j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

Waste slags as sustainable construction materials:

a compressive review on physico mechanical
properties

Sangita Meshram a,***, S.P. Raut a, Khalid Ansari a,**,

Mangesh Madurwar b, Md Daniyal c, Mohammad Amir Khan d,
Vasudha Katare e, Afzal Husain Khan f,*, Nadeem A. Khan g,
Mohd Abul Hasan h
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering, 441110, Nagpur, India
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, 440012, Nagpur, India
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Chandigarh Engineering College Jhanjeri, Mohali-140307
d
Department of Civil Engineering, Galgotias College of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida-201306, India
e
COEP Technological University, Pune, Maharashtra, India
f
School of Civil Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300, Pulau, Pinang, Malaysia
g
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Membranes and Water Security, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
h
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA)

article info abstract

Article history: Rapid industrialization and urbanization in emerging nations have resulted in the accu-
Received 3 December 2022 mulation of various industrial wastes. As a result, reusing and recycling these wastes into
Accepted 23 February 2023 an economical, durable, and environmentally friendly building material may be the most
Available online 28 February 2023 effective means of mitigating their environmental impact. Such wastes are being dumped
in greater quantities, which pollute the ecosystem and the land. As a result, its efficient use
Keywords: and management are required, which presents a global issue for its viable recycling and
Slags safe disposal. The current review examines the use of various slags, including cupola slag,
Sustainable Construction Materials electric arc furnace slag (EAFS), steel furnace slag (SFS), and ground granulated blast
Mortar furnace slag (GGBFS) in the development of sustainable construction materials considering
Concrete the potential of such waste in greener concrete composites towards eco-friendly infra-
Paver Blocks structure. In order to produce environmentally acceptable construction materials, these
Mechanical Properties waste slags have been used as a partial and full replacement of cement, fine and coarse
aggregate with or without supplementary materials ranging from 10 to 60% for cupola slag,
20 to 50% for EAFS, 10 to 50% for GGBFS, and 10 to 30% for SFS are suggested. This review
will be an inclusion that helps readers to identify gaps in experimental viability, material

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
*** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: sangitameshram3@gmail.com (S. Meshram), sprce22@gmail.com (S.P. Raut), ksansari@ycce.edu (K. Ansari), man-
geshmadurwar@gmail.com (M. Madurwar), daniyalzhcet@gmail.com (M. Daniyal), amirmdamu@gmail.com (M.A. Khan), vasudhaka-
tare@gmail.com (V. Katare), afzalkhan2020@student.usm.my (A.H. Khan), nadeem.khan@kfupm.edu.sa (N.A. Khan), mohad@kku.edu.sa
(M.A. Hasan).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.02.176
2238-7854/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
5822 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5

characterization, and physico-mechanical behaviour of waste slags, pointing to the po-

tential for application in the production of sustainable building materials.
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

List of Abbreviations GBFS - Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

GCFS - Ground Cupola Furnace Slag
ACBFS - Air-Cooled Blast Furnace Slag
GGBFS - Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
Al2O3 e Aluminium Oxide
K2O e Potassium Oxide
An - Anorthite
MgO e Magnesium Oxide
AR - Abrasion Resistance
MgO e Magnesium Oxide
BOF - Basic Oxygen Furnace
MnO e Magnesium Oxide
C.I. - Cast Iron
NiO e Nickel Oxide
C2S e Dicalcium Silicate
PbO2 e Lead Oxide
C3S - Tricalcium Silicate
Q- Quartz
CA - Crystalline Admixture
RCC e Reinforced Cement Concrete
Ca(OH)2 - Calcium Hydroxide
RCPT -Rapid Chloride Permeability Test
CaCO3 - Calcium Carbonate
SAC - Slag Aggregate Concrete
Cafe2O4 - Calcium Ferrite
SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope
CaO e Calcium Oxide
SFS - Steel Furnace Slag
Cc - Calcite
SiO2 e Silicon Dioxide
CC - Control Concrete
SO3 e Sulphur Trioxide
CdO e Cadmium Oxide
SSOS - Stainless Steel Oxidizing Slag
CFSC - Cupola Foundry Slag Concrete
STS - Split Tensile Strength
CI - Chemical Ionization
TGDTA- Thermogravimetry Differential Thermal Analysis
CR2O3 - Chromium Oxide
TiO2 -Titanium Oxide
CS- Compressive Strength
UPV- Ultra-Sonic Pulse Velocity
C-S-H - Calcium Silicate Hydrates
WA - Water Absorption
CuO e Copper Oxide
WSF - Waste Slag Furnace
EAF - Electric Arc Furnace
XRD - X-Ray Diffraction
EAFD - Electric Arc Furnace Dust
XRF - X-Ray Fluorescence
EAFS - Electric Arc Furnace Slag
Znfe2O4 - Zinc Ferrite
Fe3O4 - Magnetite
Zno Zinc oxide
FeO e Ferric Oxide

need for infrastructure and building materials. Researchers

1. Introduction
Industrial waste is increasing at an alarming rate, primarily
in developing countries, due to the volume of waste produced
and the limited amount of land available for disposal, posing
a significant environmental problem [1]. According to Aze-
vedo, A. R. et al., the output of municipal, industrial, and
agricultural solid wastes has increased, underscoring the
urgent need for governments around the world to embrace
more ecologically friendly practices [2]. Many wastes have
pozzolanic properties, when pozzolanic materials are used
with cement, they improve the properties of the material. In
fact, pozzolanic materials do not have binding properties
when they are used alone. So, it is common for waste that
would normally be thrown away without use to be mixed
with cement and used to make building materials like bricks,
concrete, mortar, etc. [3]. Furthermore, using wastes with
pozzolanic behaviour gives a material that was previously
thought to be trash for disposal commercial value. Along with
the growth in the global population, there is an increasing
from all over the world have a significant interest in deter-
mining how to convert industrial waste into valuable building
materials. Industrial wastes like cupola slag, steel furnace
slag, ground granulated blast furnace slag, electric arc
furnace slag, etc. may be recycled or used in new ways to
lessen the impact of land pollution on the environment [4].
Fig. 1 depicts the annual production of various slags world-
wide. Slags can be used in a variety of building materials,
including paver blocks, concrete, bricks, and mortar. Cupola
furnaces remove impurities from molten metal, creating
cupola slag which is heated and melted to produce oxides
and silicates that solidifies. Nowadays, electric arc furnace
technology is mostly used in integrated iron plants to pro-
duce steel and iron.
Cupola slag is a cast iron (CI) manufacturing waste product
that forms in cupola furnaces. Metal working produces slag as
a by-product. The EAF technology is the most widely
employed in modern integrated iron facilities for steel and
iron production [5-8]. Cupola furnaces generate waste at a rate
of (5e7)% during the production of cast iron. Depending on the
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
Fig. 1 e Various waste slags generated worldwide
[13,25,88,90].
size and characteristics of the furnace, the sector can generate
between 50 to 3000 tonnes of cast iron per year. A cupola
furnace produces around 50 kg of slag for every tonne of
molten metal produced [9-13]. The cupola produces heat every
day for about seven to eight hours. Depending on the size of
the cupola furnace, 25 to 25 and a half tons of molten metal or
heat are produced [14-20]. Electric arc furnace slag (EAFS) is
formed from liquid steel in the range of 150e200 kg [21-26].
EAF is generated as a waste material from liquid steel melting
and primary acid refining [27e36]. Granulated blast furnace
slag (GBFS), a waste material of the melting process, is pro-
duced by combining iron ore with limestone flux in a melting
pot [36]. Rapid cooling of this molten slag in water prevents
crystallization and leads to the formation of granular, glassy
aggregates with sand-sized particles [37e43].
The solid waste generated during the steelmaking process
is referred to as "steel slag" [44-47]. This technique involves
Fig. 2 e Origination of slags.
5823
melting scrap metal in an electric arc furnace or melting iron in
a basic oxygen furnace (BOF) [48-57]. Steel slag is produced as a
by-product of the steelmaking process. When the molten sili-
cate and oxide mixture cools to a solid state, steel slag is
generated [58e74]. Semi-operational studies were conducted to
determine whether natural aggregate in the construction of
concrete might be replaced by blast furnaces and cupola slag.
Based on the assessed mechanical properties, this conclusion
was reached. These concretes can be used for standard con-
crete grades, but not for significantly strained road concretes
[75]. The volcanic materials incorporated with other replace-
ment materials showed a suitability for replacing cement were
also explored [76e78]. Regarding toughness, long-term stabil-
ity, and potential contamination, the EAF slag concrete utilized
satisfies the standards for common structural concretes [79].
Ledesma, E. F et al. suggested that the significant volume of
electric arc furnace dust that has been mechanically stabilized
could reduce the amount of space needed for storage in haz-
ardous waste landfills [80]. Both cupola slag and steel slag
aggregate have great resilience against wear and abrasion and
high resistance to fragmentation [81]. Because of the irregular
surface properties of recycled aggregate and the finer particles
of GGBFS, concrete mixes comprising varying percentages of
these materials perform much better in flexural strength and
split tensile strength compared to compressive strength [82].
Since it was proven superior to Portland cement for bricks
having a lot of stone powder sludge, (GGBFS) has been used
instead of fine aggregate in the construction of bricks [83]. The
carbonation process has been shown in Fig. 2 to convert steel
slag into cementitious material [84,85].
Pavement infrastructure that is long-lasting, eco-friendly,
and in line with the Sustainable Development Goals can be
built with interlocking pavers made from furnace slag [86,87].
According to Lim et al., steel slag might be used in roads, pu-
rify water and sewage, and remove phosphorus from agri-
cultural wastewater [88].
5824 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5

Fig. 3 e Advantages of utilization of Slags in various construction material.

Researchers have used slag from cupola furnaces, blast aggregate, fine aggregate, and cement in the production of
furnaces, electric arc furnaces, and steel furnaces to create concrete, mortar, bricks, paver blocks, or other structural
sustainable building materials [4e75]. These slags have the construction materials [89e93]. Inorganic salts and heavy
potential for recycling and reuse as a substitute for coarse metals are found in slags, which are then dumped in open

Fig. 4 e Search process (n is the number of research paper reviewed).

