Gibbon’s Early Life:

1. Gibbon’s family background: Great-grandfather a linendraper, grandfather a successful

businessman, but fortune was lost in 1720.
2. Edward Gibbon senior: Attended Westminster School, entered the House of Commons in
1734, and faced financial challenges after the death of his wife in 1747.
3. Gibbon’s early education: Neglected by his mother, cared for by his aunt Catherine
Porten, and educated by private tutors and at Westminster.
4. Nervous illness and education interruption: Gibbon’s health issues led to a break in formal
schooling, and he was sent to Bath in 1750.
5. Unsuccessful education under Reverend Philip Francis: Gibbon’s father’s decision to
entrust his education to Francis proved to be a failure.
6. Conversion to Roman Catholicism: In 1753, Gibbon converted but later returned to
Protestantism under the guidance of M. Daniel Pavilliard in Lausanne.
7. Lausanne period (1753-1758): Remarkable development, serious and methodical reading,
encounters with influential figures, and a shift towards classical literature.
8. Tour of Switzerland (1755): Gibbon’s father allowed him to tour Switzerland, providing
insights into different cantons and influencing his historical interests.
9. Friendships in Lausanne: Formed significant friendships with Georges Deyverdun and
debated Locke’s metaphysics with François-Louis Allamand.
10. Influence of Voltaire: Gibbon attended Voltaire’s theatrical performances in Lausanne, and
Voltaire’s literary celebrity left an impact on the young Englishman.
11. Return to England (1762): Gibbon’s father arranged for him to travel to Oxford, leading to
his encounter with the militia and involvement in country pursuits.
12. Essai sur l’étude de la littérature (1761): Gibbon’s first book sought to reconcile the érudits
and the philosophes, criticizing the intellectual arrogance of the latter.
13. European tour (1763-1765): Gibbon’s tour included Paris, Lausanne, Rome, Naples, and
Venice, where the idea of writing “The Decline and Fall” originated.
14. Return to England (1765): Gibbon’s life post-tour involved military service, club
memberships, attempts to improve family finances, and collaboration with Georges Deyverdun.
15. Literary projects and development: Gibbon’s collaboration with Deyverdun, involvement in
literary periodicals, and exploration of historical and philosophical subjects in the late 1760s.

Gibbon’s Life and Legacy:

 1. Family and Finances: Gibbon’s father passed away in 1770, leading to financial challenges.
With the help of Holroyd, family finances were reorganized, and Gibbon achieved independence by
1772.
2. Literary Success: In 1776, the first volume of “The Decline and Fall” was published, selling
rapidly and gaining widespread acclaim. Hume’s congratulatory letter was particularly meaningful,
though criticism soon followed.
3. Criticism and Vindication: Gibbon faced attacks on his work, accused of restating old
arguments against Christianity and manipulating historical records. In 1779, he responded with the
“Vindication of Some Passages” to defend his scholarly accuracy.
4. Political Career: Gibbon entered Parliament in 1774 and faced challenges due to changing
political climates. His loyalty to Lord North and financial struggles influenced his political decisions.
5. Board of Trade Appointment: In 1779, Gibbon received a lucrative appointment to the
Board of Trade and Plantations, alleviating some financial pressures.
6. Continuation of “The Decline and Fall”: Despite political shifts, Gibbon continued writing
volumes two and three of his monumental work, published in 1781.
7. Life in Lausanne: In 1783, facing financial difficulties and political changes, Gibbon moved
to Lausanne. He completed the remaining volumes of “The Decline and Fall” by 1787.
8. Friendship and Loss: Deyverdun, Gibbon’s friend and host in Lausanne, died in 1789.
Despite financial stability, Gibbon faced emotional challenges.
9. Reaction to the French Revolution: Initially hopeful for reform, Gibbon became
disillusioned with the violent turn of events during the French Revolution.
10. Health Issues and Death: Gibbon’s health declined, and he succumbed to an illness in
1794, reflecting on his life’s accomplishments and the fleeting nature of fame.

Gibbon’s views on History:

Certainly! Gibbon’s early education outside England shaped his worldview, and his European
conditioning influenced his historical perspective.

His ironic wit, a prominent feature of his prose, was a result of his freedom from narrowly national
outlooks.

Gibbon’s historical thought reflected Enlightenment philosophy, considering history as the science
of causes and effects. He believed in secular historiography and viewed human agency as the
driving force in history.

The philosophic historian, according to Gibbon, saw order and regularity in history, contrasting with
the naive perception of randomness and the believer’s reliance on divine providence.

