals are directly or indirectly in contact with
each other. Visually, this type of corrosion is characterized by the
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accelerated deterioration of one metal, while the other remains
unaffected. Bimetallic corrosion is a purely electrochemical
reaction driven by the difference in electrode potentials between
the two metals. When exposed to an electrolyte, where one metal
acts as the anode and the other as the cathode. The movement of
electrons from the anode to the cathode initiates an oxidation
reaction at the anode that causes it to be dissolved, i.e., corrode.
This type of corrosion is affected by the magnitude of the
potential difference between the two metals. Therefore, the
further apart the metals are in the galvanic series, the higher the
rate of corrosion at the anode.
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3) Crevice corrosion is a highly penetrative type of localized
corrosion that occurs in or directly adjacent to gaps or crevices on
the surface of a metal. These crevices can be the result of a
connection between two surfaces (metal to metal or metal to non-
metal), or by an accumulation of deposits (dirt, mud, biofouling,
etc.). This type of corrosion is characterized by deterioration in
the area of the crevice while the surrounding areas of the metal
substrate remain unaffected. One of the main criteria for the
development of crevice corrosion is the presence of stagnant
water within the crevice. This lack of fluid movement gives rise
to the depletion of dissolved oxygen and an abundance of
positive ions in the crevice. This leads to a series of

electrochemical reactions that alters the composition of the fluid
and makes it acidic in nature. The acidic liquid in the crevice
breaks down the metal’spassive layer and renders it vulnerable to
corrosion attack.
4) Pitting corrosion, also known as pitting, is another localized

form of corrosion that occurs on metal surfaces. Pitting typically
manifests itself as small diameter cavities or holes on the object's
surface while the remainder of the metallic surface remains
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unattached. This form of corrosion is also highly penetrative and
is considered to be one of the most dangerous types of corrosion
because it is difficult to predict and has a tendency to cause
sudden and extreme failures.
Pitting usually originates on areas of the metal surface where

inconsistencies in the protective passive film exist. These
inconsistencies may be due to film damage, poor coating
application or foreign deposits on the metal surface.
Areas where passivity has been reduced or lost now become the
anode while the surrounding regions act as the cathode. In the
presence of moisture, the anode and cathode form a corrosion
cell where the anode (i.e., the areas unprotected by the passive
film) corrodes. Because the corrosion is confined to a localized
area, pitting tends to penetrate the thickness of the material.
5) Intergranular corrosion involves accelerated corrosion along

the grain boundaries of a metal, while the bulk of the metal
surface remains free from attack. Some alloys, when subjected to
improper heat treatment, can have impurities segregated at the
grain boundaries that can make passivation at these areas
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difficult. The grain boundaries now represent a path of high
corrosion vulnerability.
6) Selective Leaching
In specific corrosive environments, some metal alloys can

experience a type of corrosion where only one element of the
alloy is deteriorated and removed by corrosion. This
discriminatory removal of a specific element is known as
selective leaching or dealloying. The most common example of
this phenomenon is the selective removal of the less noble zinc
element in brass alloys, also known as dezincification. Alloys
composed of metallic elements that are furthest apart in the
galvanic series are the most susceptible to this type of corrosion.
7) Erosion corrosion: is defined as the accelerated

deterioration of a metal that results from the relative movement
between a corrosive liquid and a metal’s surface. As the fluid flows
along the surface (usually at high velocities), the metal’s passive
oxide layer may be removed or dissolved, leaving the alloy
susceptible to damage . During this process, the metal may be removed in
the form of dissolved ions or as corrosion products that are mechanically
swept from the metal surface due to the force of the flowing fluid. Erosion
corrosion is visually recognizable by the appearance of grooves, gullies,
craters and valleys in a directional pattern on the metalsubstrate.
8) Stress Corrosion Cracking: is a form of corrosion marked

by the formation of fine cracks on specific areas on the metal surface
while the metal remains unattached over most of its surface area.
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This cracking is usually due to the simultaneous presence of tensile
stresses in a corrosive environment. SCC is considered to be an
insidious form of corrosion because the damage is sometimes not
immediately detected during inspections and can result in sudden
catastrophic failures.
• Corrosion Fatigue
Corrosion fatigue is the cracking of a metal or alloy under the

combined action of a corrosive environment and repeated or
fluctuating stress. As in stress corrosion cracking (SCC), successive
or alternate exposure to stress and corrosion does not leadto corrosion
fatigue.
Metals and alloys fail by cracking when subjected to cyclic or
repetitive stress, even in the absence of a corrosive medium. This is
known as fatigue failure. The greater the applied stress, the fewer the
number of cycles required and the shorter the time tofailure
Biological Corrosion
Biologically influenced corrosion refers to the degradation of metals

caused by the activity of living organisms. Contributing to the
corrosion are both micro- and macro-organisms in a variety of
environments, including domestic and industrial fresh waters, soils,
groundwater, seawater, natural petroleum products, and oil-emulsion
cutting fluids. Biologically influenced corrosion does not represent
a special form of corrosion but rather the aggravation of
corrosion under environmental conditions in which corrosion rates
are expected to be low. Corrosive conditions can be developed by
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living microorganisms as a result of their influence on anodic
and cathodic reactions.
The metabolic activity can directly or indirectly cause deterioration
of a metal by the corrosion process; this activity can:
1. Produce a corrosive environment

2. Create electrolytic cells on the metal surface
3. Alter the resistance of surface flms
4. Have an influence on the rate of anodic or cathodic reactions
5. Alter the environmental composition
Corrosion Control (Protection Against Corrosion)
As the corrosion process is very harmful and losses incurred
are tremendous, it becomes necessary to minimize or control
corrosion of metals. Corrosion can be stopped completely only
under ideal conditions. But the attainment of ideal conditions is not
possible. However, it is possible only to minimize corrosion
considerably. Since the types of corrosion are so numerous and
the conditions under which corrosion occurs are so different,
diverse methods are used to control corrosion. As the corrosion
is a reaction between the metal or alloy and the environment,
any method of corrosion control must be aimed at either modifying
the metal or the environment.
Choice of metals and alloys:
1. The first choice is to use noble metals such as gold and

platinum. They are most resistant to corrosion. As they are
precious, they cannot be used for generalpurposes.
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2. The next choice is to use purest possible metal. But in many
cases, it is not possible to produce a metal of high chemical purity.
Hence, even a trace amount of impurity leads to corrosion.
3. Thus, the next choice is the use of corrosion resistant alloys.
Several corrosion resistant alloys have been developed for specific
purposes and environment. For example, a) Stainless steel
containing chromium produce an exceptionally coherent oxide film
which protects the steel from further attack. (b) Cupro-nickel (70%
Cu + 30%Ni) alloys are now used for condenser tubes and for
bubble trays used in fractionating column in oil refineries. (c)
Highly stressed Nimonic alloys (Ni-Cr-Mo alloys) used in gas
turbines are very resistant to hot gases.
Proper Designing:
Proper geometrical design plays a vital role in the control of
corrosion of equipmentsand structures. The general guidelines of the
design of materials and components to control corrosion are the
following:
1. Use always simple design and structure

2. The design must avoid more complicated shapes having
more angles,edges, corners etc.
3. Avoid the contact of dissimilar metals as they may lead
to galvanic type corrosion. To overcome this, insulation
can be used.
4. When two dissimilar metals are to be in contact, the
anodic area must be as large as possible and the cathodic
area should be as small as possible.
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5. As far as possible, crevices (gap or crack) should be
avoided betweenadjacent parts of a structure.
6. Bolts and rivets should be replaced by proper welding
7. Metal washers should be replaced by rubber or plastic
washers as they do not adsorb water. They also act as
insulation.
8. Corrosion in pipelines can be prevented by using smooth bends.
9. Heat treatment like annealing minimizes the stress corrosion.
10. A good design of water storage container is the one
from which water can be drained and cleaned easily. Such a
design avoids accumulation of dirt etc.
Cathodic Protection:
The reduction or prevention of corrosion by making metallic
structure as cathode in the electrolytic cell is called cathodic
protection. Since there will not be any anodic area on the metal,
corrosion does not occur. There are two methods of applying
cathodic protection to metallic structures.
a) Sacrificial anodic protection (galvanic protection)

b) Impressed current cathodic protection
a) Sacrificial Anodic Protection Method
In this method, the metallic structure to be protected is made

cathode by connection it with more active metal (anodic metal).
Hence, all the corrosion will concentrate only on the active metal.
The parent structure is thus protected. The more active metal so
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employed is called sacrificial anode. The corroded sacrificial anode
block is replaced by a fresh one. Metals commonly employed as
sacrificial anodes are magnesium, zinc, aluminium and their alloys.
Magnesium has the most negative potential and can provide highest
current output and hence is widely used in high resistivity
electrolytes like soil.
Applications:
1. Protection as buried pipelines, underground cables from soil

corrosion.
2. Protection from marine corrosion of cables, ship hulls, piers etc.
3. Insertion of magnesium sheets into the domestic water boilers
to prevent theformation of rust.
4. Calcium metal is employed to minimize engine corrosion.
Advantages:
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1. Low installation and operating cost.

2. Capacity to protect complex structures.
3. Applied to wide range of severe corrodents.
Limitations:
1. High starting current is required.

2. Uncoated parts cannot be protected.
3. Limited driving potential, hence, not applicable for large objects.
b) Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Method
In this method, an impressed current is applied in opposite direction
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to nullify the corrosion current and convert the corroding metal from
anode to cathode. Usually the impressed current is derived from a
direct current sources (like battery or rectifier on AC line) with an
insoluble, inert anode (like graphite, scrap iron, stainless steel,
platinum or high silica iron).
A sufficient DC current is applied to an inert anode, buried in the
soil (or immersed in the corroding medium) and connected to the
metallic structure to be protected. The anode is, usually, a back fill,
composed of coke breeze or gypsum, so as to increase the
electrical contact with the surrounding soil. Impressed current
cathodic protection has been applied to open water box coolers,
water tanks, buried oil or water pipes, condensers, transmission line
towers, marine piers, laid up ships etc. This kind of protection
technique is particularly useful for large structures for long
term operations.
Modifying The Environment-Corrosion Control

Environment plays a major role in the corrosion of metals. Hence,
we can prevent corrosion to a great extent by modifying the
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environment. Some of the methods are
i) DE aeration:
Fresh water contains dissolved oxygen. The presence of increased
amount of oxygen is harmful and increases the corrosion rate.
Deaeration involves the removal of dissolved oxygen by increase
of temperature together with mechanical agitation. It also
removes dissolved carbon dioxide in water.
ii) By using inhibitors:

Inhibitors are organic or inorganic substances which decrease the
rate of corrosion.Usually the inhibitors are added in small quantities
to the corrosive medium. Inhibitors are classified into
1) Anodic inhibitors (chemical passivators)

2) Cathodic inhibitors (adsorption inhibitors)
3) Vapour phase inhibitors (volatile corrosion inhibitors)
Anodic Inhibitors:
Inhibitors which retard the corrosion of metals by forming a
sparingly soluble compound with a newly produced metal cations.
This compound will then adsorb on the corroding metal surface
forming a passive film or barrier.
Anodic inhibitors are used to repair
a) the crack of the oxide film over the metal surface
b) the pitting corrosion
c) the porous oxide film formed on the metal surface.
Examples:
Cathodic Inhibitors:
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Depending on the nature of the cathodic reaction in an electrochemical
corrosion,cathodic inhibitors are classified into
a) In an acidic solution: the main cathodic reaction is

the liberation of hydrogen gas, the corrosion can be controlled
by slowing down the diffusion of H+ ions through the
cathode. Eg., Amines
b) In a neutral solution: in a neutral solution, the

cathodic reaction is the adsorption of oxygen or formation of
hydroxyl ions. The corrosion is therefore controlled either by
eliminating oxygen from the corroding medium or by retarding its
diffusion to the cathodic area. The dissolved oxygen can be
eliminated by addingreducing agents like Na2SO3. The diffusion of
oxygen can be controlled by adding inhibitors like Mg, Zn or Ni
salts.
Vapour phase inhibitors:
These are organic inhibitors which are readily vapourised and form a
protective layeron the metal surface. These are conveniently used to
prevent corrosion in closed spaces, storage containers, packing
materials, sophisticated equipments etc.
E) Anodic Protection
This is an electrochemical method of corrosion control in which
an external potential control system, called potentiostat, is used to
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produce and maintain a thin non corroding, passive film on a metal
or an alloy. The use of potentiostat is to shift corrosion potential into
passive potential so that the corrosion of the metal is stopped. The
potential of the object (say acid storage tank) to be protected is
controlled by potential controller (potentiostat) so that under
certain potential range, the object becomes passive and prevents
further corrosion. This potential range depends upon the
relationship between the metal and the environment.
Applications:
1. Used in acid coolers in dilute sulphuric acid plants

2. used in storage tanks for sulphuric acid
3. used in chromium in contact with hydrofluoric acid
Limitations:
1. This method cannot be applied in the case of corrosive

medium containingaggressive chloride.
2. This cannot be applied if protection breaks down at any
point, it is difficult toreestablish.
F) Protective Coatings
Introduction:
In order to protect metals from corrosion, it is necessary to cover
the surface by means of protective coatings. These coatings act as a
physical barrier between the coated metal surface and the
environment. They afford decorative appeal and impart special
properties like hardness, oxidation resistance and thermal
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insulation.
Classification:
Protective coatings can be broadly classified into two types. They are
1. Inorganic coatings 2. Organic coatings
Inorganic coatings are further classified into two types. They are
i) Metallic coating:
1. Hot dipping- Galvanising, Tinning
2. Metal cladding
3. Cementation-Sherardising, Chromising, Calorising
4. Electroplating.
ii) Non-metallic coating:
1. Surface coating or chemical conversion coating – Chrom
2. Anodising
3. Enamel coating or Vitreous or Porcelain coating.
Organic coatings consists of Paints, Varnishes, Lacquers and Enamels.
Protective Coatings
a) Paints:
Paint is a viscous, opaque (not clear), mechanical dispersion mixture of one

or morepigments (dye) in a vehicle (drying oil).
Requisites of a good paint: A good paint should the following properties,
1) Have a high hiding power