 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
Fig. 5 e Sustainable construction material development method [4e75]
areas, where they pollute the air. Many scientists have shown
that reusing and recycling this slag can provide low-cost,
sustainable building materials that mitigate the risks of
heavy metals leaching into the ground and soil [94e98]. This
research compiles information about the recycling and use of
various slags as long-lasting, cutting-edge, and ecologically
sound building materials [99e102]. Fig. 3 shows the benefits of
using various slags as advantages of using construction
building materials [103e106]. Using different kinds of slag
waste as raw materials for making sustainable building ma-
terials enhances construction productivity while decreasing
pollutants, making the building materials durable and
economical, and helping the environment [107e114]. This
literature review covers a variety of slags, their physical and
mechanical properties, strength conditions, behaviours
mechanism, as well as their applications in construction in-
dustries. Recent developments in research and development
are hopefully going to shed light on the potential of slags as
raw materials for creating greener and more sustainable
concrete composites.
2. Development of sustainable construction
materials using various slags
2.1. Methodology for developing sustainable building
materials
Fig. 4 depicts how research begins by examining cupola slag, a
waste product used to make concrete, mortar, granular col-
umns, pavement, and cementitious mixtures. Several
5825
researchers were evaluated to understand more about cupola
slag as a by-product that can replace aggregate, cement, and
other materials [25e34]. Then, various iron or steel industry
waste materials were compared to cupola slag. GGBFS, EAFS,
and steel furnace slag (SFS). Fig. 5 shows how to make eco-
friendly bricks, pavers, concrete, and mortar. A specific slag is
collected from the relevant manufacturing industry in the form
of large, dry lumps. The dehydrated samples were crumpled to
reduce the size of large and uneven particles [4,7]. The raw
materials are analysed by X-ray fluorescence, scanning elec-
tron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric or dif-
ferential thermal analysis. The raw ingredients were mixed by
hand and machine [5,6]. The mixture is subsequently com-
pressed and moulded. Depending on the parameters, samples
were oven-dried or sun-dried (Tables 1e3). Eco-friendly mate-
rials were tested for compressive strength, porosity, shrinkage,
flexure strength, water absorption and density.
2.2. Material characterization
2.2.1. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
A SEM analysis can be used to better understand the micro-
structural properties of a substance [8,25,45,66]. Cupola slag is
visible in concrete as irregular and angular grains spread
throughout a grey matrix of hydration products and a thick
microstructure, as seen in Fig. 6(a) [8,25,45,66]. CeSeH and
cupola slag particles are evident in a matrix of rod-shaped
gypsum and ettringite crystals [25]. The lack of hydration
product rims on the grains of cupola slag suggests a
dissolution-precipitation process [45]. The microstructural
characteristics depend on the formulation of composite
5826 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5

Table 1 e Development of Sustainable Concrete for various slags.

Slag Product Sample Replaced % Utilized Curing (days) Different tests References
size (mm) with conducted
Cupola Slag Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Coarse Aggregate 5e20 7 and 28 CS, STS [5]
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Fine and Coarse 20e40 7 CS [6]
Aggregate
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Coarse Aggregate 2e10 28 and 56 CS and STS [7]
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Coarse Aggregate 10e100 7, 14 and 28 CS, STS [9]
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Coarse Aggregate 20e100 7 and 28 CS, STS, FT, RCPT [10]
and cement
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Coarse Aggregate 7, 14 and 28 CS, STS, FT, RCPT, [11]
Sorptivity, Acid attack
Mortar cubes 100x100x100 Cement 10e30 7,28,90,180,365 CS, STS [12]
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Cement 2e10 7, 14 and 28 CS [14]
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Coarse Aggregate 7,28 CS [15]
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Aggregate 7,28,90,180,365 CS, Modulus of elasticity [16]
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Cement 5e15 28 CS [17]
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Cement 15e35 7,14, 28 CS, AR [18]
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Coarse Aggregate 10e100 28 CS [20]
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Coarse and fine 5e100 28 CS, STS [21]
Aggregate
Electric Arc Concrete Cubes 100x100x100 Coarse Aggregate 5e100 3,7,28, 91 CS, AR [23]
Furnace Slag Concrete Cubes 100x100 Coarse Aggregate e 28,90 CS, Modulus of [24]
elasticity, Leaching
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Coarse and fine 25e100 28 CS,FT, STS Fracture [25]
Aggregate toughness
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Coarse Aggregate 28,90 CS, STS, elastic modulus [28]
Concrete Cubes 100x100x100 Cement 5e20 3,7,28,60,90 CS, WA, Permeability [31]
Concrete Cubes e Coarse Aggregate 70e90 4,7,14,28,60 CS, FT, Permeability [32]
Concrete Cubes 100x100x100 Coarse Aggregate 7,28,90, 180 CS, density [34]
Concrete Cubes 150x150x150 Coarse Aggregate 70e90 28 CS,FT, Water [36]
Permeability
Concrete Cubes 100x100x100 Coarse and fine 10e50 7,28,90,180,360 CS,STS [38]
Aggregate
Ground Concrete cubes 140x140x140 Coarse Aggregate 10e50 28 CS, Bond test [40]
Granulated Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Cement 7,14,28 CS, Workability [41]
Blast Furnace Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Cement 40e60 3,7,28 CS, STS, FT [42]
Slag Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Cement 7,14,28 CS,FT [44]
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Coarse and fine 20e60 28 CS,FT, STS [45]
Aggregate
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Fine aggregate 7,28 Workability, density, [46]
CS,FT, STS,WA
Concrete Cubes 100x100x100 Coarse Aggregate 7,28 CS, STS, Porosity, [49]
modulus of elasticity
Concrete Cubes 100x100x100 Coarse Aggregate 28 CS [50]
Road concrete e Coarse Aggregate 20e60 7,28,90 Density, WA, Freeze- [51]
thaw cycles
Concrete Cubes e Cement 10e50 7,28 CS, thermal analysis [52]
Concrete Cubes 100x100x100
Fine Aggregate 30e100 3,7,28 CS,FT, STS, RCPT [55]
Concrete Cubes 100x100x100
Cement 3,28,91 CS, isothermal property [56]
Steel Furnace Concrete Cubes 100x100x100
Cement 5e35 3,7,28,60 CS,FT, [59]
Slag Concrete Cubes e Coarse Aggregate e 14,28 CS, Sieve analysis [60]
Concrete Cubes 100x100x100
Cement 20e40 7,28 CS, STS,UPV,shrinkage [61]
Concrete Cubes 40x40x160
Coarse Aggregate 20e45 7,28,56,90 CS, WA, FT, STS, density [62]
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150
Coarse Aggregate 10e50 7,28 CS, FT, STS [65]
Concrete Cubes e Coarse Aggregate 20e45 7,28,56,90 CS, WA, FT, STS, density [66]
Concrete Cubes 100x100x100
Coarse Aggregate 20e35 3,7,28 CS, Porosity [67]
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150
Coarse and fine 3,7,28,90 CS,FT,ST, freeze thaw [72]
Aggregate resistance
Concrete Cubes 100x100x100 Cement 10e30 1,3,7,14,28 CS, Heat flow [74]
Concrete Cubes 150X150X150 Fine Aggregate 10e100 28 CS [75]

cement [8]. Cupola slag particles react to form chemicals in aluminosilicates [12]. Fig. 6(b) shows that compared to river
the shape of parallel hexagonal plates, which are subse- particles, EAF slag was smaller and smoother, indicating that
quently perfectly combined into the mixture and grouped EAF had a greater specific surface area. Based on the evidence
with the cement hydration products known as calcium of SEM images, the results reveal that the uneven shape of
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5 5827

Table 2 e Development of Sustainable Mortar for different Slags.

Slag Product Sample Replaced % Utilized Curing (days) Different tests References
size (mm) with conducted
Cupola Slag Mortar cubes e Cement 5e40 28 CS [19]
Electric Arc Furnace Slag Mortar cubes 160X40X40 Cement e 7, 28 CS, FT [22]
Mortar cubes 80x40 Cement e 28 CS, STS [26]
Mortar 40x40x40 Coarse Aggregate 10e100 7,14,28 CS, FT [27]
Mortar 40X40X160 Fine aggregate 25e100 7,28,56 CS, WA, Density [30]
Mortar cubes e Cement 25e50 7,28,56 CS, FT, [33]
Mortar 25x25x250 Coarse Aggregate 3,7,28,90180,360 CS, FT, UPV [39]
Ground Granulated Blast Mortar cubes 70.7x70.7x70.7 Cement 10e40 14,28,42,56 CS, WA [47]
Furnace Slag Mortar cubes 40x40x160 Cement 25e75 28 CS, WA, Porosity [48]
Mortar cubes e Cement 50e90 3,7,28,56 CS, WA, UPV [53]
Steel Furnace Slag Mortar cubes 25 x25 285 Fine Aggregate 25e100 7,14,28 CS, UPV [58]
Mortar cubes 40x40x160 Fine Aggregate e 3,7,28 CS, WA [69]

EAFS granules improves their adhesion to cement paste [25].
The amount of EAF slag accelerated the reaction, which may
have been induced by the enhanced and reinforced structure
of the geopolymer [37]. A SEM micrograph of GGBFS shows
that the interaction between phases of the materials has a
higher level of consistency than the control and ESP samples.
It can be determined that partial mineral admixture
replacement improves the interfacial connections among the
many constituents of concrete [44]. GGBFS is made up of
particles with a variety of sizes and shapes as well as a rela-
tively smooth surface, as given in Fig. 6(c) [45]. SEM images of
steel furnace slag (SFS) revealed that the material had a rough
shape and micro-pores on its surface [66]. The presence of
microscopic apertures on the interface was disclosed in the
image of the concrete mix as seen through a scanning elec-
tron microscope (SEM) with 40% steel slag, whereas the
openings were more visible in the SEM image with 100% steel
slag. The existence of openings appears to grow as the steel
slag level in the concrete mixes increases, causing a drop in
strength as seen in the prior results, shown in SEM images
[68]. Samples cured for 28 days have a substantially thicker
microstructure than specimens cured for 3 days. Addition-
ally, the researcher also highlights that when steel slag is
mixed to ultra-high-performance concrete, the microstruc-
ture becomes looser, with greater space between hydration
products, which could be related to steel slag's reduced
hydraulicity as seen in SEM Fig. 6(d) [74]. The granular inter-
face structure is visible in the SEM images of all of the slags,
which will be necessary for any construction material to
reach the correct amount of compaction.
2.2.2. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
Cupola slag XRD patterns reveal the creation of ettringite,
gypsum, and CSH gel. In concrete made with cupola slag, XRD
analysis suggests that quartz (Q) is the most abundant. Calcite
(Cc) and Anorthite (An) composition are less significant. Ac-
cording to the XRD patterns [16] shown in Fig. 7 (a), Portlandite
is thought to produce calcite as a byproduct of carbonation
before forming aggregates, and Ca(OH)2 appears to be the
dominant ray in portlandite. XRD patterns of EAFD used in
mortar reveal five primary phases: zinc ferrite (ZnFe2O4), cal-
cium ferrite (CaFe2O4), zinc oxide (ZnO), lime, and magnetite
(Fe3O4) [22,33]. According to XRD patterns, portlandite is
responsible for the expansion of EAF aggregate [23]. Fig. 6(a) of
the XRD demonstrates that the substitution of EAFS does not
stop the hydration process, which results in the continued
formation of hydrates and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2).
Therefore, replacing EAFS with natural aggregate wouldn't
significantly slow down the hardening process [27]. Semi-
crystalline CSH phases predominated in the geopolymer
brick samples as CaO content rose from 10% to 20% and
increased to 30% [37]. Quartz is the predominant silica phase
in GGBFS, according to strong peaks in the plotted diffracto-
gram at 24.3, 28.22, 30.7, and 41.6
. Silica dominates the
amorphous diffraction pattern, but there are a few peaks of
crystalline silica as well [41]. Fig. 7(b) shows an XRD of GGBFS
and shows a noticeable diffusive hump between (23e35)0
Celsius [45]. The mineral components of treated stainless steel
oxidizing slag (SSOS) change as treatment times change, ac-
cording to XRD analyses. The magnesium oxide and calcium
hydroxide concentrations in one-month-treated steel slag
were observed to be comparatively high. When the exposure
period was extended to eight months, the highest calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) peaks were seen, indicating the presence of
a carbonation reaction [58]. The XRD pattern of portlandite,
which contains 35% high-phosphorus SS, shows clear changes
among the hydration products [59]. While peak intensities for
C3S, C2S, MgO, and CaO in steel slag gradually reduced as
carbonation progressed, they significantly increased for the
corresponding carbonation product, CaCO3. The production of
CaCO3 increased over time during the carbonation procedure,
as shown in Fig. 7(c) [64]. Although C2S is present (as shown by
XRD patterns), the steel slag is unable to produce cementitious
properties in the absence of C3S and the abundance of iron
oxides. The XRD pattern of various slags reveals the presence
of a sizable amount of cementitious chemical compounds,
indicating the possibility of using these slags as additional
cementitious materials.
2.2.3. X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)
X-Ray Fluorescence is a method for determining the
elemental composition of materials. SiO2 and Al2O3 make up
the majority of the chemical composition. Higher quantities
of cementitious hydration products were formed when Al2O3
and MgO were present [8]. The presence of great concentra-
tions of calcium, aluminum oxides, and silicon in the cupola
slag is an indication of the material's potential reactivity
because it is in a condition of amorphousness [12]. According
5828 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5

Table 3 e Development of Sustainable Bricks/Paver blocks using various Slags.