Gibbon’s historical vision focused on three main issues: civil society, barbarism, and religion. He
explored the forces building up and undermining civil society, differentiating types of barbarism,
and examining the social and political consequences of religious belief.

His complex attitude towards empire led him to critique it as a political form while acknowledging
the artistic and cultural achievements of Rome.

Surprisingly, Gibbon had a positive view of certain aspects of barbarian influence, such as the
unintended contributions to the development of society and the creation of new paradigms of
human character.

Gibbon’s critique of Christianity centered on its corruption into superstition. However, he

recognized its role in preserving civil society during the collapse of the Roman Empire and
facilitating the transfer of cultural elements from ancient to modern times.

The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) played a crucial role in Gibbon’s view of the emergence of
the modern world, with commerce being a key factor. He praised the civilizing effects of trade and
the division of labor.

Gibbon’s impact on historical writing was profound, with his unique prose style and broad yet
detailed historical analysis setting a standard for excellence that transcends mere imitation.

Chapter # 1:

1. Extent of the Roman Empire: In the second century CE, the Roman Empire covered a
significant part of the world, encompassing prosperous regions and civilized populations.
2. Military Strength: The Roman frontiers were protected by disciplined legions, renowned
for their ancient prestige and military prowess.
3. Peaceful Union: The provinces were united through the influence of laws and customs,
fostering peace and prosperity among the inhabitants.
4. Golden Age of Leadership: The period spanning Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two
Antonines is considered a golden age of leadership, characterized by virtuous and capable rulers.
5. Augustus’ Moderation: Augustus advocated a moderate approach, advising successors to
maintain the empire within certain natural boundaries, emphasizing stability over expansive
conquests.
6. Exception with Britain: The conquest of Britain marked an exception to the general policy,
driven partly by proximity and the allure of a pearl fishery.
7. Hadrian’s Defensive Measures: Hadrian, following Augustus’ advice, focused on
consolidating rather than expanding. He withdrew from Trajan’s eastern conquests, restoring the
Euphrates as the empire’s frontier.
8. Military Virtues: The Roman military emphasized discipline, training, and a strong sense of
duty. Soldiers took oaths, and the attachment to the eagle standard was considered sacred.
9. Varied Military Backgrounds: Roman soldiers were recruited from diverse backgrounds,
but their training, discipline, and loyalty were essential for their effectiveness.
10. Innovations in Tactics: Over the centuries, Roman military tactics evolved. The legions
under the Antonines were well-trained and employed a combination of arms, including the pilum, a
heavy javelin.
11. Cavalry Changes: The Roman cavalry, once comprised of the nobility, transitioned to
include recruits from similar backgrounds as the legions. Their weaponry became more practical
and adaptable.

These key points capture the essence of the Roman military’s strength, leadership, and strategic
decisions during the Age of the Antonines.

1. Auxiliaries and Military Organization:

• Rome utilized various instruments of war, including levies from provincials and allied
communities.
• Auxiliaries, including select troops of hostile barbarians, played a crucial role in
complementing the legions.
2. Artillery and Legion Composition:
• Legions were equipped with various types of troops and missile weapons, creating a
versatile force.
• The legion had a train of artillery, including military engines that could discharge stones
 • The legion had a train of artillery, including military engines that could discharge stones
and darts.
3. Roman Camps:
• Roman legion camps resembled fortified cities, with careful planning, level ground, and
defensive structures.
• The camp layout was a precise quadrangle with designated areas for different units.
4. Marching and Battle Formation:
• Roman legions could march great distances, covering about twenty miles in approximately
six hours.
• In the face of enemies, they swiftly transitioned from marching formation to an ordered
battle formation.
5. Legion Numbers and Distribution:
• A legion, along with auxiliaries, was estimated to consist of about 12,500 men.
• The Roman military establishment, including legions, auxiliaries, guards, and navy, had a
formidable strength of around 450,000 men.
6. Provincial Overview:
• Provinces such as Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Italy had distinct characteristics and
contributions to the Roman Empire.
• The provinces were strategically located, and the distribution of legions reflected the
perceived threats and importance of regions.
7. Danube and Illyrian Frontier:
• The Danube River served as a natural frontier, and provinces like Noricum, Pannonia,
Dalmatia, and Dacia were considered part of the Illyrian frontier.
• The provinces of the Danube were known for their martial strength and were vital to the
empire’s defense.
8. Macedonia, Greece, and Thrace:
• The regions of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece (Roumelia) held historical significance and
were organized as provinces.
• The kingdom of Macedonia, including Epirus and Thessaly, was a powerful part of the
Roman Empire.