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2) Form a good and uniform film on the metal surface
3) The film should not crack on drying
4) Give a glossy film
5) The film produced should be washable
6) Give a stable and decent colour on the metal surface
7) Have good resistance to the atmospheric conditions
8) Be fluid enough to spread easily over the surface
9) Possess high adhesion capacity to the material over which
it is intendedto be used
10) Dry quickly or in a reasonable duration.
11) The colour of the paint should not fade.
b) Metallic Coatings:
Corrosion of metals can be prevented or controlled by using methods like

galvanization, tinning, metal cladding, electroplating, cementation,
anodizing, phosphate coating, enameling, electroless plating.
Some of the methods are;
1) Hot dipping:
It is used for producing a coating of low-melting metals such as Zn, Sn
, Pb, Al etc., on iron, steel and copper which have relatively higher melting
points. The process in immersing the base metal in a bath of the molten
coating-metal, covered by a molten flux layer (usually zinc chloride).
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2) Galvanizing:
It is the process of coating iron or steel sheets with a thin coat of zinc to
prevent them from rusting. The process is iron or steel article is first
cleaned with dil. Sulphuric acid and washed with distilled water and
dried. The dried metal is dipped in bath of molten zinc, now the thin
layer of zinc is coated on the iron or steel article.
3) Metal cladding:
It is the process by which a dense, homogeneous layer of coating
metal is bonded firmly and permanently to the base metal on one or
both sides. Corrosion resistant metals like nickel, copper, lead, and
alloys like SS, nickel alloys, copper alloys, lead alloys can be
used as cladding materials.
4) Tinning:
It is a method of coating tin over the iron or steel articles. The process is
first treating steel sheet in dilute sulphuric acid and it is passed through
a flux (ZnCl2), next steel passes through a tank of molten tin and finally
through a series of rollers from underneath (bottom of) the surface of
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a layer of palm oil.
5) Electroplating Or Electrodeposition
Electroplating is a coating technique. It is the most important and

most frequently applied industrial method of producing metallic
coating. Electroplating is the process by which the coating metal is
deposited on the base metal by passing a direct current through an
electrolytic solution containing the soluble salt of the coating metal.
The base metal to be plated is made cathode whereas the anode is either
made of the coating metal itself or an inert material of good electrical
conductivity (like graphite).
Objectives: Electroplating is carried out for
i. Decoration or better appearance

ii. Increasing the resistance to corrosion of the coated metal.
iii. Improving the hardness of the metal
iv. Increasing the resistance to chemical attack
v. Electro refining.
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Procedure:
The article to be plated is first treated with organic solvent like carbon
tetrachloride, acetone, tetrachloro ethylene to remove oils, greases etc.
Then it is made free from surface scale, oxides, etc. by treating with dil.
HCl or H2SO4 (acid pickling). The cleaned article is then made as the
cathode of the electrolytic cell. The anode is either the coating metal
itself or an inert materialof good electrical conductivity.
The electrolyte is a solution of soluble salt of the coating metal. When

direct current is passed, coating metal ions migrate to the cathode and
get deposited there. Thus, a thin layer of coating metal is obtained on
the article made as the cathode. In order to get strong, adherent and
smooth deposit, certain types of additives (glue, gelatin, boric acid) are
added to the electrolytic bath. In order to improve the brightness of
the deposit, brightening agents are added inthe electrolytic bath.
The favorable conditions for a good electrodeposit are
• Optimum temperature
• Optimum current density
• Low metal ion concentrations.

Electroless Plating
Principle
Electroless plating is a newer technique of depositing a noble metal
from its salt solution on a catalytically active surface of the metal to be
protected by using a suitable reducing agent without using electrical
energy. The reducing agent reduces the metal ions into metal which gets
plated over the catalytically activated surface giving a uniform and thin
29 | P a g e
coating.
Metal ions + reducing agents Metal (deposited) + Oxidised
product
• Electroless Nickel Plating:
Pretreatment and activation of the surface: The surface to be plated
is first degreased by using organic solvents or alkali, followed by
acid treatment.
1. The surface of the stainless steel is activated by dipping in

hotsolution of 50 % dilute sulphuric acid.
2. The surface of magnesium alloy is activated by thin coating
of zinc orcopper over it.
3. Metals (Al, Cu, Fe) and alloys like brass can be directly nickel
plated without activation.
4. Nonmetallic articles like plastics, glass is activated by dipping
them in the solution containing SnCl2 +HCl, followed by
dipping in palladium chloride solution. On drying, a thin layer
of palladium is formed on the surface.
Applications:
1) It is used extensively in electronic appliances.

2) It is used in domestic as well as automotive fields (eg.,
jewellery, tops ofperfume bottles).
3) Its polymers are used in decorative and functional works.
4) Its plastic cabinets are used in digital as well as electronic
instruments.
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Sub-module 2:
FEROUS METALS AND ALLOYS
INTRODUCTION
A prime example of the versatility of steel is in the automobile where it is

the material of choice and accounts for over 60% of the weight of the
vehicle. Steel is highly formable as seen in the contours of the
automobile’s outer body.
Steel is strong and is used in the body frame, motor brackets, driveshaft,
and door impact beams of the vehicle.
Steel is corrosion-resistant when coated with the various zinc-based
coatings available today. Steel is dent resistant when compared with other
materials and provides exceptional energy absorption in a vehicle collision.
Steel is recycled and easily separated from other materials by a magnet.
Steel is inexpensive compared with other competing materials such as
aluminum and various polymeric materials.
Ironmaking.
• When making steel from iron ore, a blast furnace chemically
reduces the ore (iron oxide) with carbon in the form of coke.
Coke is a sponge-like carbon mass that is produced from coal by
heating the coal to expel the organic matter and gasses.
Limestone (calcium carbonate) is added as a flux for easier
melting and slag formation.
• The slag, which floats atop the molten iron, absorbs many of the
unwanted impurities.
• The blast furnace is essentially a tall hollow cylindrical structure
with a steel outer shell lined on the inside with special refractory
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and graphite brick.
• The crushed or pelletized ore, coke, and limestone are added as
layers through an opening at the top of the furnace, and chemical
reduction takes place with the aid of a blast of preheated air
entering near the bottom of the furnace (an area called the bosh).
• The air is blown into the furnace through a number of water-
cooled copper nozzles called tuyeres.
• The reduced liquid iron fills the bottom of the furnace and is
tapped from the furnace at specified intervals of time.
• The product of the furnace is called pig iron.
• The central branch of iron leading from the furnace was called the
‘‘sow’’ and the side branches were called ‘‘pigs.’’ Today the vast
majority of pig iron is poured directly from the furnace into a
refractory-lined vessel (submarine car) and transported in liquid
form to a basic oxygen furnace (BOF) for refinement into steel.
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Steel-making (BASIC OXYGEN FURNANCE)
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In the BOF, liquid pig iron comprises the main charge.

Steel scrap is added to dilute the carbon and other impurities in the pig
iron.
Oxygen gas is blown into the vessel by means of a top lance submerged
below the liquid surface.
The oxygen interacts with the molten pig iron to oxidize undesirable
elements. These elements include excess carbon (because of the coke
used in the blast furnace, pig iron contains over 2% carbon),
manganese, and silicon from the ore and limestone, and other impurities
like sulfur and phosphorus.
While in the BOF, the liquid metal is chemically analyzed to determine
the level of carbon and impurity removal.
When ready, the BOF is tilted and the liquid steel is poured into a
refractory-lined ladle.
While in the ladle, certain alloying elements can be added to the steel to
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produce the desired chemical composition.
This process takes place in a ladle treatment station or ladle furnace
where the steel is maintained at a particular temperature by external
heat from electrodes in the lid placed on the ladle.
After the desired chemical composition is achieved, the ladle can be
placed in a vacuum chamber to remove undesirable gases such as
hydrogen and oxygen.
This process is called degassing and is used for higher quality steel
products such as railroad rail, sheet, plate, bar, and forged products.
Stainless steel grades are usually produced in an induction or electric arc
furnace, sometimes under vacuum.
To refine stainless steel, the argon–oxygen decarburization (AOD)
process is used.
In the AOD, an argon–oxygen gas mixture is injected through the molten
steel to remove carbon without a substantial loss of chromium (the main
element in stainless steel).
Continuous Casting.
Today, most steel is cast into solid form in a continuous-casting (also
called strand casting) machine.
Here, the liquid begins solidification in a water-cooled copper mold while
the steel billet, slab, or bloom is withdrawn from the bottom of the mold.
The partially solidified shape is continuously withdrawn from the machine
and cut to length for further processing.
The continuous-casting process can proceed for days or weeks as ladle
after ladle of molten steel feeds the casting machine. Some steels are not
continuously cast but are poured into individual cast-iron molds to form an
ingot that is later reduced in size by forging or a rolling process to some
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other shape. Since the continuous-casting process offers substantial
economic and quality advantages over ingot casting most steel in the
world is produced by continuous casting.
Rolling/ Forging.
Once cast into billet, slab, or bloom form, the steel is hot rolled through a
series of rolling mills or squeezed/ hammered by forging to produce the
final shape.
To form hot-rolled sheet, a 50- to 300-mm-thick slab is reduced to final
thickness, e.g., 2 mm, in one or more roughing stands followed by a series
of six or seven finishing stands. To obtain thinner steel sheet, e.g.,0.5
mm, the hot-rolled sheet must be pickled in acid to remove the iron
oxide scale and further cold rolled in a series of rolling stands called a
tandem mill.
Because the cold-rolling process produces a hard sheet with little ductility,
it is annealed either by batch annealing or continuous annealing. New
casting technology is emerging where thin sheet (under 1 mm) can be
directly cast from the liquid through water-cooled, rotating rolls that act as
a mold as in continuous casting. This new process eliminates many of the
steps in conventional hot-rolled sheet processing. Plate steels are produced
by hot rolling a slab in a reversing roughing mill and a reversing finishing
mill. Steel for railway rails is hot rolled from a bloom in a blooming
mill, a roughing mill, and one or more finishing mills. Steel bars are
produced from a heated billet that is hot rolled in a series of roughing
and finishing mills. Forged steels are produced from an ingot that is
heated to forging temperature and squeezed or hammered in a hydraulic
press or drop forge. The processing sequence in all these deformation
processes can vary depending on the design, layout, and age of the steel
36 | P a g e
plant.
STEEL ALLOYS
Each particular alloying element has an influence on the structure and
properties of steel. The following elements are important alloying
elements in steel:
Carbon.
It is inexpensive and has a strong influence on hardness and strength.
It is the basic and essential alloying element in all plain-carbon, low-
alloy, and tool steels. Carbon is an interstitial element that occupies sites
between the larger iron atoms in the bcc and fcc lattices.
Carbon can increase yield strength of pure iron (0% C) with a strength
of about 28 to 190 MPa at 0.005% C, the maximum solubility of carbon
at room temperature.
Manganese.
Manganese is also an essential element in all carbon, low-alloy, and alloy
steels. Manganese has several roles as an alloying element. One role is
to assure that all residual sulfur is combined to form manganese sulfide
(MnS).
Manganese is generally added to steel with a minimum manganese:
sulfur ratio of 20:1. Without manganese the sulfur would combine with
iron and form iron sulfide (FeS), which is a brittle compound that
lowers toughness and ductility and causes a phenomenon called hot
shortness.
Hot shortness is a condition where a compound (such as FeS) or
insoluble element (such as copper) in steel has a low melting point and
37 | P a g e
thus forms an unacceptable cracklike surface condition during hot
rolling. Another role of manganese is in strengthening steel.
Silicon.
Silicon is added to many carbon and low-alloy steels as a deoxi-dizer, i.e.,
it removes dissolved oxygen from molten steel during the steel-refining
process. Oxygen is an undesirable element in steel because it forms oxide
inclusions, which can degrade ductility, toughness, and fatigue resistance.
Silicon has a moderate effect on strengthening steel but is usually not added
for strengthening.
Phosphorus.
Phosphorus is considered a tramp or residual element in steel and is
carefully restricted to levels generally below 0.02%. However, like carbon,
phosphorus is an interstitial element that can substantially strengthen iron.
For this reason, phosphorus is added to a special class of steels called
rephosphorized steels for strength. Rephosphorized steels also have
enhanced machinability.
Sulfur.
Sulfur is also considered a tramp element in steel and is usually restricted to
below about 0.02%. Although an element with a small atomic diameter,
sulfur is not considered an interstitial alloying element because it is
insoluble in iron. However, as in the case of phosphorus, sulfur is added to
a special class of steels called resulfurized steels that have improved
machinability. These steels are called free-machining steels.
Copper.
These copper particles increase strength and hardness. Copper is also added
to low-alloy steels for atmospheric corrosion protection (these steels are
called weathering steels). One problem with copper in steel is that it cannot
38 | P a g e
be oxidized and removed during steel refining. Thus, over time, the copper
level of steel produced from steel scrap is slowly increasing.
Nickel.
Nickel is an important element because of its positive effect on
hardenability. Many important low-alloy steels contain nickel for this
reason. Nickel, being a substitutional element in the iron lattice has a small
effect on increasing yield strength. Nickel, being an austenite stabilizer,
is also a vital
Chromium.
Like nickel, chromium has a positive effect on hardenability and is an
important alloying element in many low-alloy steels. For corrosion
resistance, chromium is present in all stainless steels as a solid solution
element. In addition to hardenability and solid solution effects, chromium
forms several important chromium carbides that are necessary for wear
resistance in many tool steels and steels used for rolls in hot- and cold-
rolling mills.
Molybdenum.
Molybdenum is a potent hardenability element and is found in many
low-alloy steels.
Vanadium.
Although vanadium is a potent hardenability element, its most useful role
is in the formation of a vanadium nitride and vanadium carbide (it can
also be in a combined form of vanadium carbonitride). A very
important role of vanadium is in microalloyed steels, also called high-
strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels. These steels are strengthened by
precipitation of vanadium nitrides and vanadium carbides (vanadium
carbonitrides). The formation of vanadium carbide is important for wear
39 | P a g e
resistance. Vanadium carbide is much harder than iron carbide,
chromium carbide, and molybdenum carbide. Vana- dium is thus
important in high-speed tool steels, which are used as drill bits that retain
their hardness as the tool heats by friction.
Tungsten.
Tungsten is not an addition to low-alloy steels but is a vital alloying
element in high-speed tool steels where it forms hard tungsten carbide
particles.
Aluminum.
Aluminum is employed as a deoxidizer in steel and is generally used in
conjunction with silicon (also a deoxidizer).
A deoxidizer removes undesirable oxygen from molten steel. Titanium.
Titanium is a strong deoxidizer but is usually not used solely for that
purpose. Titanium is important in microalloyed steels (HSLA steels)
because of the formation of titanium nitride (TiN) precipitates. Titanium
nitrides pin grain boundary movement in austenite and thus provides
grain refinement. Another role of titanium is in steels containing boron
where a titanium addition extracts nitrogen from liquid steel so that
boron, a strong nitride former, remains in elemental form to enhance
hardenability.
Niobium (Columbium). Niobium is also important in microalloyed
(HSLA) steels for its precipitation strengthening through the formation of
niobium carbonitrides. Some microalloyed steels employ both vanadium
and niobium. Be- cause of its affinity for both carbon and nitrogen,
niobium is an element found in some IF steels. Niobium is also added
as a carbide stabilizer (prevents carbides from dissolving and reforming
in undesirable locations) in some austenitic stainless steels (AISI type 347,
40 | P a g e
348, and 384), ferritic stainless steels (AISI type 436 and 444), and
precipitation hardening stainless steels (AISI type 630).
Tantalum. Because of its affinity for carbon, tantalum, like niobium, is
added as a carbide stabilizer to some austenitic stainless steels (AISI
type 347 and 348).
Boron. On a weight percent basis, boron is the most powerful hardenability
element in steel. A minute quantity of boron, e.g., 0.003%, is sufficient
to provide ample hardenability in a low-alloy steel. However, boron is a
strong nitride former and can only achieve its hardenability capability if
in elemental form. Thus, boron must be protected from forming nitrides by
adding a sufficient amount of titanium to first combine with the nitrogen
in the steel.
Calcium. Calcium is a strong deoxidizer in steel but is not used for that
purpose. In a aluminum-deoxidized (killed) steel, calcium combines with
sulfur to form calcium sulfide particles. This form of sulfide remains as
spherical particles as compared with manganese sulfide, which is soft and
elongates into stringers upon hot rolling. Thus, steels properly treated with
calcium do not have the characteristics associated with MnS stringers, i.e.,
property directionality or anisotropy.
Zirconium. Although expensive and rarely added to steel, zirconium acts
like titanium in forming zirconium nitride participates.
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SUBMODULE 5
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
Heat treatment is a controlled heating and cooling process applied to metals
and alloys to alter their physical and mechanical properties. This process can
significantly impact the hardness, strength, toughness, and other essential
characteristics of materials.
Importance of Heat Treatment Furnaces
Heat treatment furnaces provide a controlled environment to perform
specific heat treatment processes precisely and consistently. They enable
uniform heating, precise temperature control, and controlled cooling rates,
ensuring that desired material properties are achieved.
Types of Heat Treatment Furnaces
1. Salt Bath Furnaces
Salt bath furnaces, also known as salt pot furnaces, use molten salt as the
heating medium. Salt bath furnaces are a specialized type of heat treatment
equipment used to enhance the properties of metals and alloys. The process
involves immersing the workpiece into a bath of molten salt at high
temperatures, creating a controlled environment for various heat treatment
processes.
They are particularly suitable for processes like carburizing, carbonitriding,
and nitrocarburizing. A typical salt bath furnace consists of several essential
components. The heating element provides the necessary heat to melt the salt
and maintain the desired temperature, the insulated Chamber encloses the
salt bath to ensure heat retention and safety, and the temperature Control
System: Allows precise temperature adjustments for different heat treatment
processes.
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Advantages of Salt Bath Furnaces
• The direct contact between the molten salt and the workpiece enables rapid
and uniform heating, leading to consistent and predictable heat treatment
results.
• Salt bath furnaces have reduced oxidation, as the salt creates a protective
atmosphere.
• They are also suitable for small and intricate parts due to easy immersion.
Salt bath furnaces ensure even temperature distribution throughout the bath,
ensuring uniform heat treatment across all parts of the workpiece.
Disadvantages of Salt Bath Furnaces
• Salt bath furnaces have a limited temperature range based on the type of
salt used.
• After heat treatment, the workpiece may retain salt residue, necessitating
thorough cleaning to avoid any adverse effects on subsequent processes or
end products.
• They also require high maintenance to prevent salt leakage and corrosion.
2. Box Furnaces
Box furnaces, also called batch furnaces, are versatile and widely used for
various heat treatment processes. They consist of an insulated chamber to
accommodate the workload and provide controlled heating. The box
furnace's main purpose is to provide a controlled heating environment for
various heat treatment processes.
In the batch furnace, the workpieces are loaded into the insulated chamber
and subjected to controlled heating at specific temperatures. The furnace's
heating elements generate the required heat, and the insulation helps
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maintain uniform temperature distribution throughout the chamber. Once the
heat treatment process is complete, the workpieces are removed from the
furnace.
Advantages of Box Furnaces
• Box furnaces offer versatility in accommodating various shapes and sizes