Slag Product Sample Replaced with % Utilized Curing (days) Different tests References
size (mm) conducted
Cupola Slag Bituminous e Aggregates 5e10 e Void test, water [4]
Pavement sensitivity test,
wheel tracking test
Cementitious e Cement 10e80 28 and 90 CS [8]
Blends
Electric Arc Paving blocks 200X100X60 Coarse Aggregate 25e100 7,28 CS, WA, UPV [29]
Furnace Slag Sandcrete blocks 100x100x100 cement 10e50 7,14,21,28,90 CS, density [35]
Bricks e Fine Aggregate 10e30 28 CS [37]
Ground Bricks 50x50x50 Fine Aggregate 10e30 3,7,28 CS, WA [54]
Granulated Earth blocks 305x143x105 Fine Aggregate 5e45 28 CS, WA, density [57]
Blast Furnace
Slag
Steel Furnace Bricks 190x190x88 Fine Aggregate 7.5e25 7 CS, Porosity, freeze [64]
Slag thaw resistance
Paver Blocks 170x170x60 Fine Aggregate 20e100 7,28 CS, WA, STS, Density [68]
Bricks 40x40x160 Fine Aggregate e e CS, FT [70]
Bricks 40x40x160 Fine Aggregate e curing at CS, FT, WA, drying [71]
60% ± 5%RH and shrinkage
20 ± 5
C

*Split tensile strength-STS, Compressive strength-CS, Abrasion resistance-AR, Water absorption-WA, Flexural strength-FT, Rapid chloride
permeability test-RCPT, ultra-sonic pulse velocity eUPV.

Fig. 6 e SEM images of various slags studied by various researchers [8,25,45,66].

 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
to ASTM C618, the summation of Al2O3, SiO2, and Fe2O3 must
account for a minimum of 70% of the total oxide for a sub-
stance to be considered pozzolana. Chemical constituents
show that the addition of these three oxides to cupola furnace
slag was 85.2% which meets the standard requirements. For
cupola furnace slag, the loss on ignition (LOI) was 9.93%. This
value is lower than the ASTM C618 maximum requirement of
10% for pozzolana. As a result of the chemical tests, cupola
furnace slag can be classified as a pozzolana [17,19]. Cupola
slag contains a larger amount of SiO2, which helps revels
binding properties. It also consists of a significant amount of
CaO, Al2O3, and Fe2O3, which shows that it can be used as a
building material. According to the XRF test, in EAFS, the total
amount of Fe2O3, SiO2, and Al2O3 was found to be 74.64%, and
this shows that it is in a similar range as per previous studies
[31]. The more CaO content in the GGBFS was significant in
the compaction of hydrated gels, resulting in better pore
refinement [53,54]. XRF of steel slag shows the chemical
compositions of slag, the main components (72.2%) are SiO2
and CaO respectively [58,70]. The use of XRF to analyse the
Fig. 7 e XRD for various slag [27,45,75].
5829
chemical composition of various slag reveals a significant
concentration of silica, alumina, calcium oxide, and iron
oxide. As a result, these slags can be included in a wide range
of structural components.
2.2.4. Thermogravimetry differential thermal analysis
(TGDTA)
Thermodynamic data on raw materials is provided by ther-
mogravimetry DTA curves which suggest the existence of
endotherms below 100e200
C, endotherms with a peak
maximum at 454.0
C for CC (control concrete), and 472.4
C
for CFSC (Cupola Foundry Slag Concrete). In the CC and CFSC
microstructures, there are equal concentrations of gel-like
hydration products and portlandite. In comparison to CFSC,
reaction heat reveals that bound water release from gel-like
hydration products (quoted as the CeSeH phase) requires
more energy (J/mg) in CC. Ca(OH)2 is more strongly bound in
CFSC than in CC. Both microstructures of concrete show a
compact and firm CeSeH phase, as well as a well-developed
portlandite Ca(OH)2 [16]. DSC-TG curves of unmineralized
5830 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5

2.3.1. Colour and bulk density

Table 4 e Range of physical properties of slags.
As shown in Fig. 8(a), cupola slag has a black appearance and a
Property Cupola slag EAFS GGBFS SFS density ranging from 1640 to 2690 kg/m3. While EAFS and SFS
Colour Black Grey Off white Grey are grey in colour as presented in Fig. 8(b) and (d) and have
Bulk Density 1640e2690 1686e3809 1220e2386 1710e3820 bulk densities ranges given in Table 4 [23,62]. According to
(kg/m3) Fig. 8(c) [56], the density of GGBFS ranges from 1220 to 2386 kg/
Specific 2.5e2.93 3.2e3.44 2.8e2.93 2.69e3.29
m3, and its colour is off-white. The bulk density of cupola slag
Gravity
Fineness 3.53e8.656 2.65e3.9 2.42e2.86 2.68e5
demonstrates that concrete became denser because of the
Modulus partial substitution of OPC with furnace slag [17]. EAF slag has
a density that is similar to heavyweight concrete's aggregate
and microbially unmineralized steel slag bricks: two endo- density [24]. Steel slag improved the total density of both fresh
thermic peaks can be seen on the DSC curve, around and cured concrete because it is denser than natural aggregate
425e435
C and 720e730
C respectively, reflecting Ca(OH)2 [25]. Because of the decrease in bulk density, it is possible that
dehydration and CaCO3, decarbonization, with weight losses pores grew larger as EAFD concentration rose [30]. Due to
of 3.35%, 7.8%, and 2.70%, 9.28% (as measured in the TG curve) GGBFS's reduced specific gravity, concrete loses density [45].
[70]. Two endothermic peaks can be seen on the DTA curve, The greater density of the steel slag particles could result in
about 650e725
C and 725e900
C, representing the decar- heavier concrete [63].
bonation of MgCO3 and CaCO3, respectively, with weight los-
ses of 2.8% and 13.4% (as measured in the TG curve). As a 2.3.2. Specific gravity and fineness modulus
result, the overall weight loss owing to carbonate de- The range of specific gravity and fineness modulus for various
carbonation is 16.2% [71]. According to the TGDTA curve, slags is shown in Table 4. The specific gravity was determined
these waste materials were stable at higher degrees of tem- by dividing the sample's weight by the weight of an equal
perature and had less weight loss. volume of water. As mentioned in BS 812: Part 101 (1985) [14],
the fineness modulus reveals that the cupola slag possesses
2.3. Physical properties of various slags excellent qualities. The aggregate specific gravity of cupola
slag is suitable for creating standard concrete [17]. EAFS's
Table 4 shows that the physical properties of various slags are fineness modulus ranges from 3.22 to 3.44. Due to the high
significantly influenced by the bulk density, colour, specific specific gravity of air-cooled blast boiler slag, the volume ratio
gravity, fineness modulus, and particle size distribution. of fine aggregate in the mixture will decrease and the paste

Fig. 8 e Physical appearance of various slags [20,23,56,62].