The text provides a comprehensive view of the Roman military, its organization, and the geopolitical
landscape of the empire during the period of Hadrian and the Antonines.

1. Geographical Overview:
 1. Geographical Overview:
• Asia Minor, encompassed by the Euxine and Mediterranean, was a significant Roman
region.
• Bithynia, Pontus, Cilicia, and Cappadocia were among the provinces within Asia Minor.
2. Syria, Phœnicia, and Palestine:
• Syria, once ruled by the Seleucidæ, became the Roman eastern frontier.
• Phœnicia and Palestine, annexed to Syria, hold historical importance, especially in the
context of religion.
3. Egypt:
• Egypt, while geographically in Africa, historically connected more with Asia.
• The Nile’s flow defined the fertile region, and Alexandria played a crucial role in the Roman
province.
4. Africa:
• Libya, initially inhabited by Libyans, became the center of Carthaginian commerce.
• Numidia, Mauritania, and Tingitana (modern Fez) formed parts of Roman Africa, extending
to the Atlas Mountains.
5. Mediterranean and Islands:
• The Roman Empire encompassed the entire Mediterranean, including its islands.
• Islands like the Balearics, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and Crete were integral parts of the
Roman dominion.
6. The Columns of Hercules and Gibraltar:
• The narrow strait of about twelve miles between Spain and Africa, now with the Rock of
Gibraltar, marked the Columns of Hercules.
• The Mediterranean, surrounded by Roman territories, featured notable islands like the
Balearics, Corsica, and Malta.
7. Roman Empire’s Extent:
• The Roman Empire covered a vast expanse, stretching over two thousand miles in breadth
and more than three thousand miles in length.
• From the northern limits of Dacia to the tropic of Cancer, the empire spanned diverse
geographical zones.
8. Size and Strength:
• The Roman Empire, with over sixteen hundred thousand square miles, featured fertile and
cultivated lands.
• The empire’s strength and influence extended from the wall of Antoninus to the
Euphrates, making it a formidable global power.
This overview provides insights into the extensive geographical reach of the Roman Empire and its
diverse provinces, highlighting key regions and their historical significance.

Chapter # 2:

Certainly! Here are some key points from the provided excerpt:

1. Roman Empire’s Greatness: Rome’s greatness wasn’t just based on rapid conquests but
on the wisdom of its governance during the age of the Antonines.
2. Toleration and Religion: The Roman Empire had a policy of religious toleration. Various
religions were respected, and this contributed to mutual indulgence and religious concord.
3. Polytheistic Beliefs: The people’s polytheistic beliefs were not marked by theological
rancor. There was a tolerance for various religions, and different gods were revered.
4. Philosophers and Religion: Philosophers, while often skeptical of popular religious beliefs,
tended to practice the ceremonies of their ancestors publicly, concealing their true sentiments.
5. Persecution and Policy: Persecution didn’t find a place in Roman councils. The
magistrates, many of whom were philosophers, recognized the general advantages of religion and
its role in civil government.
6. Expansion of Citizenship: Rome adopted a policy of extending citizenship to deserving
individuals, whether slaves, strangers, enemies, or barbarians. This contributed to the growth of the
Roman Republic.
7. Italy vs. Provinces: Italy held a special place in the Roman Empire, and the privileges of
Romans were initially distinct from those in the provinces. However, these distinctions gradually
diminished.
8. Colonization and Citizenship: Colonies were established throughout the empire,
contributing to a Romanized population. Veterans often settled in the provinces, fostering a
reverence for the Roman name.
9. Rights of Latium: The right of Latium granted to cities conferred partial favor, allowing
magistrates to assume Roman citizenship after their term but circulating around principal families.
10. Advantages of Roman Citizenship: Roman citizenship came with legal benefits in
marriage, testaments, and inheritances. Even in the age of the Antonines, it offered solid
advantages and opportunities for social mobility.