of workpieces, making them suitable for custom heat treatment jobs.
• They offer a wide temperature range suitable for various heat treatment
processes.
• Box furnaces are easy to operate and do not require high maintenance.
Disadvantages of Box Furnaces
• Box furnaces require longer heating and cooling times due to the batch
processing nature.
• They have less uniformity due to potential temperature variation within the
chamber.
• They also have limited automation capabilities compared to continuous
furnaces.
• The initial investment for purchasing a box furnace can be higher,
especially for advanced models with additional features.
3. Continuous Furnaces
Continuous furnaces, as the name suggests, are industrial heat treatment

furnaces designed to handle a continuous flow of workpieces. Unlike batch
furnaces, which process a limited number of workpieces at once, continuous
furnaces offer a continuous and uninterrupted heat treatment process. They
are ideal for high-volume production and continuous heat treatment
processes.
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Continuous furnaces offer a continuous flow of workpieces through the
heating chamber on a conveyor or roller system. The furnace's heating
elements generate the required heat, and the conveyor system ensures a
steady flow of workpieces through the heating chamber. As the workpieces
move through the furnace, they undergo the specified heat treatment process.
Continuous furnaces have high production rates and efficiency due to
continuous processing. Continuous furnaces ensure uniform heating of
workpieces throughout the entire process. The consistent heat distribution
leads to uniform material properties and improved product quality. They also
have reduced labor requirements.
However, continuous furnaces have limited flexibility in handling small
batches or complex geometries. They require higher energy consumption
during continuous operation. Continuous furnaces are complex systems, and
their maintenance requires specialized knowledge and resources.
4. Vacuum Furnaces
Vacuum furnaces are specialized heat treatment furnaces that operate in a

vacuum or low-pressure environment. Unlike conventional heat treatment
methods that use atmospheric air, vacuum furnaces ensure a clean and
contamination-free environment during the heat treatment process.
In a vacuum furnace, the air is removed from the heating chamber, creating a
vacuum or low-pressure environment. The workpieces are then heated
without exposure to gases or impurities. The absence of air prevents
oxidation and other chemical reactions during the heat treatment process.
Vacuum furnaces have minimized surface oxidation and decarburization due
to the absence of air. They offer precise control of the atmosphere and
heating conditions. In a vacuum environment, heat transfer occurs primarily
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through radiation, which provides more uniform and efficient heating
compared to conduction or convection. Vacuum furnaces can achieve high
temperatures and pressures, making them suitable for advanced heat
treatment processes.
However, vacuum furnaces require a significant initial investment due to
their advanced technology and sophisticated construction. They have slower
heating rates compared to other furnace types. Vacuum furnaces are more
suitable for batch processing, which may limit their production volume
compared to continuous furnaces.
5. Induction Heating Furnaces
Induction heating furnaces are specialized heat treatment equipment that

uses electromagnetic induction to heat conductive materials. Unlike
traditional heating methods that rely on direct contact, induction heating
creates an electromagnetic field that induces heat directly into the workpiece.
In an induction heating furnace, an alternating current is passed through a
copper coil, creating a powerful electromagnetic field. When a conductive
material is placed within this field, eddy currents are induced within the
material, generating heat. The heat is produced internally, ensuring efficient
and uniform heating of the workpiece.
Induction heating furnaces offer high heating efficiency with minimal heat
loss, ensuring precise and controlled heat treatment processes. Induction
heating provides rapid heating rates, allowing for quick processing times and
improved productivity. The efficient heating process of induction furnaces
results in reduced energy consumption, making them more environmentally
friendly.
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Induction heating furnaces require a significant initial investment, including
the cost of specialized equipment and power supplies. Operating induction
heating furnaces requires skilled personnel with expertise in induction
heating principles and safety procedures. Induction heating is most effective
for surface heating, which may limit its application in certain heat treatment
processes.
The process of heat treatment is among the highly effective processes
utilized in the materials science industry for obtaining the desired
physiochemical properties of the materials. These furnaces carefully monitor
the treatment process and enable precise and controlled modification of
material properties. The selection of a furnace depends on the material,
temperature requirements, and production volume. Keeping in view all the
parameters, selecting the most viable heat treatment furnace results in
obtaining the most viable results.
Processes.
Annealing (Full Annealing).
It is used to soften steel and to improve ductility.
In this process, the steel is heated into the lower regions of the
austenite phase field and slow cooled to room temperature. The resulting
microstructure consists of coarse ferrite or coarse ferrite plus pearlite,
depending upon carbon and alloy content of the steel.
Normalizing.
Steel is normalized by heating into the austenite phase field at
temperatures somewhat higher than those used by annealing followed by air
cooling. Many steels are normalized to establish a uniform ferrite plus
pearlite microstructure and a uniform grain size.
Spheriodizing.
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To produce a steel in its softest possible condition, it is usually
spheriodized by heating just above or just below the eutectoid
temperature of 727°C and holding at that temperature for an extended time.
This process breaks down lamellar pearlite into small spheroids of
cementite in a continuous matrix of ferrite.
To obtain a very uniform dispersion of cementite spheroids, the starting
microstructure is usually martensite. This is because carbon is more
uniformly distributed in martensite than in lamellar pearlite. The cementite
lamella must first dissolve and then redistribute the carbon as spheroids
whereas the cementite spheroids can form directly from martensite.
Process Annealing (Recrystallization Annealing).

Process annealing takes place at temperatures just below the eutectoid
temperature of 727°C. This treatment is applied to low-carbon, cold-rolled
sheet steels to restore ductility.
Stress Relieving.
Steel products with residual stresses can be heated to temperatures
approaching the eutectoid transformation temperature of 727°C to relieve
the stress.
Quenching.
To produce the higher strength constituents of bainite and martensite, the
steel must be heated into the austenite phase field and rapidly cooled by
quenching in oil or water. High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels are
produced by this process followed by tempering. It must be noted that
employing microalloying additions such as Nb, V, and Ti can also produce
HSLA steels. These microalloyed steels obtain their strength by
thermomechanical treatment rather than heat treatment.
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Tempering.
When quenched steels (martensitic steel) are tempered by heating to
temperatures approaching the eutectoid temperature of 727°C, the dis-
solved carbon in the martensite forms cementite particles, and the steels
become more ductile. Quenching and tempering are used in a variety
of steel products to obtain desired combinations of strength and
toughness.
EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM
The Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
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The phase diagrams are very important tools in the study of alloys for
solutions of many practical problems in metallurgy. These diagrams define
the regions of the stability of a phase which can exist in an alloy system
under the condition of constant atmospheric pressure. For a binary system,
the coordinates of these diagrams are temperature and composition. The
inter-relationships between the phases, the temperature and the composition
in an alloy system are normally presented by phase diagram only under
equilibrium conditions. Such conditions occur during slow heating and
50 | P a g e
cooling rates of the alloys, when the kinetics of transformations do not play
an important role.
In their simplest form, iron and steels are alloys of iron (Fe) and carbon (C).
There are three types of ferrous alloys.
These alloys consist of
(i) Iron having a C content of less than 0.0008 % at room temperature,

(ii) Steels with C content ranging from 0.008 % to 2.14 % (normally less
than 1 %) and having a microstructure consisting ferrite and cementite),
and
(iii) Cast iron with C content ranging from 2.14 % to 6.7 % (normally less
than 4.5 %).
The study of the constitution and structure of iron and steels starts with the
iron-carbon (Fe-C) phase diagram (Fig 1). Fe-C phase diagram is also used
as the basis for the understanding of the heat treatment processes.
C is an interstitial impurity in Fe. It forms a solid solution with alpha,
gamma and delta phases of iron. Maximum solubility of C in alpha iron is
0.025 % at 727 deg C. Body centred cubic (BCC) iron has relatively small
interstitial positions. Maximum solubility of C in the face centred cubic
(FCC) gamma iron is 2.14 % at 1148 deg C. FCC iron has larger interstitial
positions. Mechanical properties of iron-carbon alloys (iron and steels)
depend on their microstructure, that is, how the different phases are mixed.
Main phases of iron and steels in equilibrium are the following phases.
• Ferrite or alpha-iron phase – It is a stable form of iron at room

temperature. It is a relatively soft low temperature phase and is a stable
equilibrium phase. It transforms to FCC austenite (gamma phase) at 910
deg C. Ferrite is a common constituent in steels and has a BCC structure,
which is less densely packed than the FCC structure. It is soft and fairly
51 | P a g e
ductile. It is magnetic below 768 deg C. It has low strength and good
toughness.
• Austenite or gamma iron phase – Austenite is a high temperature phase.
It is a solid solution of C in the FCC iron. Hence, it has a FCC structure,
which is a close packed structure. It is a nonmagnetic and ductile phase. It
transforms to BCC delta ferrite at 1394 deg C. It is not stable below the
eutectic temperature (727 deg C) unless cooled rapidly. Austenite has good
strength and toughness.
• Delta ferrite phase – It is solid solution of C in BCC iron. It is stable only
at temperature higher than 1394 deg C. It melts at 1538 deg C. It has
paramagnetic properties.
• Cementite – It is Fe3C or iron carbide. It is an inter-metallic compound of
Fe and C. It has a complex orthorhombic structure and is a metastable
phase. It is a hard, brittle phase. It has low tensile strength, good
compression strength and low toughness. It decomposes (very slowly,
within several years) into alpha ferrite and C (graphite) at the temperature
range of 650 deg C to 700 deg C.
• Bainite – It is a phase between pearlite and martensite. It is a hard
metastable micro constituent and consists of non-lamellar mixture of ferrite
and cementite on an extremely fine scale. Upper bainite is formed at higher
temperatures and has a feathery appearance. Lower bainite is formed at
lower temperatures and has an acicular appearance. The hardness of bainite
increases with decreasing temperature of its formation. It has good strength
and toughness.
• Martensite – It is a very hard form of steel crystalline structure. It is named
after the German metallurgist Adolf Martens. It is formed by rapid cooling
and is hard and brittle. It is a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) form of iron
in which some carbon is dissolved. It is formed during quenching, when the
face centered cubic lattice of austenite is distorted into the body centered
52 | P a g e
tetragonal structure without the loss of its contained carbon atoms into
cementite and ferrite. It is super saturated solution of C atoms in ferrite. It is
a hard metastable phase. It has lath morphology when C is less than 0.6 %,
plate morphology when C is more than 1 %, and mixture of those in
between. It is having high strength and hardness and low toughness.
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CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS
Carbon Steels
Carbon steels (also called plain-carbon steels) constitute a family of iron–