 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
content will increase, which will have a significant effect on
the flowability [48]. Due to its high iron concentration, steel
slag has a higher specific gravity [63].
2.3.3. Particle size distribution
Fig. 9 represents the particle size distribution curve for several
slags. The particle size distribution represents the relative
proportions of various grain sizes within a substance [30].
EAFD with finer particle size dispersion. The particle size
distribution of GGBFS was d10e4.6 mm, d50e21.6 mm, and
d90e217.9 mm [41]. The alkali activation reaction dissolves
the minor particle size and amorphous nature of GGBFS
powder, rendering it more uniform and denser [53]. Using
steel slag with an average particle size of 75,3 m [64], After
carbonization for 7 days, the difference in compressive
strength between hollow and solid bricks made with various
mix amounts was studied.
3. Mechanical properties
3.1. Application of various slags for the development of
sustainable concrete
3.1.1. Compressive strength
Fig. 10 reveals that coarse materials are partially substituted
with cupola slag in the manufacture of concrete. Maximum
compressive strength was achieved when 15%e20% of the
aggregate was replaced with cupola slag. There is no decrease
in compressive strength when 15% of the coarse aggregate is
replaced with cupola slag compared to control concrete. The
maximum compressive strength of M25 grades of concrete is
35.33 N/mm2 when coarse material is substituted with 40%
cupola slag. When 40% of the coarse aggregate is substituted
with cupola slag, the compressive strength of the concrete
decreases. In terms of curing ACC, 60% replenishment provides
more strength. Maximum compressive strength is 31.555 N/
mm2 for M20 grade when coarse aggregates are replaced by 5%
Fig. 9 e Particle size distribution curve.
5831
cupola slag; however, the required strength is achieved up to
20% replacement [5,9e11,20,21]. When ground cupola boiler
slag (GCFS) is substituted for cement, the compressive strength
of the concrete mixture at 28 days increases as the GCFS con-
tent increases at temperatures higher than ordinary concrete.
Again, at 0% GCFS, the compressive intensity of 56-D material
at 200
C was reduced by 23.78% compared to 14.3 N/mm2 at
room temperature [7]. A reference was made to the compres-
sive strength of SAC (slag aggregate concrete) without cement
replacement. SAC With 2% cement substitution, 0.68 N/mm2
increased by 2.27% [14]. When 5% GCFS replaces cement in
concrete, the compressive strength after 28 days of curing in-
creases when cupola slag is used in place of cement. For 0%
and 5% replacement, the obtained compressive strengths were
22.6 N/mm2 and 26.5 N/mm2, which is a 17.3% increase over
typical concrete. Last but not least, 15% GCFS resulted in a
compressive intensity of 29.8 N/mm2, a 7.2 N/mm2 or 31.9%
increase over the reference value. The cupola boiler slag filled
concrete voids and absorbed water that would have otherwise
been part of the empty volume, making the concrete less
permeable and maybe boosting its compressive strength. The
low permeability has the potential to reduce chloride and
sulphate ion infiltration into the concrete, hence increasing the
longevity of the concrete [17,18].
When EAFS is utilized as an aggregate in concrete, the
compressive strength rises, as seen in Fig. 10. It was found that
pervious concrete comprising EAFS had stronger compressive
strength and water permeability than pervious concrete made
with gravel [23,25,28,31,32,34,36]. Increased steel sludge and
EAFS replacement in concrete impacted workability, but no
decrease in concrete strength was seen up to 10% replacement.
At a later age, both materials exhibit excellent strength. EAFS
concrete has more silica oxide (SiO2) than steel sludge, which
can contribute to its potent pozzolanic activity (Table 5). The
crystalline structure of EAFS' mineral composition also con-
tributes to the material's excellent compressive strength [31].
In addition, EAFS can be utilized efficiently in the production of
high-capacity batches of hydraulic concrete with good
5832 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
Fig. 10 e Compressive strength of concrete containing various slags.
mechanical qualities [38]. GGBFS is used in concrete to partially
replace cement, as depicted in Fig. 10. The compressive
strength of GGBFS has a similar trend, increasing up to a
certain replacement percentage. This is because the material
contains silica and alumina (Table 6) [41e46,49,51,52,56]. Finley
ground blast furnace slag can be utilized as a fine aggregate
and mineral component in the construction of normal and
high-strength concrete [42]. The combination of manufactured
sand with GBFS generates a greater compressive strength than
river sand [55].
Additional cementitious materials can bolster the struc-
ture's strength (Fig. 10). Physical and mechanical properties
must be considered when producing steel slag heavyweight
concrete [59]. Cementitious composites with 35% SS had a
lower compressive strength than control specimens. When
steel slag is added to high-density geopolymer concrete and
ordinary concrete, the compressive strength improves as the
curing time increases [60,61,67]. Replacement of aggregate
with steel slag increases compressive strength by up to 40%
[65]. The compressive strength of concrete reduced when steel
slag is employed as a fine and coarse aggregate [72]. Steel slag
binders hinder cement hydration, resulting in a decrease in
initial compressive strength [74,75].
3.1.2. Flexural strength
Fig. 11 demonstrates that when coarse aggregate is replaced
with 40% cupola slag, the maximum value of flexural tensile
strength attained for M25 grades of concrete is 5.04 N/mm2
40% replacement of coarse material with cupola slag reduces
the flexural strength of concrete [10]. The flexural strength of
concrete including Cupola slag as an aggregate diminishes
due to the slag's higher crushing value [11,16]. Higher free CaO
concentrations (Table 5), which promote expansion and more
micro-cracks, and EAF's angular, rough, and porous structure
led to poor mechanical properties of the RCC mixture when
fine EAF slag was added. Improved aggregate interlock leads to
improved mechanical properties of RCC with coarse EAF slag
[25]. The results indicate that the addition of 25% fine EAF
reduced flexural strength by just 3%. The use of fine EAF slag
aggregate in place of 50% coarse natural aggregate signifi-
cantly decreased flexural strength by 28%. The flexural
strength of EAFS constructed with pervious concrete was
higher than that of pervious concrete made with gravel [32,38].
If 50% of the cement in concrete manufacture is replaced with
GGBS, the overall flexural strength of a 50% replacement
specimen is 6.28 MPa compared to 5.2 MPa for a controlled
specimen [42,44]. When GGBS is employed as a replacement
aggregate in concrete [46,55], flexural strength increases up to
a certain degree. The flexural strength of SFS aggregate is
greater than its split tensile strength [59,74,75]. As the amount
of steel slag in the fine aggregate increases up to 40% by weight
[65], flexural strength increases.
3.1.3. Split tensile strength
Fig. 12 indicates that the maximum split tensile strength for
cupola slag occurs when it is substituted with 15% and 20%
coarse aggregate [5,7,9]. As the temperature rose, the tensile
strength of the split concrete dropped. The M20 and M25
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
Table 5 e Chemical constituents of Cupola slag and electric arc furnace slag.
Content/ CaO% SiO2% Al2O3% Fe2O3% MgO% Na2O % SO3% K2O% MnO% TiO2% CR2O3%- ZnO% PbO2% CdO% NiO% CuO% Cl% P2O5% LOI% FeO% Mn3O4% Specific Density References
Slag Gravity- (kg/m3)
type

Cupola 24.4 45.4 9.94 4.32 5.82 0.69 0.1 2.18 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 1640 [7]
Slag 46.7 40.8 6.4 e 1.2 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e [8]
21.2 48.7 11.8 11.1 1.3 e e 1.4 e e e e e e e e e e e e e 2.93 1640 [9]
9.38 56.3 10.2 16 2.26 0.45 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 2.5 1640 [10]
14.5 45 9.5 23.5 2.35 0.5 e 0 2.9 1 0.3 e e e e e e e e e e 2.5 1640 [11]
25.4 45 13.8 3.54 10.6 0.37 e e e e e e e e e e e e 0.99 e e e 2690 [16]
7.26 50 24.3 15.5 2.14 0.78 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e [19]
14.3 45 9.5 23.5 2.35 0.5 e 0.2 2.9 1 0.3 e e e e e e e e e e 2.5 1640 [20]
Electric 13.3 3.89 35.9 2.52 e 1.07 e 3.92 e 0.85 31.34 1.72 0.09 0.44 0.26 2.06 e e e e e 3488 [22]
Arc 25.9 16.3 8.31 34.7 6.86 0.3 e 0.1 5.18 1.98 e e e e e e e 0.25 e e e 3.4 1686 [23]
Furnace 33.3 19.5 4.88 25.9 4.25 0.45 2.25 0.59 e 1.11 e 0.13 e e e e e 0.39 5.31 e e 3.44 e [25]
Slag 2.93 2.649 0.942 30.48 1.67 2.59 2.21 1.96 2.51 0.067 0.5 32.77 e 0.037 e e e 0.2 e e e e 3809 [26]
34.9 18.7 11.6 16.7 6.7 0.11 0.74 0.02 2.64 0.38 0.9 e e e e e e 0.34 e e e 3.2 e [27]
16.9 26.4 4.84 43.4 1.86 0.15 e e 2.66 e e e e e e e e e e e e [31]
23.4 21.4 6.09 8.32 e 0.03 e e e 2 e e e e e e e 18.87 e e e [32]
4.81 3.34 1.04 29.88 1.58 3.24 2.6 2.25 3.08 0.1 0.56 38.27 2.92 0.09 0.04 e e 0.3 e e e 3.7 e [33]
32.9 20.3 12.2 22.3 3 e 0.42 e 5.1 0.8 e e e e e e e 0.5 e e e 3.42 e [34]
34 19.3 6.4 18.7 13.6 e e e 2.18 e e e e e e e e e e e 1650 [35]
23.4 21.38 6.09 e 8.32 e 0.03 e e e e e e e e e e e e 18.87 e 3.41 e [36]
19.4 11.8 5.83 32.7 3.63 e 0.205 e 5.33 0.528 2.23 e e e e e 0.311 e e e e e [37]
32.9 20.3 12.2 22.3 3 e 0.42 e 5.1 0.8 2 e e e e e e 0.5 e e e 3.42 e [38]
32.9 20.3 12.2 22.3 3 e 0.42 e 5.1 0.8 2 e e e e e e 0.5 e e e 3.42 3540 [39]