This excerpt discusses various aspects of the Roman Empire, including language influence,
treatment of slaves, population, and architectural achievements. Here are some key points:
treatment of slaves, population, and architectural achievements. Here are some key points:

1. Language Influence:
• Romans emphasized the spread of the Latin language, with the East being less receptive
than the West.
• The use of Latin in provinces like Africa, Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Pannonia became
widespread, erasing traces of local languages.
• The Greeks, however, retained their language and cultural distinctiveness, considering
Roman manners unpolished but respecting Roman power.
2. Treatment of Slaves:
• Initially, slaves were often barbarian captives subjected to harsh treatment.
• Over time, as foreign supplies diminished, Romans turned to propagation, encouraging
marriage among slaves.
• The laws evolved to protect slaves, removing private control over life and death, and
providing avenues for complaints.
3. Enfranchisement:
• Slaves had hope for freedom based on usefulness and good behavior.
• Manumission was a common practice, but laws restrained excessive liberality to avoid
potential abuse.
• Manumitted slaves gained private citizenship but were excluded from civil or military
honors.
4. Population:
• The Roman Empire comprised Roman citizens, provincials, and slaves.
• An estimate during Emperor Claudius’ time suggested around 20 million Roman citizens
and possibly double that number in provincials.
• The total population, including slaves, could have reached about 120 million, possibly
surpassing modern Europe.
5. Obedience and Union:
• The Roman world exhibited uniform, voluntary, and permanent obedience.
• Conquered nations accepted Roman rule, and the empire’s authority was exercised
effortlessly across vast territories.
6. Architectural Achievements:
• Romans, including emperors and wealthy citizens, constructed numerous monuments at
both public and private expense.
• Emperors like Augustus, Trajan, and Hadrian were particularly involved in monumental
projects.
 • Private citizens, such as Herodes Atticus, contributed significantly to public works,
showcasing their wealth and generosity.
7. Example of Herodes Atticus:
• Herodes Atticus, an Athenian citizen, descended from a prestigious lineage, used his
wealth for public benefit.
• He funded various constructions, including a stadium, theatre, and aqueducts in Athens
and other regions.
• His generosity extended to multiple cities, making him a renowned patron and benefactor.

These points provide a glimpse into the cultural, social, and political dynamics of the Roman Empire
during the discussed period.

1. Public Monuments: Roman public monuments, such as the Coliseum, baths, and temples,
reflected the grandeur of the empire. Emperors often sought to showcase their magnificence
through works of national honor.
2. Aqueducts: The Roman aqueducts were monumental feats of engineering, considered
among the noblest monuments of Roman genius and power.
3. Cities of the Empire: The Roman Empire was home to numerous cities, boasting significant
populations and grand structures. Cities in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Africa, and the eastern provinces
flourished.
4. Roman Roads: The empire had an extensive network of well-constructed roads,
connecting distant provinces. These roads, spanning over four thousand Roman miles, played a
crucial role in facilitating trade and military movement.
5. Communication: The Roman Empire established a system of posts to ensure rapid
communication. Relay stations with forty horses each were set up every five or six miles, allowing
the transmission of messages over long distances.
6. Navigation: The Mediterranean facilitated sea communication, and artificial ports like
Ostia played a key role in connecting Italy with other parts of the empire.
7. Agricultural Improvements: Roman influence led to the introduction of various plants and
agricultural practices in the western regions of the empire. This included fruits, vines, olives, and
artificial grasses, contributing to the overall prosperity.
8. General Plenty: Despite occasional scarcity in individual provinces, the Roman Empire
maintained overall food abundance. Shortages in one region could be mitigated by the surplus in
others, showcasing the interconnectedness of the empire.
others, showcasing the interconnectedness of the empire.

These points highlight the grandeur, connectivity, and advancements in various aspects of the
Roman Empire during this period.

1. Luxury and Manufactures: The prosperity of the Roman Empire led to a flourishing of
luxury in dress, table, houses, and furniture. The moralists criticized such luxury, but it was seen as
a means to correct the unequal distribution of wealth.
2. Foreign Trade: Rome engaged in extensive foreign trade, acquiring goods from as far as
Scythia, the Baltic, and India. The annual trade with Arabia and India was particularly lucrative but
faced criticism for draining wealth from Rome.
3. Gold and Silver: Despite concerns about the drain of wealth, the proportion between gold
and silver increased within the Roman Empire. This suggests that while there was considerable
foreign trade, it did not deplete the overall wealth of the empire.
4. Public Felicity: The prosperity of the empire was acknowledged by both Romans and
provincials. The introduction of Roman laws, agriculture, and science was credited with uniting
diverse peoples and fostering peace and prosperity.
5. Decline of Courage: The long peace introduced a subtle decline in the military spirit. The
robust soldiers from Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Illyricum, while individually valiant, lost the public
courage driven by a sense of independence and national honor. Mercenary armies replaced the
once formidable legions.
6. Decline of Genius: The age of peace saw a decline in original literary and intellectual
achievements. While the love of letters was prevalent, the absence of writers with original genius
was noted. The study of ancient philosophers continued, hindering the emergence of new ideas.
7. Role of Barbarians: The barbarian invasions, particularly from the north, brought a new
vigor to the empire. The invaders, with their military strength, contributed to the overthrow of the
declining Roman order and eventually paved the way for the revival of learning and freedom in
Europe.