carbon–manganese alloys.
Generically, cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents
above 2.14 wt%; in practice, however, most cast irons contain between 3.0
and 4.5 wt% C and, in addition, other alloying elements. In addition to
carbon, cast iron contains other elements such as silicon, sulphur,
phosphorus and manganese. The iron–iron carbide phase diagram below
reveals that alloys within this composition range become completely liquid
at temperatures between approximately 1150 and 13000C, which is
considerably lower than for steels. Thus, they are easily melted and
amenable to casting. Furthermore, some cast irons are very brittle, and
casting is the most convenient fabrication technique.
Advantages of Cast- Iron over steel
• It is least expensive casting material. All the raw materials used are
relatively cheap—pig, Iron, cast iron scrap, steel scrap, lime stone,
coke , and Iron ore.
• Cast iron has lower melting temperature (1140 to 12000C) than
steel (1380- 15000C).
• It possesses high casting properties such as, high fluidity, low
shrinkage, casting soundness, ease of production, and a higher yield.
• Cast irons can provide a very wide range of metallic properties
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ranging from a high yield strength to high ductility and toughness.
• They possess a very high compressive strength, about 3 t0 4 times
that of its tensile strength.
• Cast irons can be machined easily.
• They provide high wear and abrasion resistance.
• An important characterstic of cast iron is its high damping capacity.
It is that property which permits a material to absorb vibrational
stresses.
Production of Cast Iron
Cast iron is produced by remelting pig iron in any one of the following
furnaces:
• An electric or air furnace. It gives higher quality cast iron.
• Duplex melting method using cupola furnace for melting and air or
electric furnace for refining.
• Melting in a cupola furnace.
Classification of cast iron
• Gray cast iron
• Ductile cast iron
• White cast iron
• Malleable cast iron
• Compacted graphite cast iron
• Alloy cast irons
Gray Iron
The carbon and silicon contents of gray cast irons vary between 2.5 and 4.0
wt%and 1.0 and 3.0 wt%, respectively. For most of these cast irons, the
graphite exists in the form of flakes (similar to corn flakes), which are
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normally surrounded by a α-ferrite or pearlite matrix. Because of these
graphite flakes, a fractured surface takes on a gray appearance, hence its
name.
Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively weak and brittle in tension as a
consequence of its microstructure; the tips of the graphite flakes are sharp
and pointed, and may serve as points of stress concentration when
an external tensile stress is applied. Strength and ductility are much higher
under compressive loads. Gray irons do have some desirable characteristics
and, in fact, are utilized extensively. They are very effective in damping
vibrational energy; which compares the relative damping capacities
of steel and gray iron. Base structures for machines and heavy equipment
that are exposed to vibrations are frequently constructed of this material. In
addition, gray irons exhibit a high resistance to wear. Furthermore, in the
molten state they have a high fluidity at casting temperature, which permits
casting pieces having intricate shapes; also, casting shrinkage is low.
Finally, and perhaps most important, gray cast irons are among the least
expensive of all metallic materials.
Ductile (or Nodular) Iron
When the microstructure of cast iron consists of nodules or spheroids of
graphite in pearlitic or ferritic matrix, the resulting material is called
nodular cast iron. It consists of the product advantages of steel and process
advantages of cast iron. Adding a small amount of magnesium and/or
cerium to the gray iron before casting produces a distinctly different
microstructure and set of mechanical properties.
Alloy Cast Iron
We have seen the properties of the different cast irons but many of the irons
lack:
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• Shock and impact resistance
• Corrosion and heat resistance at high temperatures
So alloying elements such as Ni, Cr, Mo, V, etc. can give additional
properties for cast irons. The most common alloying elements are Nickel
and Chromium. Thus depending on the composition of Nickel and
Chromium, alloy cast irons can be classified in to two:
• Ni- Hard and
• Ni- resist
Effect of alloying Elements on Cast Irons:
Alloying elements in cast irons have similar effect like that of steels. They
can be used to improve mechanical properties, refine grain, increase the
hardness by stabilizing cementite and forming other hard carbides,
stabilizing marten site and austenite structures, and improve corrosion
resistance.
Nickel
• Nickel improves graphitization.
• It has grain refining effect.
• Prevent chilling in thin sections
• Prevent coarse grain in thick section
• Reduce crack in thin section.
Chromium
• Chromium is a strong carbide stabilize which inhibits graphitization
• It will give the cast iron less grain growth
• Using both Ni and Cr can overcome the disadvantage of using them
in separate.
Molybdenum
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• If molybdenum is added in cast iron small amount of it will dissolve
in ferrite
• Whereas large amount of molybdenum forms double carbides
• Increase hardness of thick sections
• Promotes uniformity of microstructures
Vanadium
• It promotes heat resistance due to stable carbide formation
• Strength and hardness can also be increased by vanadium
Copper
• It has very slight graphitization effect.
• It has little influence on the mechanical properties.
• The main effect of copper on cast irons is that it improves resistance
to corrosion.
Additionally, the properties of cast iron can be improved by applying heat
treatment. The method of heat treatment of cast iron is the same as that of
steel. The most common types of heat treatment works are:
• Stress relieving
• Annealing
• Quenching and tempering
• Surface hardening
Types of carbon steel and their properties
Carbon steel is a versatile and widely used material that comes in a variety
of types, each with its own unique properties. Some of the most common
types of carbon steel include:
Low Carbon Steel:
Also known as mild steel, this type of carbon steel contains a low amount of
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carbon (up to 0.3%) and is easy to shape and weld. It’s commonly used for
structural applications, such as buildings and bridges.
Medium Carbon Steel:
With a carbon content of 0.3% to 0.6%, medium carbon steel is stronger than
low carbon steel but still easy to machine and weld. It’s often used for gears,
axles, and other machine parts.
High Carbon Steel:
This type of carbon steel contains a carbon content of 0.6% to 1.4%, making
it strong and hard but also less ductile and difficult to weld. It’s commonly
used for cutting tools, knives, and springs.
Ultra-High Carbon Steel:
With a carbon content of more than 1.4%, ultra-high carbon steel is
extremely strong and hard but also brittle and difficult to work with. It’s
used in applications that require extreme hardness, such as drill bits and saw
blades.
Understanding the properties of each type of carbon steel is important in
selecting the right material for a particular application.
Carbon steel production
Low-carbon steel is the most commonly used form of carbon steel due to its
affordability and versatility.
These steels typically contain less than 0.25 wt.% carbon and cannot be
hardened by heat treatment to form martensite. Instead, they are
strengthened through cold work or through the addition of other elements.
Carbon steels are generally soft and have low strength, but they exhibit high
ductility, making them excellent for machining, welding, and other
applications where formability is important.
High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels are a type of low-carbon steel that
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contain small amounts of other elements, such as copper, nickel, vanadium,
and molybdenum. These elements, which can make up to 10 wt.% of the
steel content, help to increase the strength and hardness of the material while
retaining ductility.
HSLA steels are often heat-treated to achieve their high strength and are
more resistant to corrosion than plain low-carbon steels. They are easily
formable and machinable, making them ideal for use in a range of industries,
including construction, automotive, and aerospace.
Medium Carbon Steel
Medium-carbon steel contains between 0.25 and 0.60 wt.% carbon and 0.60
to 1.65 wt.% manganese. The addition of manganese improves the strength
and hardenability of the steel. Heat treatment, which involves austenitizing
followed by quenching and tempering, can improve the mechanical
properties of medium-carbon steels, giving them a martensitic
microstructure.
However, heat treatment can only be performed on thin sections of the steel.
To improve the ability of medium-carbon steel to be heat treated and
hardened, additional alloying elements such as chromium, molybdenum, and
nickel may be added.
Hardened medium-carbon steels have greater strength than low-carbon
steels, but this comes at the expense of ductility and toughness. Medium-
carbon steels are often used in applications that require a balance of strength
and ductility, such as shafts, gears, and axles in automotive and machinery
industries. Understanding the properties of medium-carbon steel is important
in selecting the right material for a particular application.
High-carbon steel
High-carbon steel contains between 0.60 and 1.25 wt.% carbon and 0.30 to
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0.90 wt.% manganese. It is the hardest and toughest of the carbon steels but
has the lowest ductility. Due to its high carbon content, high-carbon steel is
typically hardened and tempered, making it very wear-resistant.
Tool steels and die steels are specific types of high-carbon steels that are
used in applications where high wear resistance and toughness are critical.
These steels contain additional alloying elements such as chromium,
vanadium, molybdenum, and tungsten, which contribute to the formation of
carbide compounds such as tungsten carbide (WC). This results in a very
hard and wear-resistant steel that is well-suited for cutting tools, dies, and
molds.
Despite their excellent wear resistance, high-carbon steels have limited use
in applications where toughness and ductility are important. The brittleness
of these steels makes them prone to fracture and failure under certain
conditions. As with all steels, selecting the appropriate high-carbon steel for
a given application requires careful consideration of the desired properties
and the operating environment.
Ultra-high carbon steel
Ultra-high carbon steel is a type of steel that contains a very high percentage
of carbon, typically between 1.25% and 2.0%. This high carbon content
gives the steel exceptional hardness and wear resistance, making it ideal for
use in cutting tools, knives, and other applications that require sharpness and
durability. Ultra-high carbon steel also has high strength, making it well-
suited for applications that require high levels of strength and durability.
One of the key characteristics of ultra-high carbon steel is its hardness. With
a hardness typically above 60 HRC, ultra-high carbon steel is one of the
hardest materials available. This makes it ideal for use in cutting tools and
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other applications where hardness and wear resistance are important.
However, this high hardness also makes ultra-high carbon steel more brittle
and less ductile than other types of steel, which can make it more difficult to
work with.
Another important characteristic of ultra-high carbon steel is its wear
resistance. Ultra-high carbon steel has excellent wear resistance, which
makes it well-suited for applications that involve high levels of abrasion or
impact. This makes it an excellent choice for use in machine parts, gears,
and other industrial applications where wear resistance is important.
However, it is important to note that ultra-high carbon steel may not be
suitable for all applications, particularly those that require high levels of
ductility or machinability.
Applications of Carbon Steel
Low-Carbon steel
SUS304 vs SS304 Stainless Steel Low-carbon steel is widely used in various
applications due to its ductility, toughness, and affordability. Some common
uses of low carbon steel include:
Construction: Low carbon steel is often used in the construction industry to
make structural components such as beams, columns, and girders.
Automotive: It is used to manufacture car bodies, chassis, and other
components due to its high strength and malleability.
Pipes: Low carbon steel is used to make pipes for various applications,
including water supply, gas transmission, and oil pipelines.
Furniture: It is also used to manufacture furniture due to its strength and
durability.
Appliances: Low carbon steel is used in the production of various household
appliances such as washing machines, refrigerators, and dishwashers.
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Manufacturing: It is used in the manufacturing of a wide range of products,
including tools, machinery, and equipment, due to its excellent machinability
and weldability.
Medium-carbon steel
Medium-carbon steel has good strength and toughness and is often used in
applications where high strength and wear resistance are required.
Some common uses of medium-carbon steel include:
• Automotive: Medium-carbon steel is used to manufacture parts such
as gears, crankshafts, and axles due to its high strength and wear
resistance.
• Machinery: It is used in the production of machinery and equipment
components such as shafts, couplings, and sprockets.
• Construction: Medium-carbon steel is used in the construction of
bridges, buildings, and other structures due to its strength and
durability.
• Railway tracks: It is used to manufacture railway tracks and other rail
components due to its wear resistance and strength.
• Tools: Medium-carbon steel is used to manufacture various types of
cutting tools, including knives, saw blades, and drill bits, due to its
hardness and toughness.
• Springs: It is also used to make springs and other components that
require high strength and toughness.
High-carbon steel
• Cutting tools: High-carbon steel is used to make cutting tools such as
knives, saw blades, and drill bits due to its hardness and wear
resistance.
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• Springs: It is used to make springs and other components that require
high strength and durability, such as in automotive suspension
systems.
• Automotive: High-carbon steel is used in the manufacture of various
automotive components such as crankshafts, axles, and gears.
• Rails: It is used to manufacture railway tracks and other rail
components due to its high strength and wear resistance.
• Wire ropes: High-carbon steel is used to make wire ropes and other
cables that require high strength and durability.
• Construction: It is used in construction applications such as
reinforcement bars and cables for bridges and high-rise buildings.
Ultra-high carbon steel
Ultra-high carbon steel is primarily used in applications that require high
levels of hardness, wear resistance, and strength. Some common applications
of ultra-high carbon steel include:
• Cutting tools: Ultra-high carbon steel is commonly used to make
cutting tools such as knives, saw blades, and drill bits. Its high
hardness and wear resistance make it well-suited for cutting and
drilling applications that require sharpness and durability.
• Industrial machine parts: Ultra-high carbon steel is often used to
make machine parts such as gears, bearings, and shafts. Its high
strength and wear resistance make it ideal for use in industrial
settings where parts are subjected to high levels of stress and wear.
• Automotive parts: Ultra-high carbon steel can also be used to make
automotive parts such as springs and suspension components. Its
high strength and toughness make it well-suited for these
applications, where durability and reliability are key.
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• Mining equipment: Ultra-high carbon steel is often used in mining
equipment such as drills and cutting tools. Its high hardness and wear
resistance make it ideal for use in harsh mining environments where
equipment is subjected to high levels of abrasion and impact.
• Musical instruments: Ultra-high carbon steel is sometimes used in the
production of musical instruments such as guitars and cymbals. Its
high density and unique acoustic properties make it well-suited for
these applications, where tone and resonance are important.
Sub-module 3:
NONFERROUS METALS
What is Non-Ferrous Metal?
Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain iron as main constituent
or base metal.
Non-ferrous metals have industrial applications because of their case of
fabrication (like rolling, forging, casting, welding, and machining), electrical
and thermal conductivity, resistance to corrosion, light-weight, etc.
However, at high temperatures, their strength is lowered, and shrinkage is
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more than ferrous metals. The principal non-ferrous metals used in
engineering applications are Copper, Aluminum, Zinc, Tin, Lead, Cobalt,
Nickel, Chromium, Magnesium, and their alloys.
Ferrous Metals like steel and iron is used commonly in buildings and
engineering industries. However, many non-ferrous metals and their alloys
have also been used to great advantage in both buildings and engineering
industries.
In fact, in some cases, they form far better materials than iron and steel and
have replaced them to a great extent.
However, the non-ferrous metals are comparatively costlier and are selected
for use only when they satisfy certain specific requirements and possess
some definite properties.
Following are the special advantages of non-ferrous metals over ferrous
metals in some selected areas.
In Civil Engineering Construction, Aluminum and some of its alloys offer a
very suitable alternative material to steel in some special engineering
construction. Thus, wrought aluminum alloys are:
• Economical;
• Resistant to Corrosion;
• Light in weight;
• Compared to steels, they have been used in, i.e., construction of
bridges and roofs in situations where not much strength is required.
In these situations, they have been found to save 50% of extra weight.
In Engineering Industries, Copper, zinc, nickel, and chromium in their pure
and alloyed forms have been used as materials in situations where:
• High tensile strength is required at elevated temperatures.
• High ductility and malleability are required.
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• High resistance to heat is required.
• High electrical conductivity is required.
• In the above fields and situations, mostly non-ferrous metals are
used.
Non-Ferrous Metals List; Its Types, Properties, Uses.
1. Aluminum:
Aluminum is mainly obtained from bauxite ore.
Aluminum is a very common component (about 8 percent) of the earth crust,
the most common ore of aluminum is Bauxite (Al2O3. n H2O). As a metal,
aluminum was first discovered in 1825.
Aluminum is highly resistant to corrosion. When exposed to moist air,
aluminum forms a thin film of oxide at the top, which is impervious to
air/moisture, and thus saves the metal from further corrosion.
Properties of Aluminum.
Following are some important properties of this metal.
• It is silvery-white metal and shows brilliant luster when fresh.
• It is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity.
• It is light in weight with a specific gravity of about 2.7.
• It is a good reflector of light.
• It is non-magnetic and has high resistance to corrosion.
• It is soft, tough, malleable, and ductile.
• It is very ductile and can be transformed into any shape by rolling,
stamping, extruding, forging, drawing, and spinning.
• 8. Its melting temperature is about 658°C.
• 9. It has high tensile strength.
• It can also be cast into any shape by any method of casting, i.e., die
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casting, chill casting, and sand casting.
• It is resistant to organic acids, salt solutions, etc.
• It has a tensile strength of about 900kg/cm2 in the annealed
condition. It can be improved to 1600kg/cm2 by the hard-rolling
method.
Uses of Aluminum:
1. It is used in the manufacturing of equipment for chemical and food
industries, cooking utensils, cookers, steam-jacketed kettles, etc.
2. Due to its lightweight and high tensile strength, it is used in structural
work of airplanes, ships, trains, buses, trucks, etc. And also used for roofing,
sheathing, window frames, foils, posts, etc.
3. It is used for manufacturing of electric cables.
4. Used for manufacturing of reflectors and mirrors.
5. Aluminum powder is used for preparing paints.
6. It is used in iron and steel making as a de-oxidizer.
Aluminum Alloys:
Following are alloys of aluminum.
• Wrought aluminum alloys.
• Casting aluminum alloys.
2. Copper:
Copper is extracted from copper ores such as copper pyrites, etc.
Metallic copper and its various alloys have been used in engineering
industries and for many other activities from 100 of years.
This is due to some of the useful properties of copper.
Properties of Copper:
Some of the most important properties of copper are as under:
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• It is soft, strong, tough, malleable, and ductile.
• It is very malleable and ductile so that it can be converted into any
desired shape.
• It has excellent joining properties, i.e., it can be joined by almost all
the common methods: welding, soldering, brazing, and riveting.
• It becomes brittle just before melting.
• It can be forged, soldered, rolled and drawn into wires.
• It has good resistance to corrosion.
• It is a good conductor of both heat and electricity next to silver.
• It forms excellent alloys.
• It is reddish-brown in color.
• Its specific gravity is 8.93.
• It has a melting point of 1083°C.
Uses of Copper.
• It is used for making cables and wires for electric applications.
• It is used for electroplating.
• Used for manufacturing of utensils and making of copper alloys.
• It is used for making of munitions and tubes in engineering
applications.
Copper Alloys:
Following are the alloys of copper:
• Brasses.
• Bronzes.
3. Lead:
Lead has been used for centuries in buildings and other engineering
industries. Lead is extracted from three chief ore minerals.
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• Galena
• Cerrussite
• Anglesite
Properties of Lead:
The metallic lead has the following properties.
• It has bluish Grey color.
• It has typically brilliant luster.
• It has a high density – 11.35 g/cm3.
• It has a low melting point of 327 centigrade.
• It has a high boiling point of 1744 centigrade.
• It is very good at resisting corrosion.
Lead Alloys:
In general, lead doesn’t form many alloys. Its alloying capacity is limited
because of its low melting point. Following are the important alloys of lead.
• Solder
• Terne plate
• Type metal
• Bearing metal
4. Zinc:
Zinc is another non-ferrous metal. It is obtained from zinc ores like zinc
blends and calamine. The chief ore mineral of zinc is sulfide called
sphalerite.
Smithsonite, Zincite (ZnO) and Calamine (ZnCO3) are other common zinc
minerals.
Zinc Properties:
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Following are some important properties of Zinc.
• It is bluish-white in color and has bright luster.
• It resists corrosion.
• It is brittle at normal temperature.
• It becomes malleable and ductile when heated to a temperature of
100 to 150°C. Hence, at this temperature, it can be rolled into sheets
and drawn into wires.
• It has a density of 7.14 g/ml.
• It has a melting point of 419 centigrade and boiling point of 907
centigrade.
• It has a tensile strength of 700-1400 kg/cm2.
• Commercial zinc (spelter) is easily attacked by acids.
• Zinc surface is covered by a dull basic zinc carbonate in moist air.
5. Nickel:
Nickel was first discovered in 1750. It is manufactured from its sulfide ore
named pentlandite [NiFe(S)].
The ore is first concentrated by froth flotation process and then roasted and
smelted like other non-ferrous metals.
Nickel Properties:
Following are some important properties of nickel.
• It is the strongest metal in all the non-ferrous metals, having tensile
strength ranges from 4200-8400 kg/cm2.
• It is highly resistant to many types of corrosion. Thus it can
withstand in water, moisture, atmospheric gases, etc.
• Its modulus of elasticity, thermal and electrical conductivity is the
same as steel.
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• It is highly malleable and ductile.
• Its density is 8.9 g/cm3.
• It has a melting point of 1455 centigrade.
6. Magnesium:
Magnesium forms the lightest materials used in structural engineering. It has
a set of properties that make it suitable as an engineering material.
Magnesium Properties and uses:
Magnesium is a very useful metal both as a pure metal and in alloys its main
properties are as follows:
• It is very light with a specific gravity of 1.74.
• It has a melting point of 650 centigrade, which is similar to that of
aluminum.
• It has poor corrosion resistance.
• It has quite a high thermal conductivity and a high coefficient of
thermal expansion.
• It forms very useful alloys with some metals like aluminum, thorium,
zinc, zirconium, and tin, etc.
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PLASTICS: THERMOPLASTICS, THERMOSETS, AND