5833
 5834
j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
Table 6 e Chemical composition of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag and Steel Furnace Slag.
Content CaO SiO2% Al2O3% Fe2O3% MgO Na2O SO3% K2O MnO TiO2% CR2O3 ZnO PbO2% CdO NiO CuO Cl P2O5% LOI FeO Mn3O4% Specific Density References
% % % % % %- % % % % % % % Gravity- (kg/m3)
Ground 30.87 37.21 15.26 3.74 10 e 0.21 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e [40]
Granulated 33 34 14 4 7 e e e e e e e e e e e e e 0.8 e e 2.82 e [45]
Blast 42.8 33.1 13.3 0.69 5.57 0.27 1.81 0.21 e e e e e e e e e 0.01 e e e e 2386 [46]
Furnace 42.51 33.65 15.28 0.46 4.06 0.2 2.37 0.52 e e e e e e e e e e 0.95 e e e e [47]
Slag 53.3 26.1 11.7 6 e 1.5 0.3 e 0.7 e e e e e e e e 0.9 e e e e [48]
43.3 36.7 10.8 0.48 3.21 0.18 0.53 0.17 e e e e e e e e 0.04 e e e e 2.91 e [49]
45.5 31.1 13.1 0.25 7 0.28 0.95 0.39 e e e e e e e e e e 0.32 0.22 e 2.93 e [50]
41 35.6 11.3 0.5 6.5 0.6 0.9 0.3 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e [53]
39.9 38.1 7.98 0.43 9.23 0.18 1.42 e e e e e e e e 0.14 e e e e e [55]
63.7 19 4.89 2.95 1.3 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 2.8 1220 [56]
41 35.3 13.5 0.17 7.2 e 3.53 0.8 e e e e e e e e e e 5.61 e e e e [57]
Steel 39.78 32.42 3.76 e 6.9 e e e e e 5 e e e e e e e e e e e e [58]
Furnace 44.53 31.52 12.22 1.14 4.62 0.21 3.24 e e 1.03 e e e e e e e e 0.79 e e 2.8 e [60]
Slag 35.73 34.62 11.83 2.73 9.83 e 1.42 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 2.87 e [61]
40.06 16.9 4.76 21.87 10.45 e e e 0.82 e e e e e e e e e e e e e 3820 [63]
39.5 17.9 5.66 23 1.71 e 0.45 e e 0.78 e e e e e e e e 2.88 e e e 3200 [64]
29.99 17.31 4.67 27.33 5.39 0.08 e 0.08 5.03 e e e e e e e e 1.08 e e e e e [66]
39.2 13.2 4.59 30.3 3.87 0.28 0.94 0.03 2.88 0.64 e e e e e e e e 2.65 e e e 2070 [67]
33.1 37 6 18.2 e e e 0.6 e e e e e e e e e e e e e 2.69 1710 [68]
34.29 26.31 10.96 18.82 5.91 0.25 1.73 0.14 e e e e e e e e e 0.78 0.81- e e 3.27 e [69]
43.7 13.1 5.1 27 e e 0.6 e e e e e e e e e e 7.2 e e e e e [70]
40.61 12.12 4.72 17.09 10.34 e 0.17 e 2.52 0.76 e e e e e e e e 2.1 e e e 3290 [71]
24.62 17.79 7.82 35.22 e 0.74 0.13 e e e e e e e e 0.06 e e e e 3.29 e [72]
39.68 13.32 3.19 25.44 9.32 0.16 0.15 0.02 e 1.07 e e e e e e e 1.81 e e 4.84 e 3290 [73]
46.04 20.92 5.33 14.79 3.21 0.088 0.518 0.201 0.347 0.98 e e e e e e e 1.72 4.66 e e 3.1 e [74]
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
Fig. 11 e Flexural strength of concrete incorporating various Slags.
grades achieved full split tensile strength with 5% and 15% fine
aggregate replacement, respectively. As in both grades of
concrete, when cupola slag is substituted for coarse aggregate,
the split tensile strength diminishes steadily [21]. For EAFS
split aggregates, tensile strength findings are superior to
compressive strength [25,28,32]. When GGBS is used as a
partial replacement for cement and fine aggregate in concrete,
the resulting split tensile strength is comparable to that of
conventional concrete [42,45,46,49]. When steel slag is used as
a partial replacement for cement in concrete, the split tensile
strength values are comparable to those of controlled-cure
concrete on later curing days. The value of split tensile
strength decreases during the early curing days. Due to the
mutual activation of slag and latent hydraulic property
strength is enhanced [60,61,66,67,72]. Similar trends were re-
ported for split tensile strength, which rose up to 40%with
steel slag replacement [65].
3.1.4. Rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT)/Acid attack
According to RCPT (ASTM C1202), the attained value for cupola
slag-added concrete is "moderate." Consequently, it suggests
that slag-added concrete has less permeability. The essential
observation is that adding slag to concrete reduces its porosity
and makes it impermeable [10]. Durability studies revealed
that the favourable qualities of cupola slag aggregate concrete
include increased resilience to a harsh environment,
decreased water absorption, and chloride content within the
permitted limits of ASTM-C:1202 for superior concrete [11].
5835
3.1.5. Modulus of elasticity and abrasion resistance
Resistance to abrasion is determined by the particle size and
composition of cupola slag [18]. The incorporation of EAF slag
as a natural aggregate enhances the water absorption and
abrasion resistance of roller-compacted concrete pavement.
This may be due to the slag's high water absorption and rough
surface. The abrasion resistance and water absorption of the
slag-RCCP were significantly enhanced by substituting 20% of
the cement with fly ash [23]. When coarse material is totally
substituted with EAF slag, the compressive, tensile, and elastic
modulus strengths of concrete all increase [28]. Increasing the
sodium hydroxide molarity raises the modulus of elasticity of
Na2SiO3/NaOH. Young's modulus decreases as the Al/Slag
ratio and cure temperature increase [49].
3.2. Utilization of various slags to develop sustainable
mortar
3.2.1. Compressive strength
As shown in Fig. 13, the compressive strength of various slags
reveals the presence of high silica content and other
elemental composition. Mortar made of cement and cupola
slag was used in place of some of the cement. Studies high-
light that Cupola slag can be used as a substitute for 5%e40%
of the cement in a cement mortar mixture ratio, and the re-
sults show that after 7 days, the compressive strength was
greater than it had been after 14 days [19]. When the water
cement is raised, the compressive strength of electric arc
5836 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
Fig. 12 e Split Tensile strength of concrete incorporating various slags.
furnace dust (EAFD) mortar decreases from 5% to 10%. The
initial loss of strength occurs after 7 days of curing, and a
subsequent loss of 33e43% takes place after 28 days. For
mortars with 5% EAFD, maximum strength gains of 5.2% at 7
days and 2.8% at 28 days have been recorded [22,26]. For
mortars with 10% EAFD, maximum strength losses of 3.0% at 7
days and 4.3% at 28 days have been noted. The compressive
strength of the mortar with 40% EAFS aggregate content,
which shows an optimum value of 59.2 MPa, has increased by
about 18% in comparison to the mortar without EAFS [27]. The
compressive strengths of the mortars with 50% and 100%
EAFD did not exceed 7 MPa at any curing time due to the
higher heavy metal content. Cement hydration may take
longer, limiting any compressive strength growth before 56
days. Based on compressive strength data, the use of EAFD is
recommended up to a replacement rate of 25%. Furthermore,
mechanical behaviour was linked to shrinkage detected in
EAFD mortars. The mortars with the least shrinkage had the
highest compressive strength [30]. The compressive strength
of concrete with EAF aggregates increases as the number of
curing days increases from 3 to 360 days, and the highest re-
ported compressive strength was 49.1 MPa after curing for 28
days [39].
The samples were pre-cracked after standard curing for 1
and 28 days and then cured under water immersion condi-
tions for 28 and 56 days, with compressive strength testing to
verify mechanical property recovery. Because the GBFS
pozzolanic activity response requires the availability of
Ca(OH)2, pre-cracked specimens containing CA (crystalline
admixture) exhibit higher compressive strength after water
curing than specimens without CA. The amount of GBFS in the
matrix is too high; the amount of Ca(OH)2 formed by hydration
will drop because of the lower cement content, and as a result,
GBFS activity will not be adequately stimulated. As a result, as
the GBFS content rises, compressive strength rises at first,
then declines [47]. The mechanical characteristics of the
specimens extensively increase when the ACBFS replacement
rate increases. The compressive strengths improve by 34.52%
when natural sand is totally replaced by ACBFS. This is due to
the chemical properties and physical (Table 6) of ACBFS [48].
GGBS was used to replace waste brick powder; the compres-
sive strength of this mortar was within the permissible range
[53]. When steel slag is used instead of natural sand in com-
bination, the compressive strength of a slag-based mortar is
increased [58,69].
3.2.2. Flexural strength
Fig. 14 explains the flexural strength values, which increase as
the w/b ratio decreases. When the w/b ratio is reduced from
0.70 to 0.35, the flexural strength values of reference mortar,
5% EAFD mortar, and 10% EAFD mortar, cured for 7 days, rise
from around 6 to 8.6 MPa, from 6.2 to 8.3 MPa, and from 5.8 to
8.3 MPa, respectively. The intensity of these mixtures in-
creases further when the curing time is increased to 28 days,
reaching values of 9 MPa for the control sample, 9.2 MPa for 5%
EAFD, and 8.9 MPa for 10% EAFD mortars. When 5% EAFD is
used, there is a marginally positive effect; however, 10% EAFD
mortars have a flexural strength reduction of up to 4% [22].
The mortar's flexural tensile strength with 40% EAFS aggre-
gate material, shows the best performance, increased by
about 30% (3.92 MPa) over the mortar without EAFS aggregate
(3.12 MPa) [27]. The flexural strength of mortar decreases as
the percentage of EAFS aggregate increases. As the number of
curing days increases, flexural strength increases [39]. The
flexural strength of the alkali-activated mortars increases
considerably as the ACBFS replacement proportion increases.
j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5 5837

Fig. 13 e Mortar's compressive strength after integrating various slags.

Fig. 14 e Flexural strength of Mortar incorporating various slags.

5838 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
The flexural strength of the samples increases by 25.18% when
machine-made sand is fully replaced by ACBFS. This is mostly
due to ACBFS's chemical and physical properties (Table 5) [48].
Flexural strength shows similar trends as compressive
strength when steel slag is used in a mortar [69].
3.3. Study of sustainable pavement/paver bricks and
blocks incorporating various slags
3.3.1. Compressive strength and water absorption
Cupola furnace slags, reclaimed asphalt pavement, and green
sand are used in asphalt concrete mixtures for low-intensity
traffic. The binding medium in this investigation was stan-
dard bitumen, and the natural aggregate was limestone. The
Marshall method was used for designing asphalt mixtures
and void percentages. To evaluate the performance of mix-
tures, water sensitivity and wheel tracking tests have been
carried out. The laboratory results demonstrated that the
mixtures used as a binder course can be successfully used in
the construction industry of bitumen roads with low traffic
intensity [4].
Fig. 15 shows the water absorption and compressive
strength values for the EAFS, GGBFS, and SFS bricks and paver
blocks. The compressive strength has decreased as the per-
centage of EAFS as a partial or full replacement of aggregate in
paving blocks has increased [29]. Table 5 shows that the cal-
cium oxide content of the EAFS has decreased over time,
resulting in reduction of strength. Additionally, due to the
occurrence of an adequate amount of silica, it demonstrates
adequate pozzolanic activity, which is connected to the
binding property. For making sand-create blocks, cement can
be partially replaced by 20% EAF slag without noticeably
affecting strength. The compressive strength of the blocks
decreased as the slag content increased. For the block to get
stronger, the slag needs more curing days. It was shown that
Fig. 15 e Compressive strength and water absorption of bricks incorporating EAFS, GGBFS & SFS.
as the curing time was extended up to 90 days, the compres-
sive strengths increased significantly [35]. 40% EAFS replace-
ment was used in bricks to produce the highest compressive
strength [37]. The strength was found to be at its peak when
25% of the GBFS were replaced. Repetitive GBFS particles were
held responsible for the strength loss after 25% because they
were unable to take part in pozzolanic processes due to a lack
of water. When using GBFS to make compressed stabilized
earth blocks as a partial replacement for sand, the ideal per-
centage of GBFS was replaced in the soil mass, increasing the
soil's strength to 2.13 MPa. Because GBFS contains CaO (Table
6), over time it undergoes a pozzolanic reaction with
aluminium silicates that results in the agglomeration of soil
particles and subsequently an increase in strength. This
gradual pozzolanic reaction may increase the long-term
strength of mixes [54,57]. When used to make bricks, steel
slag's compressive strength is influenced by its particle size;
smaller particle sizes have higher compressive strengths [64].
The compressive strength of the interlocking paving stones
has increased in proportion to the amount of steel furnace
slag. As the percentage of slag aggregate in concrete paver
blocks increases, their split tensile strength decreases. In
comparison to the control, the concrete pavers with a 20% slag
replacement for the sand had a higher tensile strength [68].
In paving blocks, water absorption increases as the per-
centage of EAFS increases (Fig. 15); an optimum 50% replace-
ment meets the standard requirements after 28 days of
curing. Hence, it can be used for low vehicle traffic [29].
Cement partially replaced by GGBFS in bricks has a high-water
absorption value [54]. When GBFS is used in the production of
compressed stabilized earth blocks, it shows that as the
cement content increases, the water absorption decreases.
This was because the gel formation from the pozzolanic and
hydration products of GBFS and cement filled up the vacuum
areas between the soil's particles. Finally, it is determined that
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
Fig. 16 e Percentage of various slag recommended by researchers to develop sustainable construction material.
the blocks composed of optimal GBFS and 10% cement could
be used in the construction of load-bearing masonry since
they met the standards for compressive strength (>3.5 MPa)
and water absorption (15%) as specified by the Indian Stan-
dard (IS) [99e101]. The water absorption capacity of the con-
trol concrete pavers was the highest. Meanwhile, as the
amount of WSF (waste slag furnace) aggregate in each sample
increased, the water absorption dropped [71].
3.3.2. Density and drying shrinkage
EAF slag has a higher density compared to river sand when it
is used to make blocks [35]. Density has a considerable impact
on the GGBFS's strength and durability characteristics [57].
The study shows that waste steel slag can be used to make
eco-friendly concrete block units with a higher density than
traditional concrete pavers [68]. The XRD and pore structure
analyses show that the low porosity of the carbonated brick is
responsible for its high strength and low water absorption,
while the excellent dimension stability of the carbonates is
responsible for its low dry shrinkage [71].
4. Summary
Cast iron is produced in quantities ranging from 50 to 3000
tonnes with 50 kg of slag, or 5% of the molten metal, in the
cupola furnace, which pollutes the environment. Conse-
quently, extensive literature reviews on the development of
sustainable building materials were conducted. The several
elemental analyses and related tools used to characterize
various types of slag and determine the precise
5839
microstructure and properties of the raw material were
ascertained using characterization methods such as XRF,
XRD, SEM, and TGDTA. The chemical components of the
various slags are listed in Tables 5 and 6 The chemical
composition of cupola slag varies from location to location. It
was found that slag's chemical composition exhibited less
variation. The cupola slag's higher silica content is what gives
the sustainable building material its binding qualities (Table
5).
The existence of calcium and magnesium in slag shows its
potential to be used as a sustainable construction material and
also indicates its pozzolanic nature. Heavy metals are also
negligible, therefore allowing them to be used as raw materials
without causing harm to the environment. The chemical
characterization of other slags is also given in the tabular form.
The chemical constituents of cupola slag are comparable to
those present in other slags. Many researchers have used
cupola slag in various optimum proportions ranging from 0 to
100%, as well as EAFS, GGBFS, and SFS in various proportions,
and used many methodologies for the construction of sus-
tainable concrete, mortars, bricks, and paver blocks (Fig. 5).
Flexural strength, compressive strength, water absorption, and
split tensile strength are the common tests performed on the
materials for assessment of the properties of the developed
product. Cupola slag can be used as a binder in pavement
construction, which gives satisfactory results and can be used
for low-traffic roads. Slag's compressive strength decreases
when used in EAF blocks. The maximum compressive strength
value is obtained by using a minimum of 25% GGBS in blocks.
The water absorption for both the slags used in the pavers or
clay blocks is less than 15%, meeting the Indian standard [99].
5840 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5

Fig. 17 e Application of Slags in various sectors.