ELASTOMERS
Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use
polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics
to be molded, extruded or pressed into solid objects of various shapes. This
adaptability, plus a wide range of other properties, such as being lightweight,
durable, flexible, and inexpensive to produce, has led to its widespread use.
Plastics typically are made through human industrial systems. Most modern
plastics are derived from fossil fuel-based chemicals like natural gas or
petroleum; however, recent industrial methods use variants made from
renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives.
STRUCTURE
Most plastics contain organic polymers. The vast majority of these polymers
are formed from chains of carbon atoms, with or without the attachment of
oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms. These chains comprise many repeating
units formed from monomers. Each polymer chain consists of several
thousand repeating units. The backbone is the part of the chain that is on the
main path, linking together a large number of repeat units. To customize the
properties of a plastic, different molecular groups called side chains hang
from this backbone; they are usually hung from the monomers before the
monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer chain. The
structure of these side chains influences the properties of the polymer.
The polymers
Polymers are chemical compounds whose molecules are very large, often
resembling long chains made up of a seemingly endless series of
interconnected links. The size of these molecules, as is explained in
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chemistry of industrial polymers, is extraordinary, ranging in the thousands
and even millions of atomic mass units (as opposed to the tens of atomic
mass units commonly found in other chemical compounds). The size of the
molecules, together with their physical state and the structures that they
adopt, are the principal causes of the unique properties associated with
plastics—including the ability to be molded and shaped.
Thermoplastic and thermosetting
As mentioned above, polymers that are classified as plastics can be divided
into two major categories: thermoplastics and thermosets.
Thermoplastics such as polyethylene and polystyrene are capable of being
molded and remolded repeatedly. Thus, a foamed-polystyrene cup can be
heated and reshaped into a new form—for instance, a dish.
The polymer structure associated with thermoplastics is that of individual
molecules that are separate from one another and flow past one another. The
molecules may have low or extremely high molecular weight, and they may
be branched or linear in structure, but the essential feature is that of
separability and consequent mobility.
Thermosets, on the other hand, cannot be reprocessed upon reheating.
During their initial processing, thermosetting resins undergo a chemical
reaction that results in an infusible, insoluble network. Essentially, the entire
heated, finished article becomes one large molecule. For example, the epoxy
polymer used in making a fibre-reinforced laminate for a golf club
undergoes a cross-linking reaction when it is molded at a high temperature.
Subsequent application of heat does not soften the material to the point
where it can be reworked and indeed may serve only to break it down.
Property Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics
Molecular Structure Linear or branched Cross-linked three-
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polymer chains dimensional network
Response to Heat Soften when heated and Irreversibly harden
harden when cooled when heated and cannot
(reversible) be softened upon
cooling
Chemical Reactivity Typically chemically May undergo chemical
inert changes when heated,
often curing or cross-
linking
Melting Point Have a specific melting Do not have a distinct
point melting point;
decompose when
heated
Processability Can be melted and
reshaped multiple times Can only be
molded once; subsequent
without significant heating leads to
degradation degradation
Recycling Potential Highly recyclable Recycling is

through processes like challenging due to
melting and reforming irreversible cross-
linking
Mechanical Properties Mechanical properties Mechanical properties
(strength, flexibility) remain stable at
can change with elevated temperatures
temperature
Examples Polyethylene, Epoxy resin, phenolic
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polypropylene, PVC resin, melamine-
formaldehyde resin
Typical Applications Packaging, consumer Aerospace components,
goods, automotive parts electrical insulators,
composite materials
Properties
• Versatility: Plastics can be engineered to have a broad range of
properties, making them suitable for various applications, from
flexible packaging to rigid structural components.
• Low Density: Most plastics have low densities, making them
lightweight materials compared to metals and ceramics. This
property is advantageous in applications where weight reduction is
essential.
• High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: Certain plastics, such as reinforced
or composite plastics, can exhibit a high strength-to-weight ratio,
making them suitable for structural applications.
• Durability: Plastics are often durable and resistant to environmental
factors, such as moisture, chemicals, and UV radiation. This
durability makes them suitable for outdoor and long-term
applications.
• Flexibility: Many plastics are flexible and can be easily molded into
various shapes and forms. This property is advantageous in
applications like packaging and consumer goods.
• Transparency: Some plastics are transparent or translucent, allowing
for optical applications, such as lenses, windows, and display
screens.
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• Electrical Insulation: Plastics are excellent electrical insulators,
making them suitable for applications where electrical conductivity
needs to be minimized.
• Thermal Insulation: Plastics have low thermal conductivity, which
makes them effective insulators against heat and cold. This property
is valuable in construction and insulation materials.
• Chemical Resistance: Plastics can resist damage from a wide range
of chemicals, making them suitable for use in corrosive
environments.
• Low Cost: Plastics are often cost-effective materials to manufacture,
which contributes to their widespread use in consumer products and
industrial applications.
• Recyclability: Many plastics can be recycled, which is important for
reducing environmental waste and conserving resources.
• Biocompatibility: Some plastics are biocompatible and safe for use in
medical and healthcare applications, such as surgical implants and
medical devices.
• Colorability: Plastics can be easily colored during manufacturing,
allowing for a wide range of color options in products.
• Moldability: Plastics can be molded into complex shapes using
various manufacturing processes, including injection molding,
extrusion, and thermoforming.
• Low Friction: Certain plastics have low coefficients of friction,
making them suitable for applications where reduced friction and
wear are critical.
Additives
In many plastic products, the polymer is only one constituent. In order to
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arrive at a set of properties appropriate to the product, the polymer is almost
always combined with other ingredients, or additives, which are mixed in
during processing and fabrication. Among these additives are plasticizers,
colorants, reinforcements, and stabilizers. These are described in turn below.
Plasticizers
Plasticizers are used to change the Tg of a polymer. Polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), for instance, is often mixed with nonvolatile liquids for this reason.
Colorants
For most consumer applications, plastics are coloured. The ease with which
colour is incorporated throughout a molded article is an advantage of plastics
over metals and ceramics, which depend on coatings for colour.
Popular pigments for colouring plastics include titanium dioxide and zinc
oxide (white), carbon (black), and various other inorganic oxides such as
iron and chromium. Organic compounds can be used to add colour either as
pigments (insoluble) or as dyes (soluble).
Reinforcements
Reinforcements, as the name suggests, are used to enhance the mechanical
properties of a plastic. Finely divided silica, carbon black, talc, mica, and
calcium carbonate, as well as short fibres of a variety of materials, can be
incorporated as particulate fillers. (The use of long or even continuous fibres
as reinforcement, especially with thermosets, is described below in Fibre
reinforcement.) Incorporating large amounts of particulate filler during the
making of plastics such as polypropylene and polyethylene can increase their
stiffness. The effect is less dramatic when temperature is below the
polymer’s Tg.
Stabilizers
In order for a plastic to have a long and useful life in any application, the
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properties of that plastic should change as little as possible with time.
Stabilizers are added, usually in small quantities, to counter the effects of
aging.
Because all carbon-based polymers are subject to oxidation, the most
common stabilizers are antioxidants. Hindered phenols and tertiary amines
are used in plastics in concentrations as low as a few parts per million.
The processing and fabrication of plastics
The processing of raw materials into usable forms is termed fabrication or
conversion. An example from the plastics industry would be the conversion
of plastic pellets into films or the conversion of films into food containers. In
this section the mixing, forming, finishing, and fibre reinforcing of plastics
are described in turn.
Compounding
The first step in most plastic fabrication procedures is compounding, the
mixing together of various raw materials in proportions according to a
specific recipe. Most often the plastic resins are supplied to the fabricator as
cylindrical pellets (several millimetres in diameter and length) or as flakes
and powders. Other forms include viscous liquids, solutions, and
suspensions.
Forming
The process of forming plastics into various shapes typically involves the
steps of melting, shaping, and solidifying. As an example, polyethylene
pellets can be heated above Tm, placed in a mold under pressure, and cooled
to below Tm in order to make the final product dimensionally stable.
Thermoplastics in general are solidified by cooling below Tg or Tm.
Thermosets are solidified by heating in order to carry out the chemical
reactions necessary for network formation.
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Extrusion
In extrusion, a melted polymer is forced through an orifice with a particular
cross section (the die), and a continuous shape is formed with a constant
cross section similar to that of the orifice.
Although thermosets can be extruded and cross-linked by heating the
extrudate, thermoplastics that are extruded and solidified by cooling are
much more common. Among the products that can be produced by extrusion
are film, sheet, tubing, pipes, insulation, and home siding.
In each case the profile is determined by the die geometry, and solidification
is by cooling.
Blow extrusion of thermoplastic polymers
Most plastic grocery bags and similar items are made by the continuous
extrusion of tubing.
In blow extrusion, the tube is expanded before being cooled by being made
to flow around a massive air bubble.
Air is prevented from escaping from the bubble by collapsing the film on the
other side of the bubble. For some applications, laminated structures may be
made by extruding more than one material at the same time through the same
die or through multiple dies.
Multilayer films are useful since the outer layers may contribute strength and
moisture resistance while an inner layer may control oxygen permeability—
an important factor in food packaging. The layered films may be formed
through blow extrusion, or extrudates from three machines may be pressed
together in a die block to form a three-layer flat sheet that is subsequently
cooled by contact with a chilled roll.
The flow through a die in extrusion always results in some orientation of the
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polymer molecules. Orientation may be increased by drawing—that is,
pulling on the extrudate in the direction of polymer flow or in some other
direction either before or after partial solidification. In the blow extrusion
process, polymer molecules are oriented around the circumference of the bag
as well as along its length, resulting in a biaxially oriented structure that
often has superior mechanical properties over the unoriented material.
Compression molding
In the simplest form of compression molding, a molding powder (or pellets,
which are also sometimes called molding powder) is heated and at the same
time compressed into a specific shape. In the case of a thermoset, the melting
must be rapid, since a network starts to form immediately, and it is essential
for the melt to fill the mold completely before solidification progresses to the
point where flow stops.
The molded article is pushed out of the cavity by the action of ejector pins,
which operate automatically when the mold is opened.
In some cases, pushing the resin into the mold before it has liquefied may
cause undue stress on other parts. For example, metal inserts to be molded
into a plastic electrical connector may be bent out of position. This problem
is solved by transfer molding, in which the resin is liquefied in one chamber
and then transferred to the mold cavity.
In one form of compression molding, a layer of reinforcing material may be
laid down before the resin is introduced. The heat and pressure not only form
the mass into the desired shape but also combine the reinforcement and resin
into an intimately bound form. When flat plates are used as the mold, sheets
of various materials can be molded together to form a laminated sheet.
Ordinary plywood is an example of a thermoset-bound laminate. In
plywood, layers of wood are both adhered to one another and impregnated
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by a thermoset such as urea-formaldehyde, which forms a network on
heating.
Injection molding
It is usually slow and inefficient to mold thermoplastics using the
compression molding techniques described above. In particular, it is
necessary to cool a thermoplastic part before removing it from the mold, and
this requires that the mass of metal making up the mold also be cooled and
then reheated for each part. Injection molding is a method of overcoming
this inefficiency. Injection molding resembles transfer molding in that the
liquefying of the resin and the regulating of its flow is carried out in a part of
the apparatus that remains hot, while the shaping and cooling is carried out
in a part that remains cool. In a reciprocating screw injection molding
machine, material flows under gravity from the hopper onto a turning screw.
The mechanical energy supplied by the screw, together with auxiliary
heaters, converts the resin into a molten state. At the same time the screw
retracts toward the hopper end. When a sufficient amount of resin is melted,
the screw moves forward, acting as a ram and forcing the polymer melt
through a gate into the cooled mold. Once the plastic has solidified in the
mold, the mold is unclamped and opened, and the part is pushed from the
mold by automatic ejector pins. The mold is then closed and clamped, and
the screw turns and retracts again to repeat the cycle of liquefying a new
increment of resin. For small parts, cycles can be as rapid as several
injections per minute.
Reaction injection molding