It has been observed that when various slags are used in
concrete, the strength increases up to some optimum
replacement, after which it decreases. A similar pattern is
observed for flexure strength and split tensile strength. In
various mechanical tests, the same results are observed for
other developed products such as paver blocks and bricks and
mortar. The maximum compressive strength for cupola slag is
observed when it is replaced with aggregates. The optimal
replacement percentage ranges from 10 to 60% for cupola slag,
20e50% for EAFS, 10e50% for GGBFS, and 10e30% for SFS
(Fig. 16) used in the construction of concrete, mortar, paver
blocks, and bricks. The variation in the optimum replacement
percentage is due to differences in the chemical composition
of slag (Tables 5 and 6) as well as differences in the form of the

Table 7 e Applications of various slag.

Slags Application Uses/features References
Cupola slag Bituminous Roads Construction of low-intensity traffic roads as a binder course [6]
Pervious Concrete/Self-compacting Increase in Compressive strength, split tensile strength, [12,13]
concrete Flexural strength, and increases workability. Porosity and
Permeability decreases
Mortar/Binder Materials Gives Appreciable strength [22]
Railroad/Ballast Using furnace slag as sub-ballast is an environmentally friendly [105]
method for railway construction
EAFS Mortar Increases cementing efficiency, and stable mechanical [25,29]
strength. Higher compressive strength, flexural strength, more
shrinkage
Concrete Increases in Flexural strength, compressive strength, Abrasion [26e28]
resistance, water absorption and also improved the durability
properties.
Bricks/Paver blocks Lowest impact on climate change, [32]
Agriculture Slag can be used as a fertilizer without any phytotoxic effects, [104]
GGBFS Mortar Highest self-healing capability, better mechanical properties. [50,51]
Concrete Improved in flexural, compressive strength, young's modulus, [45,47]
and workability. Better microstructural properties.
Bricks/Paver blocks Appreciable value for strength and water absorption reduces [57,60]
materials cost.
Insulation Material Slag wool reduces energy consumption [103]
SFS Mortar High early-age strength [72]
Concrete Early strength, reduces carbon footprint, and increases [62,64]
electrical resistivity.
Bricks/Paver blocks Higher compressive strength, low porosity, more flexural [67,73,74]
strength, drying shrinkage, and porosity.
Wastewater Treatment Absorbent material for wastewater treatment [102,105,107,109]
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
product. By analysing the performance of sustainable con-
struction materials produced from various cupola slags and
comparing their properties to those of other slags, it is evident
that cupola slag has the potential to be used to produce
building materials, thereby reducing the constantly growing
need for construction materials. The optimal use of various
slag ranges from the lower to the upper limit (Fig. 16) will help
to reduce cement production and natural resource con-
sumption (see Fig. 17).
5. Application of slag
As shown in Table 7, several slags, including Cupola slag, EAFS,
GGBFS, and SFS, may be substituted for cement, sand, and
coarse aggregate in the production of concrete, mortar, bricks,
and paver blocks. Cupola slag could be utilized to make an
asphalt mixture for roads with low traffic intensity [4]. The
mechanical and physical properties of concrete are enhanced
when cupola slag is utilized [9,10]. EAFS can be used to increase
the durability of concrete, mortar, and bricks [22e29]. It is also
used as a fertilizer in agriculture [104]. GGBFS can be incorpo-
rated into the insulation [103]. The use of EAF slag as an
absorbent material for wastewater treatment [102] is possible.
6. Conclusion
The numerous methodologies for developing sustainable
building materials such as concrete, clay bricks, mortar, and
paver blocks have been thoroughly examined. Different
microscopic examinations, physicochemical tests, and me-
chanical tests are studied in accordance with the reviewed
literature and standards in the production of various slags
with integrated sustainable content. To examine the various
properties of cupola slag, it is compared to other slags. The
following findings have been derived from this review.
i. The optimal replacement percentages range from 10 to
60% for cupola slag, 20e50% for EAFS, 10e50% for
GGBFS, and 10e30% for SFS for the production of various
construction materials such as concrete, mortar, paving
blocks, and bricks.
ii. EAFS can be used in the manufacturing of blocks,
concrete, and mortar without sacrificing strength
appreciably.
iii. Material characteristics increase when GGBFS is used as
a replacement for cement and aggregate in the con-
struction of concrete.
iv. When steel slag is utilized in concrete as a partial
replacement for cement, the split tensile strength
values are comparable with controlled concrete for later
curing days. Split tensile strength has less value for
early curing days. The benefit of strength is due to the
latent hydraulic property and mutual activation of slag.
v. Based on the substitution percentages, it can be inferred
that up to 60% of Cupola slag can be used to make
structural and non-structural building parts with or
without additives, providing a cost-effective manner to
5841
meet the demand for construction materials while also
providing an alternative to the challenges associated
with land disposal of these waste products.
vi. Several researchers have employed cupola slag as a
partial substitute for cement, fine and coarse aggregates,
and clay in the development of construction materials.
In building construction, cupola slag can be used as an
alternative raw material to cement, fine aggregate,
coarse aggregate, and clay without sacrificing quality or
strength, according to industry requirements. However,
there has been no research on the use of cupola slag in
the production of bricks in the past.
vii. Comparing the chemical constituents of cupola slag
with those of other slags shows it's potential pertaining
to the creation of green construction materials. Physio-
mechanical and thermal performances of these bricks
made from cupola slag can be evaluated.
7. Recommendations
The following are the primary recommendations for future
research.
i. Various waste materials in addition to the slags may be
recommended to develop sustainable construction
materials.
ii. Researchers have used cupola slag as a partial cement
and aggregate replacement in environmentally friendly
concrete and mortar, but the literature lacks on envi-
ronmentally friendly building blocks.
iii. More research can be focused on Cupola slag utilized
with other agro-industrial waste to make green con-
struction bricks.
iv. When considering slag for use, it's crucial to keep in
mind not only its mineralogical, physical, and chemical
features, but also the chance that it includes heavy
metals and other pollutants.
v. Future research should concentrate on important areas
such as energy and thermal building simulation and the
techno-economic viability of the developed product for
commercial applications.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of
Scientific Research at King Khalid University, Abha, Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia for funding this work through Large Groups
RGP.2/209/44. The author would like to acknowledge the
Department of Civil Engineering, Yeshwantrao Chavan Col-
lege of Engineering (YCCE), Nagpur, India. The authors are
5842 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
very thankful and acknowledge the administration of uni-
versities/institutes, which the authors represent. The authors
also express their sincere gratitude to the unknown referee
for critically reviewing the manuscript and suggesting useful
changes.
references
[1] Raut SP, Ralegaonkar RV, Mandavgane SA. Development of
sustainable construction material using industrial and
agricultural solid waste: a review of waste-create bricks.
Construct Build Mater 2011;25(10):4037e42.
[2] De Azevedo AR, Amin M, Hadzima-Nyarko M, Agwa IS,
Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA, Adesina A. Possibilities for the
application of agro-industrial wastes in cementitious
materials: a brief review of the Brazilian perspective.
Cleaner Materials 2022;3:100040.
[3] Barreto EDS, Stafanato KV, Marvila MT, de Azevedo ARG,
Ali M, Pereira RML, Monteiro SN. Clay ceramic waste as
pozzolan constituent in cement for structural concrete.
Materials 2021;14(11):2917.
[4] Vega-Zamanillo A, Calzada-Perez MA, Lastra-Gonzalez P,
Indacoechea-Vega I, Ferna
Analysis of the