One type of network-forming thermoset, polyurethane, is molded into parts
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such as automobile bumpers and inside panels through a process known as
reaction injection molding, or RIM. The two liquid precursors of
polyurethane are a multifunctional isocyanate and a prepolymer, a low-
molecular-weight polyether or polyester bearing a multiplicity of reactive
end-groups such as hydroxyl, amine, or amide. In the presence of a catalyst
such as a tin soap, the two reactants rapidly form a network joined mainly by
urethane groups. The reaction takes place so rapidly that the two precursors
have to be combined in a special mixing head and immediately introduced
into the mold. However, once in the mold, the product requires very little
pressure to fill and conform to the mold—especially since a small amount of
gas is evolved in the injection process, expanding the polymer volume and
reducing resistance to flow. The low molding pressures allow relatively
lightweight and inexpensive molds to be used, even when large items such as
bumper assemblies or refrigerator doors are formed.
Blow molding
The popularity of thermoplastic containers for products previously marketed
in glass is due in no small part to the development of blow molding. In this
technique, a thermoplastic hollow tube, the parison, is formed by injection
molding or extrusion. In heated form, the tube is sealed at one end and then
blown up like a balloon. The expansion is carried out in a split mold with a
cold surface; as the thermoplastic encounters the surface, it cools and
becomes dimensionally stable. The parison itself can be programmed as it is
formed with varying wall thickness along its length, so that, when it is
expanded in the mold, the final wall thickness will be controlled at corners
and other critical locations. In the process of expansion both in diameter and
length (stretch blow molding), the polymer is biaxially oriented, resulting in
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enhanced strength and, in the case of polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
particularly, enhanced crystallinity.
Blow molding has been employed to produce bottles of polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene, polycarbonate, PVC, and PET for domestic
consumer products. It also has been used to produce fuel tanks for
automobiles.
In the case of a high-density-polyethylene tank, the blown article may be
further treated with sulfur trioxide in order to improve the resistance to
swelling or permeation by gasoline.
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• Casting and dipping
Not every forming process requires high pressures. If the material to be
molded is already a stable liquid, simply pouring (casting) the liquid into a
mold may suffice. Since the mold need not be massive, even the cyclical
heating and cooling for a thermoplastic is efficiently done.
One example of a cast thermoplastic is a suspension of finely divided, low-
porosity PVC particles in a plasticizer such as dioctyl phthalate (DOP). This
suspension forms a free-flowing liquid (a plastisol) that is stable for months.
However, if the suspension (for instance, 60 parts PVC and 40 parts
plasticizer) is heated to 180 °C (356 °F) for five minutes, the PVC and
plasticizer will form a homogeneous gel that will not separate into its
components when cooled back to room temperature. A very realistic insect
or fishing worm can be cast from a plastisol using inexpensive molds and a
cycle requiring only minutes. In addition, when a mold in the shape of a
hand is dipped into a plastisol and then removed, subsequent heating will
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produce a glove that can be stripped from the mold after cooling.
Thermoset materials can also be cast. For example, a mixture of polymer and
multifunctional monomers with initiators can be poured into a heated mold.
When polymerization is complete, the article can be removed from the mold.
A transparent lens can be formed in this way using a diallyl diglycol
carbonate monomer and a free-radical initiator.
Rotational molding
In order to make a hollow article, a split mold can be partially filled with a
plastisol or a finely divided polymer powder. Rotation of the mold while
heating converts the liquid or fuses the powder into a continuous film on the
interior surface of the mold. When the mold is cooled and opened, the
hollow part can be removed. Among the articles produced in this manner are
many toys such as balls and dolls.
Thermoforming and cold molding

When a sheet of thermoplastic is heated above its Tg or Tm, it may be
capable of forming a free, flexible membrane as long as the molecular
weight is high enough to support the stretching. In this heated state, the sheet
can be pulled by vacuum into contact with the cold surface of a mold, where
it cools to below Tg or Tm and becomes dimensionally stable in the shape of
the mold. Cups for cold drinks are formed in this way from polystyrene or
PET.
Vacuum forming is only one variation of sheet thermoforming. The blow
molding of bottles described above differs from thermoforming only in that a
tube rather than a sheet is the starting form.
Even without heating, some thermoplastics can be formed into new shapes
by the application of sufficient pressure. This technique, called cold
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molding, has been used to make margarine cups and other refrigerated food
containers from sheets of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer.
• Foaming
• polystyrene
• polystyrene
Foams, also called expanded plastics, possess inherent features that make
them suitable for certain applications. For instance, the thermal conductivity
of a foam is lower than that of the solid polymer. Also, a foamed polymer is
more rigid than the solid polymer for any given weight of the material.
Finally, compressive stresses usually cause foams to collapse while
absorbing much energy, an obvious advantage in protective packaging.
Properties such as these can be tailored to fit various applications by the
choice of polymer and by the manner of foam formation or fabrication. The
largest markets for foamed plastics are in home insulation (polystyrene,
polyurethane, phenol formaldehyde) and in packaging, including various
disposable food and drink containers.
Foamed thermoplastics
Polystyrene pellets can be impregnated with isopentane at room temperature
and modest pressure. When the pellets are heated, they can be made to fuse
together at the same time that the isopentane evaporates, foaming the
polystyrene and cooling the assembly at the same time.
Usually the pellets are prefoamed to some extent before being put into a
mold to form a cup or some form of rigid packaging. The isopentane-
impregnated pellets may also be heated under pressure and extruded, in
which case a continuous sheet of foamed polystyrene is obtained that can be
shaped into packaging, dishes, or egg cartons while it is still warm.
Structural foams can also be produced by injecting nitrogen or some other
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gas into a molten thermoplastic such as polystyrene or polypropylene under
pressure in an extruder. Foams produced in this manner are more dense than
the ones described above, but they have excellent strength and rigidity,
making them suitable for furniture and other architectural uses.
One way of making foams of a variety of thermoplastics is to incorporate a
material that will decompose to generate a gas when heated. To be an
effective blowing agent, the material should decompose at about the molding
temperature of the plastic, decompose over a narrow temperature range,
evolve a large volume of gas, and, of course, be safe to use. One commercial
agent is azodicarbonamide, usually compounded with some other ingredients
in order to modify the decomposition temperature and to aid in dispersion of
the agent in the resin. One mole (116 grams) of azodicarbonamide generates
about 39,000 cubic cm of nitrogen and other gases at 200 °C. Thus, 1 gram
added to 100 grams of polyethylene can result in foam with a volume of
more than 800 cubic cm. Polymers that can be foamed with blowing agents
include polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyamides, and
plasticized PVC.
Foamed thermosets
The rapid reaction of isocyanates with hydroxyl-bearing prepolymers to
make polyurethanes is mentioned above in Reaction injection molding.
These materials also can be foamed by incorporating a volatile liquid, which
evaporates under the heat of reaction and foams the reactive mixture to a
high degree. The rigidity of the network depends on the components chosen,
especially the prepolymer.
Hydroxyl-terminated polyethers are often used to prepare flexible foams,
which are used in furniture cushioning. Hydroxyl-terminated polyesters, on
the other hand, are popular for making rigid foams such as those used in
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custom packaging of appliances. The good adhesion of polyurethanes to
metallic surfaces has brought about some novel uses, such as filling and
making rigid certain aircraft components (rudders and elevators, for
example).
Another rigid thermoset that can be foamed in place is based on phenol-
formaldehyde resins. The final stage of network formation is brought about
by addition of an acid catalyst in the presence of a volatile liquid.
• Finishing
• Joining
Some plastics can be joined by welding, in the same manner as metals—
PVC and polyethylene tanks and ductwork being prime examples. More
commonly, surfaces are joined by being brought into contact with one
another and heated by conduction or by dielectric heating. Heat sealing of
bags made from tubes of blow-extruded polyolefins such as polyethylene
and polypropylene usually requires contact with a hot sealing bar. PVC has a
high enough dielectric loss that heat can be generated throughout the
material by exposure to a high-frequency, high-voltage electric field.
Machining
Rigid thermoplastics and thermosets can be machined by conventional
processes such as drilling, sawing, turning on a lathe, sanding, and other
operations. Glass-reinforced thermosets are machined into gears, pulleys,
and other shapes, especially when the number of parts does not justify
construction of a metal mold. Various forms can be stamped out (die-cut)
from sheets of thermoplastics and thermosets. The cups made by vacuum
forming, for instance, are cut out of the mother sheet using a sharp die. In the
case of a thermoplastic such as polystyrene, the scrap sheet left over can be
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reground and remolded.
Coating
Although colour may be added in the form of a pigment or dye throughout a
plastic article, there are many applications where a surface coating is
valuable for protective or decorative purposes. The automobile bumpers
produced by reaction injection molding can be painted to match the rest of
the body. It is important in applying coatings to plastics that the solvent used
does not cause swelling of the underlying substrate. For this reason, latex
dispersion paints have found favour, although surface treatment is necessary
to provide good bonding with these materials.
Fibre reinforcement
The term polymer-matrix composite is applied to a number of plastic-based
materials in which several phases are present. It is often used to describe
systems in which a continuous phase (the matrix) is polymeric and another
phase (the reinforcement) has at least one long dimension. The major classes
of composites include those made up of discrete layers (sandwich laminates)
and those reinforced by fibrous mats, woven cloth, or long, continuous
filaments of glass or other materials.
Sandwich laminates
Plywood is a form of sandwich construction of natural wood fibres with
plastics. The layers are easily distinguished and are both held together and
impregnated with a thermosetting resin, usually urea formaldehyde. A
decorative laminate can consist of a half-dozen layers of fibrous kraft paper
(similar to paper used for grocery bags) together with a surface layer of
paper with a printed design—the entire assembly being impregnated with a
melamine-formaldehyde resin. For both plywood and the paper laminate, the
cross-linking reaction is carried out with sheets of the material pressed and
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heated in large laminating presses.
Fibreglass
Fibrous reinforcement in popular usage is almost synonymous with
fiberglass, although other fibrous materials (carbon, boron, metals, aramid
polymers) are also used. Glass fiber is supplied as mats of randomly oriented
microfibrils, as woven cloth, and as continuous or discontinuous filaments.
Hand lay-up is a versatile method employed in the construction of large
structures such as tanks, pools, and boat hulls. In hand, lay-up mats of glass
fibers are arranged over a mold and sprayed with a matrix-forming resin,
such as a solution of unsaturated polyester (60 parts) in styrene monomer (40
parts) together with free-radical polymerization initiators. The mat can be
supplied already impregnated with resin. Polymerization and network
formation may require heating, although free-radical “redox” systems can
initiate polymerization at room temperature. The molding may be compacted
by covering the mold with a blanket and applying a vacuum between the
blanket and the surface or, when the volume of production justifies it, by use
of a matching metal mold.
Continuous multifilament yarns consist of strands with several hundred
filaments, each of which is 5 to 20 micrometres in diameter. These are
incorporated into a plastic matrix through a process known as filament
winding, in which resin-impregnated strands are wound around a form called
a mandrel and then coated with the matrix resin. When the matrix resin is
converted into a network, the strength in the hoop direction is very great
(being essentially that of the glass fibres). Epoxies are most often used as
matrix resins, because of their good adhesion to glass fibres, although water
resistance may not be as good as with the unsaturated polyesters.
A method for producing profiles (cross-sectional shapes) with continuous
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fibre reinforcement is pultrusion. As the name suggests, pultrusion resembles
extrusion, except that the impregnated fibres are pulled through a die that
defines the profile while being heated to form a dimensionally stable
network.
Recycling and resource recovery
In many municipalities, the favoured method of disposing of solid waste is in
sanitary landfills, in which layers of refuse alternate with layers of soil.
However, concerns over the wisdom of such land use have encouraged
efforts to dispose of various materials by recycling them for re-use or to
derive some positive benefits. Paper as well as glass and aluminum
containers have been recycled to some degree for many years, and in more
recent years plastic recycling has become common. There are several
technical and economic problems in the recycling of plastics; they fall into
two general categories: (1) identification, segregation (or sorting), and
gathering into central stations and (2) the economics of recovering value.
Identification, segregation, gathering
Since plastics used in packaging form a highly visible part (approximately
20 percent by volume but less than 10 percent by weight) of the waste
stream, most recycling efforts have focused on containers. Almost all bottles,
food trays, cups, and dishes made of the major commodity plastics now bear
an identifying number enclosed in a triangle together with an abbreviation.
In addition to such labeling, in many localities consumers are encouraged to
return empty beverage containers to the place of purchase by being required
to pay a deposit on each unit at the time of purchase. This system helps to
solve two of the major problems associated with economical recycling, since
the consumer seeking return of the deposit does the sorting and the stores
gather the plastics into central locations. An added attraction of deposit laws
91 | P a g e
is a notable decrease in roadside litter. However, while such measures have
helped to raise dramatically the recycling rate of plastic bottles—especially
those made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and high-density
polyethylene (HDPE)—less than 10 percent of all plastic products are
recycled after first use. (On the other hand, most plastics are used in long-
term applications such as construction, appliances, and home furnishings, for
which efficient recycling is difficult.)
Economic recovery of value
In general, thermoplastic materials can be recycled more readily than
thermosets. Still, there are inherent limitations on the recycling of even these
materials. First, a recyclable plastic may be contaminated by nonplastics or
by different polymers making up the original product. Even within a single
polymer type, there are differences in molecular weight. For instance, a
supplier of polystyrene may produce a material of high molecular weight for
sheet-formed food trays, since that forming process favours a high melt
viscosity and elasticity. At the same time, the supplier may offer a low-
molecular-weight polystyrene for the injection molding of disposable
dinnerware, since injection molding works best with a melt of low viscosity
and very little elasticity. If the polymers from both types of product are
mixed in a recycling operation, the mixed material will not be very suitable
for either of the original applications.
Another complication to the recycling of plastics is the mixing together of
pigments or dyes of different colours, and yet another is the problem of
quality control. Almost all plastics change either slightly or greatly as a
result of initial fabrication and use. Some, for instance, undergo changes in
molecular weight due to cross-linking or chain scission (breaking of the
chemical bonds that hold a polymer chain together). Others undergo
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oxidation, another common reaction that can also change the properties of a
plastic.
For all the foregoing reasons, recycled plastics will almost always have
certain disadvantages in comparison to unrecycled plastics. Most
thermoplastics are therefore recycled into somewhat less-demanding
applications. HDPE from thin-walled grocery bags, for example, may be
converted into thick-walled flowerpots; polyvinyl chloride (PVC) recovered
from bottles may be used in traffic cones; and PET recovered from beverage
bottles may be washed, dried, and melt-spun into fibrous filling for pillows
and clothing. Waste plastics that cannot be separated by polymer type can be
made into plastic “lumber,” extruded slabs that are suitable for applications
such as industrial flooring and park benches. Owing to its heterogeneous
composition, plastic lumber is inherently weaker than the original polymers.
Other recycling processes that make use of mixed plastics are pyrolysis,
which converts the solids into a petroleum-like substance, and direct
incineration, which can provide energy for power plants or industrial
furnaces.
Despite the difficulties in making the recycling of plastics economically
attractive on a large scale, many successful processes have been developed
for more narrowly defined “niche” applications. Automotive suppliers have
found it feasible to recycle polyurethanes from the insides of panels and
dashboards if proper attention is paid to the design of the original materials.
The polycarbonates widely used in compact discs have been recovered and
effectively reused. The polypropylene casings of automobile batteries can be
recovered economically during lead-recycling operations and then remolded
for the same application. Some manufacturers depolymerize PET by
hydrolysis or methanolysis; the resulting materials can be purified by
93 | P a g e
distillation and then repolymerized.
In most plastic recycling operations, the first step after sorting is to chop and
grind the plastic into chips, which are easier to clean and handle in
subsequent steps. The chips commonly are first washed in order to remove
nonplastic items such as labels, caps, and adhesives. If the material comes
from a narrowly defined source, it may be possible to dry the washed chips
and immediately extrude them into molding pellets or even to extrude them
directly into fibres. For “mixed-waste” polymers, automatic separation
processes based on differences in density or solubility have been used to
some extent.
Recycling and resource recovery
In many municipalities, the favoured method of disposing of solid waste is in
sanitary landfills, in which layers of refuse alternate with layers of soil.
However, concerns over the wisdom of such land use has encouraged efforts
to dispose of various materials by recycling them for re-use or to derive
some positive benefits. Paper as well as glass and aluminum containers have
been recycled to some degree for many years, and in more recent years
plastic recycling has become common. There are several technical and
economic problems in the recycling of plastics; they fall into two general
categories: (1) identification, segregation (or sorting), and gathering into
central stations and (2) the economics of recovering value.
Identification, segregation, gathering
plastic items being sorted at a recycling centre
Since plastics used in packaging form a highly visible part (approximately
20 percent by volume but less than 10 percent by weight) of the waste
stream, most recycling efforts have focused on containers. Almost all bottles,
food trays, cups, and dishes made of the major commodity plastics now bear
94 | P a g e
an identifying number enclosed in a triangle together with an abbreviation.
In addition to such labeling, in many localities consumers are encouraged to
return empty beverage containers to the place of purchase by being required
to pay a deposit on each unit at the time of purchase. This system helps to
solve two of the major problems associated with economical recycling, since
the consumer seeking return of the deposit does the sorting and the stores
gather the plastics into central locations. An added attraction of deposit laws
is a notable decrease in roadside litter. However, while such measures have
helped to raise dramatically the recycling rate of plastic bottles—especially
those made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and high-density
polyethylene (HDPE)—less than 10 percent of all plastic products are
recycled after first use. (On the other hand, most plastics are used in long-
term applications such as construction, appliances, and home furnishings, for
which efficient recycling is difficult.)
Economic recovery of value
In general, thermoplastic materials can be recycled more readily than
thermosets. Still, there are inherent limitations on the recycling of even these
materials. First, a recyclable plastic may be contaminated by nonplastics or
by different polymers making up the original product. Even within a single
polymer type, there are differences in molecular weight. For instance, a
supplier of polystyrene may produce a material of high molecular weight for
sheet-formed food trays, since that forming process favours a high melt
viscosity and elasticity. At the same time, the supplier may offer a low-
molecular-weight polystyrene for the injection molding of disposable
dinnerware, since injection molding works best with a melt of low viscosity
and very little elasticity. If the polymers from both types of product are
mixed in a recycling operation, the mixed material will not be very suitable
95 | P a g e
for either of the original applications.
Another complication to the recycling of plastics is the mixing together of
pigments or dyes of different colours, and yet another is the problem of
quality control. Almost all plastics change either slightly or greatly as a
result of initial fabrication and use. Some, for instance, undergo changes in
molecular weight due to cross-linking or chain scission (breaking of the
chemical bonds that hold a polymer chain together). Others undergo
oxidation, another common reaction that can also change the properties of a
plastic.
For all the foregoing reasons, recycled plastics will almost always have
certain disadvantages in comparison to unrecycled plastics. Most
thermoplastics are therefore recycled into somewhat less-demanding
applications. HDPE from thin-walled grocery bags, for example, may be
converted into thick-walled flowerpots; polyvinyl chloride (PVC) recovered
from bottles may be used in traffic cones; and PET recovered from beverage
bottles may be washed, dried, and melt-spun into fibrous filling for pillows
and clothing. Waste plastics that cannot be separated by polymer type can be
made into plastic “lumber,” extruded slabs that are suitable for applications
such as industrial flooring and park benches. Owing to its heterogeneous
composition, plastic lumber is inherently weaker than the original polymers.
Other recycling processes that make use of mixed plastics are pyrolysis,
which converts the solids into a petroleum-like substance, and direct
incineration, which can provide energy for power plants or industrial
furnaces.
Despite the difficulties in making the recycling of plastics economically
attractive on a large scale, many successful processes have been developed
for more narrowly defined “niche” applications. Automotive suppliers have
96 | P a g e
found it feasible to recycle polyurethanes from the insides of panels and
dashboards if proper attention is paid to the design of the original materials.
The polycarbonates widely used in compact discs have been recovered and
effectively reused. The polypropylene casings of automobile batteries can be
recovered economically during lead-recycling operations and then remolded
for the same application. Some manufacturers depolymerize PET by
hydrolysis or methanolysis; the resulting materials can be purified by
distillation and then repolymerized.
In most plastic recycling operations, the first step after sorting is to chop and
grind the plastic into chips, which are easier to clean and handle in
subsequent steps. The chips commonly are first washed in order to remove
nonplastic items such as labels, caps, and adhesives. If the material comes
from a narrowly defined source, it may be possible to dry the washed chips
and immediately extrude them into molding pellets or even to extrude them
directly into fibres. For “mixed-waste” polymers, automatic separation
processes based on differences in density or solubility have been used to
some extent.
97 | P a g e
OVERVIEW OF CERAMIC PROCESSING
A ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant, and corrosion-

resistant materials made by shaping and then firing an inorganic,
nonmetallic material, such as clay, at a high temperature.[1][2] Common
examples are earthenware, porcelain, and brick.
The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects (pots, vessels,
or vases) or figurines made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other
materials like silica, hardened and sintered in fire. Later, ceramics were
glazed and fired to create smooth, colored surfaces, decreasing porosity
through the use of glassy, amorphous ceramic coatings on top of the
crystalline ceramic substrates
PROCESSING
Processing of ceramics is carried out through the consolidation of loose
powders to form polycrystalline objects.
The majority of ceramics are sintered, using solid-state sintering or liquid-
phase sintering
Generally, sintering occurs at temperatures below the melting point for
single-phase ceramics or below their liquidus for multiphase ceramics,
although a liquid phase may be present temporarily during sintering. The
distinction that sets the majority of ceramics apart from the minority is the
fact that the majority is sintered below the melting temperature by
solid-state transport.
The minority are those processed above the melting temperature, in
particular, glasses and glass ceramics. Therefore, the key to the successful
processing of ceramics is finding energy sources that can drive the
transport processes.
In most cases, the source of energy is surface energy. The elimination
98 | P a g e
of surface energy, where surfaces of loose powders are converted to grain
boundaries between particles, is what accounts for most of the energy
available for sintering. There are countless examples of ceramic products
where the conversion of this energy has resulted in a successful outcome.
Nevertheless, there can always be improvements in ceramic processing
Processing
What is microwave processing?
From the initial attempts in around 1979 to sinter ferrites with microwaves,
it has been know that certain materials show heating effects through
dielectric loss when irradiated with microwaves at a frequency of 2.45
GHz.
Ordinarily, microwaves, which are located on the electromagnetic
spectrum between infrared and radio waves, correspond to energies
characteristic of molecular rotation. This explains the usefulness of
microwaves in reheating food, which contains water molecules. In
addition, selected ceramic compositions show rapid heating through the
use of microwaves. While materials with low loss tangents are transparent
to microwaves and materials, such as metals, with high loss tangents
reflect microwaves, it is the materials with intermediate loss tangents that
can benefit from microwave treatment. In the case of ceramics, where an
ion jump relaxation mechanism gives rise to polarization in an applied
electric field, there is the possibility to use microwaves to assist i n
sintering. The advantages of microwave heating are experienced through
volumetric heating, and rapid heating, resulting in increased kinetics. The
danger of microwave heating in ceramics is nonuniform susceptibility,
leading to localized hotspots, nonuniform grain growth, or agglomeration.
Microwave sintering has been investigated in oxide ceramics primarily, as
99 | P a g e
well as nonoxides. The greatest use of microwaves in ceramics processing
is in drying, but the use of microwaves in sintering is promising in cases
where volumetric heating and small grain size are desirable.
Self-Propagating Synthesis
What is self-propagating high-temperature synthesis, often abbreviated