ndez-Ortega JA.
use of cupola furnace slags, green sand and reclaimed
asphalt pavement in asphalt concrete mixtures for low
intensity traffic. Journal of Construction 2017;16(2):229e37.
[5] Elangovan, R. and Prathiba, R., An experimental
investigation of mechanical properties of concrete by
partially replacing coarse aggregate with cupola slag.
International Conference on New Scientific Creations in
Engineering and Technology ISSN (online): 2455-1457.
[6] Balaraman R, Elangoval NS. Behaviour of cupola slag in
concrete as partial replacement with a combination of fine
and coarse aggregates. TAGA J 2018;14.
[7] Alabi AS, Mahachi J. Behaviour of ground cupola furnace
slag blended concrete at elevated temperature. Journal of
Materials and Engineering Structures 2020;7(1):35e46.
[8] Rodrı́guez-Mendoza YE, Fuentes AF, Escalante-Garcia JI.
Cementitious blends of Portland cement with calcium
sulphate, fly ash and cupola slagvol. 1488. MRS Online
Proceedings Library (OPL); 2012.
[9] Khalak A, Chaudhary J, Patel Y, Vanjara V, Shah Y,
Parmar H. Experimental analysis on cupola slag waste as a
partially replacement in coarse aggregate in concrete. Int J
Res Appl Sci Eng Technol 2019;7(4).
[10] Patel S, Thomas M. Experimental study on mechanical
properties of hardened concrete using cupola slag as partial
replacement of cement and coarse aggregate. International
Journal of Research 2018;12(5).
[11] Mistry VK, Varia DJ. Green concrete by replacing coarse
aggregate with cupola slag for environmental protection. In:
Renewable energy and climate change. Singapore: Springer;
2020. p. 223e37.
[12] Sosa I, Thomas C, Polanco JA, Setien J, Tamayo P. High
performance self-compacting concrete with electric arc
furnace slag aggregate and cupola slag powder. Appl Sci
2020;10(3):773.
[13] Gourav, Gill, and K.S. Jagadanand J., Improvement of weak
deposits using cupola furnace slag and reinforcement in
granular column.
[14] Alabi SA, Afolayan JO. Investigation on the potentials of
cupola furnace slag in concrete. International Journal of
Integrated Engineering 2013;5(2).
[15] Zachar J, Naik TR. More sustainable and economical
concrete using fly ash, used foundry sand, and other
residuals. In: Proceedings of second international
conference on sustainable construction materials and
technologies; 2010, June.
[16] Ladomersky J, Janotka I, Hroncova E, Najdena I. One-year
properties of concrete with partial substitution of natural
aggregate by cupola foundry slag. J Clean Prod
2016;131:739e46.
[17] Arum C, Mark GO. Partial replacement of Portland cement
by granulated cupola slagdsustainable option for concrete
of low permeability. Civ Environ Res 2014;6(3):17e26.
[18] Sawant M, Dhande D, Sabde S, Bhalsing R, Yadav P,
Ranjan N. Pervious concrete with cupola slag. International
Journal of Research in Advent Technology 2016;5(5).
[19] Aderibigbe DA, Ojobo AE. Properties of cupola slag as a
pozzolana and its effects on partial replacement of cement
in a mortar. Conserv Recycl 1982;5(4):203e8.
[20] Mistry VK, Patel BR, Varia DJ. Suitability of concrete using
cupola slag as replacement of coarse aggregate. Int J Sci Eng
Res 2016;7:1182e6.
[21] Balaraman R, Ligoria SA. Utilization of cupola slag in
concrete as fine and coarse aggregate. Int J Civ Eng Technol
2015;8(6):6e14.
[22] Da Silva Magalha ~ es M, Faleschini F, Pellegrino C, Brunelli K.
Cementing efficiency of electric arc furnace dust in mortars.
Construct Build Mater 2017;157:141e50.
[23] Lam MNT, Le DH, Jaritngam S. Compressive strength and
durability properties of roller-compacted concrete
pavement containing electric arc furnace slag aggregate
and fly ash. Construct Build Mater 2018;191:912e22.
[24] Gonzalez-Ortega MA, Cavalaro SHP, de Sensale GR,
Aguado A. Durability of concrete with electric arc furnace
slag aggregate. Construct Build Mater 2019;217:543e56.
[25] Rooholamini H, Sedghi R, Ghobadipour B, Adresi M. Effect of
electric arc furnace steel slag on the mechanical and
fracture properties of roller-compacted concrete. Construct
Build Mater 2019;211:88e98.
[26] Ledesma EF, Jimenez JR, Ayuso J, Fernandez JM, de Brito J.
Experimental study of the mechanical stabilization of
electric arc furnace dust using fluid cement mortars. J
Hazard Mater 2017;326:26e35.
[27] Ozturk M, Akgol O, Sevim UK, Karaaslan M, Demirci M,
Unal E. Experimental work on mechanical, electromagnetic
and microwave shielding effectiveness properties of mortar
containing electric arc furnace slag. Construct Build Mater
2018;165:58e63.
[28] Faleschini F, Fernandez-Ruı́z MA, Zanini MA, Brunelli K,
Pellegrino C, Herna
ndez-Montes E. High performance
concrete with electric arc furnace slag as aggregate:
mechanical and durability properties. Construct Build
Mater 2015;101:113e21.
[29] Evangelista BL, Rosado LP, Penteado CSG. Life cycle
assessment of concrete paving blocks using electric arc
furnace slag as natural coarse aggregate substitute. J Clean
Prod 2018;178:176e85.
[30] Lozano-Lunar A, da Silva PR, De Brito J, Alvarez JI,
Ferna
ndez JM, Jimenez JR. Performance and durability
properties of self-compacting mortars with electric arc
furnace dust as filler. J Clean Prod 2019;219:818e32.
[31] Roslan NH, Ismail M, Khalid NHA, Muhammad B. Properties
of concrete containing electric arc furnace steel slag and
steel sludge. J Build Eng 2020;28:101060.
[32] Yeih W, Fu TC, Chang JJ, Huang R. Properties of pervious
concrete made with air-cooling electric arc furnace slag as
aggregates. Construct Build Mater 2015;93:737e45.
[33] Lozano-Lunar A, da Silva PR, De Brito J, Fernandez JM,
Jime
nez JR. Safe use of electric arc furnace dust as
secondary raw material in self-compacting mortars
production. J Clean Prod 2019;211:1375e88.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
[34] Santamarı́a A, Orbe A, Losanez MM, Skaf M, Ortega-Lopez V,
Gonza
lez JJ. Self-compacting concrete incorporating electric
arc-furnace steelmaking slag as aggregate. Mater Des
2017;115:179e93.
[35] Bassey EN, Bassey OB, Olieh RA. Suitability of electric arc
furnace (EAF) slag as partial replacement for cement in
sandcrete blocks. Global J Eng Res 2009;10(1&2):19e26.
[36] Yeih W, Chang JJ. The influences of cement type and curing
condition on properties of pervious concrete made with
electric arc furnace slag as aggregates. Construct Build
Mater 2019;197:813e20.
[37] Apithanyasai S, Supakata N, Papong S. The potential of
industrial waste: using foundry sand with fly ash and
electric arc furnace slag for geopolymer brick production.
Heliyon 2020;6(3):e03697.
[38] Santamarı́a A, Ortega-Lopez V, Skaf M, Chica JA, Manso JM.
The study of properties and behavior of self compacting
concrete containing Electric Arc Furnace Slag (EAFS) as
aggregate. Ain Shams Eng J 2020;11(1):231e43.
[39] Santamarı́a A, Roji E, Skaf M, Marcos I, Gonzalez JJ. The use
of steelmaking slags and flies ash in structural mortars.
Construct Build Mater 2016;106:364e73.
[40] Qi A, Liu X, Xu R, Huang Y. Bond behavior of steel
reinforcement in concrete containing ferronickel slag and
blast furnace slag powder. Construct Build Mater
2020;262:120884.
[41] Das SK, Mishra J, Singh SK, Mustakim SM, Patel A, Das SK,
Behera U. Characterization and utilization of rice husk ash
(RHA) in fly asheBlast furnace slag based geopolymer
concrete for sustainable future. Mater Today Proc
2020;33:5162e7.
[42] Mohan A, Hayat MT. Characterization of mechanical
properties by preferential supplant of cement with GGBS
and silica fume in concrete. Mater Today Proc
2021;43:1179e89.
[43] Jiao K, Fan X, Zhang J, Wang K, Zhao Y. Corrosion behavior
of alumina-carbon composite brick in typical blast furnace
slag and iron. Ceram Int 2018;44(16):19981e8.
[44] Ofuyatan OM, Adeniyi AG, Ijie D, Ighalo JO, Oluwafemi J.
Development of high-performance self-compacting
concrete using eggshell powder and blast furnace slag as
partial cement replacement. Construct Build Mater
2020;256:119403.
[45] Majhi RK, Nayak AN, Mukharjee BB. Development of
sustainable concrete using recycled coarse aggregate and
ground granulated blast furnace slag. Construct Build Mater
2018;159:417e30.
[46] Gholampour A, Zheng J, Ozbakkaloglu T. Development of
waste-based concretes containing foundry sand, recycled
fine aggregate, ground granulated blast furnace slag and fly
ash. Construct Build Mater 2021;267:121004.
[47] Li G, Liu S, Niu M, Liu Q, Yang X, Deng M. Effect of
granulated blast furnace slag on the self-healing capability
of mortar incorporating crystalline admixture. Construct
Build Mater 2020;239:117818.
[48] Shi J, Tan J, Liu B, Chen J, Dai J, He Z. Experimental study on
full-volume slag alkali-activated mortars: air-cooled blast
furnace slag versus machine-made sand as fine aggregates.
J Hazard Mater 2021;403:123983.
[49] Aliabdo AA, Abd Elmoaty M, Emam MA. Factors affecting
the mechanical properties of alkali activated ground
granulated blast furnace slag concrete. Construct Build
Mater 2019;197:339e55.
[50] Li Y, Qiao C, Ni W. Green concrete with ground granulated
blast-furnace slag activated by desulfurization gypsum and
electric arc furnace reducing slag. J Clean Prod
2020;269:122212.
5843
[51] Nicula LM, Corbu O, Iliescu M. Influence of blast furnace
slag on the durability characteristic of road concrete such
as freeze-thaw resistance. Procedia Manuf
2020;46:194e201.
[52] Sadawy MM, Nooman MT. Influence of nano-blast furnace
slag on microstructure, mechanical and corrosion
characteristics of concrete. Mater Chem Phys
2020;251:123092.
[53] Hwang CL, Yehualaw MD, Vo DH, Huynh TP, Largo A.
Performance evaluation of alkali activated mortar
containing high volume of waste brick powder blended
with ground granulated blast furnace slag cured at
ambient temperature. Construct Build Mater
2019;223:657e67.
[54] Park H, Jeong Y, Jun Y, Oh JE. Production of price-
competitive bricks using a high volume of stone
powder sludge waste and blast furnace slag through
cementless CaO activation. Construct Build Mater
2016;122:343e53.
[55] Srinivasarao C, Reddy SVB. Study of standard grade
concrete consisting of granulated blast furnace slag as a fine
aggregate. Mater Today Proc 2020;27:859e65.
[56] De Matos PR, Oliveira JC, Medina TM, Magalhaes DC,
Gleize PJ, Schankoski RA, Pilar R. Use of air-cooled blast
furnace slag as supplementary cementitious material for
self-compacting concrete production. Construct Build Mater
2020;262:120102.
[57] Sekhar DC, Nayak S. Utilization of granulated blast furnace
slag and cement in the manufacture of compressed
stabilized earth blocks. Construct Build Mater
2018;166:531e6.
[58] Le DH, Sheen YN, Bui QB. An assessment on volume
stabilization of mortar with stainless steel slag sand.
Construct Build Mater 2017;155:200e8.
[59] Sha F, Liu P, Ding Y. Application investigation of high-
phosphorus steel slag in cementitious material and
ordinary concrete. J Mater Res Technol 2021;11:2074e91.
[60] Mahmood AH, Foster SJ, Castel A. Development of high-
density geopolymer concrete with steel furnace slag
aggregate for coastal protection structures. Construct Build
Mater 2020;248:118681.
[61] Palod R, Deo SV, Ramtekkar GD. Effect on mechanical
performance, early age shrinkage and electrical resistivity