SHS? It is a method for preparing composites that involves a chemical
reaction that is exothermic. Once the reaction is initiated, the conversion
of chemical energy to thermal energy is used to consolidate a powder
compact into a composite. The product of SHS is rarely homogeneous or
free of pores, but the kinetics of the consolidation is very rapid.
Mechanochemical Synthesis
What is mechanochemical synthesis? It is a process that uses mechanical

activation to bring about chemical reactions instead of using calcination
at moderate to high temperatures to accomplish the same result
For example, to prepare a multi-component oxide such as lead zirconate
titanate (PZT), it is possible to mix powders of PbO, TiO2, and ZrO2,
beginning with high-purity commercial powders, first in a ball mill in
ethanol for 48 h, followed by drying, and finally in a shaker mill at
900 rpm for up to 25 h.
Reaction Bonding
What is reaction bonding? To answer this, a good example is an

aluminum- oxide-containing composite, referred to as reaction bonded
aluminum oxide (RBAO). This technique begins with a porous alumina
preform that is infiltrated with aluminum metal powders, or a compact of
aluminum oxide and aluminum metal powders [see, e.g., Wu et al.
100 | P a g e
(1993)]. The aluminum metal is oxidized as the compact is heated up
to about 1000°C and the compact densifies on contin- ued heating to
about 1400°C and higher. The process is ‘‘near-net shape’’ in that the
part changes by sometimes as little as 1% in dimension. The
mechanism for the growth of oxide is the diffusion of oxygen through the
polycrystalline alumina. The oxidation kinetics can be controlled by
additions of other oxides, such as zirconia.
Layered Manufacturing
What is layered manufacturing or solid freeform fabrication (SFF)?
In recent years, the cost of making machine tools or dies to make a
prototype has become exorbitant, and an alternative has been found
that allows the preparation of the part without dies, thus the name
‘‘freeform.’’ Using a computer-aided design program, a solid object is
cut into layers and a computer file is created that can direct the building-
up of the object layer by layer [see, e.g., Bandyopadhyay et al. (1997),
Song et al. (1999)]. One approach to solid freeform fabrication is ink-jet
printing. Borrowing the concept that is popular for creating written text,
an ink-jet printer can print the object layer by layer, to create three-
dimensional solids. In the form that this printing technology relates to
ceramics, the required steps are;
(a) the ink preparation,
(b) the ink delivery through a nozzle,
(c) the break up of the ink stream into droplets,
(d) the rastering of the nozzle over the substrate,
(e) the registry of successive layers, and
(f) the consolidation of the layers and sintering of the object to a fully
dense ceramic.
101 | P a g e
Typical dimensions of each layer are ~0.5 µm. The finest nozzle is about
75µm, although micropen nozzles are being developed. A typical ink
formulation contains dispersant, binder, and plasticizer with 30 vol%
ceramic powder. The ink is forced through the nozzle and broken into
droplets usually with electrodes. The proper placement of the drops is
critical to producing the desired dimensions and aspect ratio in the object.
Typically, the objects call for hundreds of layers. Following the buildup of
the object, the problems with drying and firing are no different from those
using more conventional processing and binder burnout.
Fused deposition of ceramics (FDC) is another useful technology for
making nanocomposites. This process uses a filament of inorganic
particles dispersed in a polymer as a means to deliver a molten stream of
the composite onto a substrate. The droplets can be as small as 125 µm
and can be deposited as multi- layers for thicker coatings with a spatial
positioning precision of ±2.5 µm.
ADVANCED PROCESSING
Current instrumentation can process as many as four different filaments to
allow for the deposition of several materials on the same substrate.
To make nanostructured mesoscale coating depositions, we need to
expand the applications of ink-jet printing and FDC. These technologies
should be useful not only for deposition on a flat surface but also for
administering multiple components. This enables the assembly of
neighboring components as well as layered components of different
nanostructures. Like fused deposition processing, computers equipped
with fast processors can be used to assemble complex patterned structures
for multifunctional systems.
Thus, one can envision multifunctional systems consisting of
102 | P a g e
nanostructured capacitors, resistors, conductors, and even patterned power
sources. Because the structures are computer generated, a large number of
unique structures are possible.
Overall, the benefits of layered manufacturing include the ability to
fabricate complex shapes, fabrication without molds, automated
fabrication, and near-net shape processing. The potential drawbacks are
the cost of the binder needed in the initial layering, the dimensional
accuracy, the binder burnout, and the trans- ferability of a binder delivery
system to a variety of ceramic materials. When performance is more
important than cost, then layered manufacturing used for a low-volume
product or small number of units may be competitive with conventional
processes such as forging, investment casting, or machining
Precursors Polymer Precursors
What are the advantages of using preceramic polymers or precursors that
py- rolyze to ceramic? The advantage is the ability to use polymer forming
methods before carrying out the pyrolysis. The polymers are available as
liquids, resins, and thermosets. A typical preceramic polymer would be
polycarbosilane, which decomposes to SiC plus excess carbon and
gaseous by-products such as hydrogen and hydrocarbons [see, e.g.,
Wynne and Rice (1984), Blum et al. (1989), Wu and Interrante (1992),
Greil (1995)]. Other preceramic polymers contain Si– Si (silane), Si–N
(silazane), or Si–O (siloxane) bonds. There are suitable preceramic
polymers for aluminum, zirconium, and titanium carbides, nitrides,
borides, and phosphides as well. The pyrolysis atmosphere may be
nitrogen, ammonia, argon, or air. Typically, the ceramic product is porous.
Nevertheless, suitable precursor chemistry and heat treatment can lead to
dense materials. Another benefit of the chemical approach is the high
103 | P a g e
purity achievable and the control over stoichiometry. In some cases, there
are fewer steps involved with a preceramic polymer than with powder
processing. For example, the pyrolysis can lead to a porous perform
that requires infiltration by reaction bonding (as in RBSN, reaction
bonded silicon nitride), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), or chemical
vapor infiltration (CVI).
Sol–Gel Processing
Of all of the advanced ceramic processing methods, why has sol–gel

processing become so prevalent? When sol–gel processing emerged
about 20 years ago, there were many that thought it was a laboratory
curiosity without much future.
ADVANCED CERAMICS PROCESSING

The cost of raw materials was frequently raised as being prohibitive.
Some 20 years later, the interest in sol–gel processing has not
diminished. Perhaps, the reason is that there are many applications for
sol–gel processing, where conventional processing does not work as
well, if at all.
The sol–gel process refers broadly to room temperature solution routes
for preparing oxide materials
In most cases, the process involves the hydrolysis and polymerization of
metal alkoxide precursors of silica, alumina, titania, zirconia, as well
as other oxides. The solutions of precursors are reacted to form
irreversible gels that dry and shrink to rigid oxide forms.
In today’s terminology, sol–gel processing is a form of nanostructure
processing. Not only does the sol–gel process begin with a nanosized
unit, a molecule, it undergoes reactions on the nanometer scale
104 | P a g e
resulting in a material with nanometer features. The concept behind the
sol–gel process is that a combination of chemical reactions turns a
homogeneous solution of reactants into an infinite molecular weight
oxide polymer. This polymer is a three-dimensional skeleton
surrounding interconnected pores. Ideally, the polymer is isotropic,
homogeneous, uniform in nanostructure, and it replicates its mold
exactly and miniaturizes all features without distortion. The
nanostructure and the nanophase porosity in gels are, in fact, the
features of interest, both scientifically and technologically. The sol–gel
process involves initially a homogeneous solution of one or more
selected alkoxides. Alkoxides are the organometallic precursors for
silica, alumina, titania, zirconia, among others. By far the most
common system is one composed of tetraethyl orthosilicate [TEOS–
Si(OC2H5)4]–water–alcohol. Eventually, the solution reacts to a point
where the molecular structure is no longer reversible. This point is
known as the sol–gel transition. The gel is an elastic solid filling the
same volume as the solution. Alkoxides react at different rates
according to the electronegativity of the cation.
A catalyst is used to start reactions and control pH. The reactions are
first hydrolysis to make the solution active (reaction 1), followed by
condensation polymerization (reaction 2) along with further hydrolysis.
These reactions increase the molecular weight of the oxide polymer
(reactions 3 and 4) resulting in either the monohydroxide AlOOH
(boehmite) or the trihydroxide Al(OH)3 (bayerite). Nonaqueous sol–gel
processes have been used to prepare most transition-metal oxides. In
systems with multiple valence, the intermediate species are oligomers that
exist on the nanometer scale.
105 | P a g e
Aqueous colloidal sols also are used for sol–gel processing, recognizing
that the mechanism for accomplishing the sol–gel transition is quite
different. In sols such as Ludox, changing the pH or changing the
concentration causes the ag- gregation of sol particles. The sols can be
gelled in such a way that the oxide skeleton is a continuous linking of sol
particles. These are discrete features that make up the skeleton
corresponding to the dimensions of the sol. The other features are pores
within secondary particles and pores between secondary particles. The
chemical and structural differences between nonaqueous alkoxide
precursors and aqueous sol precursors become blurred at later stages of
the sol– gel process.
Mixing as a first step applies to the single alkoxide, multiple alkoxide, and
colloidal sol processes. Absence of light scattering is a good indication of
uniform mixing. Since the building blocks are nanometer in size, and
smaller than the wavelength of visible light, it is easy to follow, in a
qualitative way, the progress of the linking of building blocks. Gelling is
often determined empiri- cally as the time when the solution shows no
flow. This is referred to as the time to gel. For this step, viscosity is a
good diagnostic for the transition from a viscous liquid to a rigid
structure.
Table 2 summarizes the shapes available by the sol–gel process. All of the
options are more or less porous materials. In all cases, it is important that
the porosity remain interconnected, whether the form of the material is
essentially one-dimensional such as a fiber, two-dimensional such as a
film, or three- dimensional such as bulk monoliths. These shapes can be
divided into those that show isotropic shrinkage from the preform to the
final form and those that show anisotropic shrinkage. Bulk materials fall
106 | P a g e
into the isotropic category. Thin films on substrates fall into the
anisotropic category. High aspect ratio fibers also show anisotropic
shrinkage. Sol–gel thin films are exceedingly simple to prepare. A solution
containing the desired oxide precursors is applied to a substrate by
spinning, dipping, or draining. The process is able to apply a coating to
inside and outside of complex shapes simultaneously. The time to gel is
short, indi- cating film formation, drying and creation of pores must be
rapid. When it comes to dip coatings, 50 to 500 nm coatings are easy
to make but thicker coatings
Table 2 Shapes Achieved by Sol–Gel Process
Shape Composition Typical

Application
Thin film Titania–silica Interference
Filter
Membrane Alumina Ultrafilter
Fiber Alumina–zirconia– Reinforceme
silica nt
Bulk
Xerogel Silica Lens
Aerogel Silica Thermal
insulation
107 | P a g e
are more difficult. Similarly, fibers can be drawn out of low-water-
content solutions. The sol–gel process allows one to bait and draw
a string of gel about the same diameter as the desired fiber directly
from the solution.
The sol–gel process based on casting and molding can make
bulk objects. The process can be used to make a microporous preform
that is near-net shape. This preform is called a monolith to refer to its
continuity. Monolithic gels can be formed from a colloidal sol or from
an alkoxide solution. The main difference between colloidal gels and
alkoxide gels is their pore structures. Alkoxide gels have small pores
(<10 nm), while colloidal gels have bigger pores or voids between
particles. Monolith fabrication is arguably the most challenging dem-
onstration of the sol–gel process.
Having selected geometry and designed the formulations
accordingly, there are several further steps common to monoliths, films,
and fibers. First of all, the gels must be dried. For monoliths, drying is
more difficult because of the thicker dimensions. Keeping in mind the
nanostructured character of the material, several drying treatments
have been developed. One possibility is aerogels that are dried in an
autoclave by hypercritical techniques. That is, the solvent is removed
above its critical point. The resulting gel is about 10% dense and shows
no shrinkage. The more common case is xerogels that are dried by
natural evapo- ration. Xerogels are 60% dense and have reductions
40–70% in volume.
Following reacting, gelling, and drying, gel materials have many of
the characteristics of the corresponding ceramic oxide, but they are
more or less porous. Interconnected pores, which remain open at the
108 | P a g e
surface until the gels are fired to temperatures well above 600°C,
allow the water and solvent to escape.
When the goal of the sol–gel process is a pore-free dense oxide, the
final stage of processing is sintering. The high surface area of gels is
looked at as a high driving force for sintering, so sintering is likely to
occur at lower temperatures than in conventional powder compacts.
This drive to remove porosity in the end produces a material similar
to conventionally processed materials.
Remember that high purity and uniform nanostructure are trademarks of
the sol–gel process. The challenge of the sol–gel process is to
exploit the nanostructure aspects of the process to derive real benefits.
In single-component, single-phase materials, by far the most important
nanophase property is the porosity. Porosity also means that there is
surface area. Sol–gel processing has a special contribution to multiphase
material design and fabrication, in that the porosity provides access to
the nanoscale for processes such as liquid or vapor infiltrations, physical
or chemical depositions, and chemical reactions such as pyrolysis or
oxidation/ reduction.
Because the sol–gel process is a low-temperature process, it is possible
to incorporate organic material. This is accomplished by infiltrating a
previously formed oxide gel with monomer, creating an organic–
inorganic copolymer with a metal alkoxide, or simultaneously
polymerizing monomer and metal alkoxide. Because of the scale of
mixing of the organic and inorganic phases, these materials are
nanocomposites. The products of some of these syntheses can be
classified as sequential interpenetrating networks or simultaneous
interpenetrating networks.
109 | P a g e
Among the features of sol–gel processing, the one that should stand
out at this point is its nanometer scale. In the long run, the advantages
for the sol–gel
110 | P a g e

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UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE-ELGON

Sub-module 1: Materials Properties

Creep and Slip

• Band Structure: Intrinsic semiconductors have moderate conductivity due

Despite different definitions, it can be observed that corrosion is

Corrosion can be classified in different ways, such as

1. Chemical and electrochemical

• Safety, economics, and conservation. Premature failure of bridges or

• Shutdown: Unplanned shutdowns because of the

The Most Common Types of Corrosion

positive ions in the crevice. This leads to a series of

4) Pitting corrosion, also known as pitting, is another localized

Pitting usually originates on areas of the metal surface where

5) Intergranular corrosion involves accelerated corrosion along

In specific corrosive environments, some metal alloys can

7) Erosion corrosion: is defined as the accelerated

8) Stress Corrosion Cracking: is a form of corrosion marked

Corrosion fatigue is the cracking of a metal or alloy under the

Biologically influenced corrosion refers to the degradation of metals

1. Produce a corrosive environment

Choice of metals and alloys:

1. The first choice is to use noble metals such as gold and

1. Use always simple design and structure

a) Sacrificial anodic protection (galvanic protection)

a) Sacrificial Anodic Protection Method

In this method, the metallic structure to be protected is made

1. Protection as buried pipelines, underground cables from soil

1. Low installation and operating cost.

1. High starting current is required.

b) Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Method

In this method, an impressed current is applied in opposite direction

Modifying The Environment-Corrosion Control

ii) By using inhibitors:

1) Anodic inhibitors (chemical passivators)

a) In an acidic solution: the main cathodic reaction is

cathode. Eg., Amines

b) In a neutral solution: in a neutral solution, the

1. Used in acid coolers in dilute sulphuric acid plants

1. This method cannot be applied in the case of corrosive

Paint is a viscous, opaque (not clear), mechanical dispersion mixture of one

1) Have a high hiding power

Corrosion of metals can be prevented or controlled by using methods like

Electroplating is a coating technique. It is the most important and

i. Decoration or better appearance

The electrolyte is a solution of soluble salt of the coating metal. When

• Optimum current density

• Low metal ion concentrations.

1. The surface of the stainless steel is activated by dipping in

1) It is used extensively in electronic appliances.

A prime example of the versatility of steel is in the automobile where it is

Steel-making (BASIC OXYGEN FURNANCE)

In the BOF, liquid pig iron comprises the main charge.

1. Salt Bath Furnaces

Advantages of Salt Bath Furnaces

Disadvantages of Salt Bath Furnaces

• Box furnaces offer versatility in accommodating various shapes and sizes

Disadvantages of Box Furnaces

Continuous furnaces, as the name suggests, are industrial heat treatment

Vacuum furnaces are specialized heat treatment furnaces that operate in a

5. Induction Heating Furnaces

Induction heating furnaces are specialized heat treatment equipment that

Process Annealing (Recrystallization Annealing).

(i) Iron having a C content of less than 0.0008 % at room temperature,

• Ferrite or alpha-iron phase – It is a stable form of iron at room