of ternary blended concrete containing blast furnace slag
and steel slag. Mater Today Proc 2020;32:917e22.
[62] Khalaf MA, Cheah CB, Ramli M, Ahmed NM, Al-Asady AMA,
Ali AMA, Al-Shwaiter A, Tangchirapat W. Engineering and
gamma-ray attenuation properties of steel furnace slag
heavyweight concrete with nano calcium carbonate and
silica. Construct Build Mater 2021;267:120878.
[63] Biskri Y, Achoura D, Chelghoum N, Mouret M. Mechanical
and durability characteristics of High Performance Concrete
containing steel slag and crystalized slag as aggregates.
Construct Build Mater 2017;150:167e78.
[64] Hou G, Yan Z, Sun J, Naguib HM, Lu B, Zhang Z.
Microstructure and mechanical properties of CO2-cured
steel slag brick in pilot-scale. Construct Build Mater
2021;271:121581.
[65] Venkatesan B, Lijina VJ, Kannan V, Dhevasenaa PR. Partial
replacement of fine aggregate by steel slag and coarse
aggregate by walnut shell in concrete. Mater Today Proc
2021;37:1761e6.
[66] Khalaf MA, Ban CC, Ramli M, Ahmed NM, Sern LJ,
Khaleel HA. Physicomechanical and gamma-ray shielding
properties of high-strength heavyweight concrete
containing steel furnace slag aggregate. J Build Eng
2020;30:101306.
5844 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
[67] Zhang G, Wang S, Wang B, Zhao Y, Kang M, Wang P.
Properties of pervious concrete with steel slag as aggregates
and different mineral admixtures as binders. Construct
Build Mater 2020;257:119543.
[68] Olofinnade O, Morawo A, Okedairo O, Kim B. Solid waste
management in developing countries: reusing of steel slag
aggregate in eco-friendly interlocking concrete paving
blocks production. Case Stud Constr Mater 2021;14:e00532.
[69] You N, Li B, Cao R, Shi J, Chen C, Zhang Y. The influence of
steel slag and ferronickel slag on the properties of alkali-
activated slag mortar. Construct Build Mater
2019;227:116614.
[70] Wang K, Qian C, Wang R. The properties and mechanism of
microbial mineralized steel slag bricks. Construct Build
Mater 2016;113:815e23.
[71] Cao W, Yang Q. The properties of the carbonated brick
made of steel slag-slaked lime mixture. J Wuhan Univ
Technol -Materials Sci Ed 2015;30(2):250e5.
[72] Sezer GI,_ Gülderen M. Usage of steel slag in concrete as fine
and/or coarse aggregate. 2015.
[73] Khan MSH, Castel A, Akbarnezhad A, Foster SJ, Smith M.
Utilisation of steel furnace slag coarse aggregate in a low
calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete. Cement Concr Res
2016;89:220e9.
[74] Zhang X, Zhao S, Liu Z, Wang F. Utilization of steel slag in
ultra-high performance concrete with enhanced eco-
friendliness. Construct Build Mater 2019;214:28e36.
[75] Guo Y, Xie J, Zhao J, Zuo K. Utilization of unprocessed steel
slag as fine aggregate in normal-and high-strength
concrete. Construct Build Mater 2019;204:41e9.
[76] Alraddadi S, Assaedi H. Characterization and potential
applications of different powder volcanic ash. J King Saud
Univ Sci 2020;32:2969e75. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jksus.2020.07.019.
[77] Zeyad AM, Khan AH, Tayeh BA. Durability and strength
characteristics of high-strength concrete incorporated with
volcanic pumice powder and polypropylene fibers. J Mater
Res Technol 2020;9:806e13. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jmrt.2019.11.021.
[78] Saba Abdalla M, Khan Afzal Husain, Akhtar Mohammad
Nadeem, Khan Nadeem A. Seyed Saeid Rahimian Koloor,
Michal Petr u, Neyara Radwan, Strength and flexural
behavior of steel fiber and silica fume incorporated self-
compacting concrete. J Mater Res Technol 2021;12:1380e90.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.03.066.
[79] Baricova D, Pribulova A, Demeter P. Comparison of
possibilities the blast furnace and cupola slag utilization by
concrete production. Arch Foundry Eng 2010;10(2):15e8.
[80] Gonzalez-Ortega MA, Cavalaro SHP, de Sensale GR,
Aguado A. Durability of concrete with electric arc furnace
slag aggregate. Construct Build Mater 2019;217:543e56.
[81] Ledesma EF, Jimenez JR, Ayuso J, Fernandez JM, de Brito J.
Experimental study of the mechanical stabilization of
electric arc furnace dust using fluid cement mortars. J
Hazard Mater 2017;326:26e35.
[82] Sosa I, Thomas C, Polanco JA, Setie
n J, Sainz-Aja JA,
Tamayo P. Durability of high-performance self-compacted
concrete using electric arc furnace slag aggregate and
cupola slag powder. Cement Concr Compos
2022;127:104399.
[83] Majhi RK, Nayak AN, Mukharjee BB. Development of
sustainable concrete using recycled coarse aggregate and
ground granulated blast furnace slag. Construct Build Mater
2018;159:417e30.
[84] Park H, Jeong Y, Jun Y, Oh JE. Production of price-
competitive bricks using a high volume of stone powder
sludge waste and blast furnace slag through cementless
CaO activation. Construct Build Mater 2016;122:343e53.
[85] Hou G, Yan Z, Sun J, Naguib HM, Lu B, Zhang Z.
Microstructure and mechanical properties of CO2-cured
steel slag brick in pilot-scale. Construct Build Mater
2021;271:121581.
[86] Venkatesan B, Lijina VJ, Kannan V, Dhevasenaa PR. Partial
replacement of fine aggregate by steel slag and coarse
aggregate by walnut shell in concrete. Mater Today Proc
2021;37:1761e6.
[87] Olofinnade O, Morawo A, Okedairo O, Kim B. Solid waste
management in developing countries: reusing of steel slag
aggregate in eco-friendly interlocking concrete paving
blocks production. Case Stud Constr Mater 2021;14:e00532.
[88] Lim JW, Chew LH, Choong TS, Tezara C, Yazdi MH.
Overview of steel slag application and utilization. In:
MATEC web of conferences, vol. 74. EDP Sciences; 2016,
00026.
[89] Ferber NL, Al Naimi KM, Hoffmann JF, Al-Ali K, Calvet N.
Development of an electric arc furnace steel slag-based
ceramic material for high temperature thermal energy
storage applications. J Energy Storage 2022;51:104408.
[90] https://www.recovery-worldwide.com/en/artikel/slag-
recycling_3528047.html.
[91] Qaidi SM, Tayeh BA, Zeyad AM, de Azevedo AR, Ahmed HU,
Emad W. Recycling of mine tailings for the geopolymers
production: a systematic review. Case Stud Constr Mater
2022:e00933.
[92] Azevedo AR, Marvila MT, Zanelato EB, Alexandre J,
Xavier GC, Cecchin D. Development of mortar for laying and
coating with pineapple fibers. Rev Bras Eng Agrı́cola
Ambient 2020;24:187e93.
[93] Carvalho A, de Castro Xavier G, Alexandre J, Pedroti LG, De
Azevedo ARG, Vieira CMF, et al. Environmental durability of
soil-cement block incorporated with ornamental stone
waste. Mater Sci Forum 2014;798:548e53 [Trans Tech
Publications Ltd].
[94] Tayeh BA, Hakamy A, Amin M, Zeyad AM, Agwa IS. Effect of
air agent on mechanical properties and microstructure of
lightweight geopolymer concrete under high temperature.
Case Stud Constr Mater 2022;16:e00951. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e00951.
[95] Assaedi HS, D. Olawale M. Impact of nano-alumina on the
mechanical characterization of PVA fibre-reinforced
geopolymer composites. J. Taibah Univ. Sci. 2022;16:828e35.
https://doi.org/10.1080/16583655.2022.2119735.
[96] AL-Kharabsheh BN, Moafak Arbili M, Majdi A, Ahmad J,
Deifalla AF, Hakamy A, et al. Feasibility study on concrete
made with substitution of quarry dust: a review.
Sustainability 2022;14. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215304.
[97] Assaedi H, Shaikh FUA, Low IM. Characterizations of flax
fabric reinforced nanoclay-geopolymer composites.
Compos B Eng 2016;95:412e22. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.compositesb.2016.04.007.
[98] Paruthi Sagar, Husain Asif, Alam Pervez, Afzal
Husain Khan, Mohd Abul Hasan, Magbool Hassan M. A
review on material mix proportion and strength influence
parameters of geopolymer concrete: application of ANN
model for GPC strength prediction. Construct Build Mater
2022;356. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2022.129253.
[99] IS 3495 (Part 1 to 4): 1995 Methods of tests of burnt clay
building bricks.
[100] BIS (Bureau of Indian Standard). Specification for concrete
masonry units - hollow and solid concrete blocks. New
Delhi, India: BIS; 1979. IS: 2185(1):1979.
[101] ASTM C618-22 standard specification for coal fly ash and
raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete.
[102] Yu C, Zhang W, Gao F, Huang H, Zhao L. An overview of
resource utilization of steel slag as absorbent material for
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 5 8 2 1 e5 8 4 5
waste water treatment. In: E3S web of conferences, vol. 199.
EDP Sciences; 2020, 00017.
[103] Zhao D, Zhang Z, Tang X, Liu L, Wang X. Preparation of
slag wool by integrated waste-heat recovery and resource
recycling of molten blast furnace slags: from
fundamental to industrial application. Energies
2014;7(5):3121e35.
[104] Radic S, Sandev D, Maldini K, Vujcic Bok V, Lepedu s H,
Domijan AM. Recycling electric Arc Furnace slag into
fertilizer: effects of “waste product” on growth and
physiology of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.).
Agronomy 2022;12(9):2218.
[105] Jia W, Markine VL, Jing G. Analysis of furnace slag in
railway sub-ballast based on experimental tests and DEM
simulations. Construct Build Mater 2021;288:123114.
[106] Raja KCP, Thaniarasu I, Elkotb MA, Ansari K, Saleel CA.
Shrinkage study and strength aspects of concrete with
foundry sand and coconut shell as a partial replacement for
coarse and fine aggregate. Materials 2021;14(23):7420.
[107] Agrawal D, Waghe U, Ansari K, Dighade R, Amran M,
Qader DN, et al. Experimental effect of pre-treatment of
rubber fibers on mechanical properties of rubberized
concrete. J Mater Res Technol 2023;23:791e807. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.01.027.
[108] Saeed A, Najm HM, Hassan A, Sabri MMS, Qaidi S,
Mashaan NS, Ansari K. Properties and applications of
geopolymer composites: a review study of mechanical and
microstructural properties. Materials 2022;15(22):8250.
5845
[109] Ansari K, Khandeshwar S, Waghmare C, Mehboob H,
Gupta T, Shrikhande AN, Abbas M. Experimental evaluation
of industrial mushroom waste substrate using hybrid
mechanism of vermicomposting and effective
microorganisms. Materials 2022;15(9):2963.
[110] Nagaraja S, Kodandappa R, Ansari K, Kuruniyan MS,
Afzal A, Kaladgi AR, Bindiganavile Anand P. Influence of
heat treatment and reinforcements on tensile
characteristics of aluminium aa 5083/silicon carbide/fly ash
composites. Materials 2021;14(18):5261.
[111] Sathish T, Mohanavel V, Ansari K, Saravanan R, Karthick A,
Afzal A, Saleel CA. Synthesis and characterization of
mechanical properties and wire cut EDM process
parameters analysis in AZ61 magnesium alloyþ B4Cþ SiC.
Materials 2021;14(13):3689.
[112] Garg R, Garg R, Eddy NO, Khan MA, Khan AH, Alomayri T,
Berwal P. Mechanical strength and durability analysis of
mortars prepared with fly ash and nano-metakaolin. Case
Stud Constr Mater 2023;18:e01796.
[113] Deb P, Debnath B, Hasan M, Alqarni AS, Alaskar A,
Alsabhan AH, Hashim KS. Development of eco-friendly
concrete mix using recycled aggregates: structural
performance and pore feature study using image analysis.
Materials 2022;15(8):2953.
[114] Hasan M, Khan MA, Alsabhan AH, Almajid AA, Alam S,
Khan MA, Pu J. Geotechnical behaviour of fly ashebentonite
used in layers. Appl Sci 2022;12(3):1421.