Chapter # 3:

. Definition of Monarchy: The author begins by defining monarchy and expressing the need for
vigilant guardians to protect public liberty.
2. Situation of Augustus: After the fall of the Roman Republic, Augustus (then Octavianus)
emerged victorious at the Battle of Actium. The fate of Rome rested on his decisions.
 3. Reformation of the Senate: Augustus reformed the Senate, expelling some members,
raising the qualification for senators, creating Patrician families, and accepting the title of Prince of
the Senate.
4. Resignation and Return to Power: Augustus, in a theatrical move, initially resigned his
extraordinary powers but was urged by the Senate to retain them, leading to a complex dynamic of
apparent self-sacrifice.
5. Power of Roman Generals: Roman generals, especially in distant provinces, had significant
power over soldiers and decisions of war. Their triumphs were often based on success rather than
justice.
6. Imperial Prerogatives: Augustus consolidated numerous powers, including supreme
pontiff and censor, and gained exemptions from certain laws. The Senate granted him authority to
execute what he deemed beneficial for the empire.
7. Magistrates and Senate’s Role: Traditional magistrates like consuls and tribunes still
existed but with diminished powers. The Senate played a role in the administration, and elections
were eventually transferred to the Senate.
8. Role of the Senate: The Senate became a more compliant instrument of imperial rule, its
dignity preserved but its actual influence significantly diminished. The emperor sought to align with
Patrician principles.

These points capture the transformation of Rome from a republic to an empire under Augustus,
emphasizing the centralization of power in the hands of the emperor while maintaining certain
façades of the old republican system.

1. Imperial System Definition: The Imperial system is described as an absolute monarchy hidden
behind the forms of a commonwealth.
2. Imperial Court: The emperors adopted a modest lifestyle, avoiding ostentatious displays
of power. Their families were composed mostly of domestic slaves and freedmen.
3. Deification of Emperors: The practice of deifying emperors was adopted, influenced by
Asiatic Greeks, and later emperors were often revered as provincial deities.
4. Titles of Augustus and Cæsar: Augustus and Cæsar were distinct titles. Augustus was a
personal designation for the monarch, while Cæsar was more freely given to relatives and became
associated with the heir presumptive.
5. Character and Policy of Augustus: Augustus is portrayed as a subtle tyrant with a cool
head, unfeeling heart, and cowardly disposition. His actions, virtues, and vices were considered
artificial, shaped by his interest.
 6. Image of Liberty for the People: Augustus, fearing the fate of Julius Caesar, aimed to
deceive the people by maintaining an image of civil liberty while consolidating his authority.
7. Attempt of the Senate after Caligula’s Death: The Senate, after 70 years of patience,
attempted to reassume its forgotten rights after Caligula’s murder. However, this effort failed due to
the intervention of the Prætorian guards.
8. Image of Government for the Armies: Augustus, fearing the power of the armies, sought to
maintain discipline through law, invoked Roman traditions, and positioned the Senate between
himself and the military to claim their allegiance.

These points highlight the complex dynamics of the Imperial system, including the manipulation of
appearances, the role of the Senate, and the challenges posed by both the people and the military.

The passage discusses the period from the death of Domitian to the accession of Commodus as a
time of relative prosperity and stability in the Roman Empire. During these years, the absolute power
of the emperors was guided by wisdom and virtue, leading to a general sense of happiness among
the people. The military was kept in check, and the forms of civil administration were preserved.
The reigns of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines are highlighted for their positive impact on
the Roman world.

The author contrasts this period with earlier times marked by tyrannical rule, mentioning infamous
emperors like Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, and Domitian. The passage reflects on the sensitivity of the
Romans to their freedom, in contrast to the Orientals who, under despotic rule, showed a certain
insensibility. The Romans, educated in the ideals of their ancestors and influenced by Grecian
philosophy, maintained a spirit of liberty even as they faced the challenges of imperial authority.

The text also explores the precarious nature of this happiness, acknowledging the looming threat
that a tyrant could abuse the absolute power, bringing an end to the prosperity. The author
emphasizes the Romans’ inability to escape from the oppressor due to the vast extent of the empire
and the lack of places to seek refuge.

Additionally, the passage touches upon the contrast between the Romans and the Orientals in terms
of their acceptance of tyranny. The Orientals, conditioned by their history and religion, were more
complacent, while the Romans, with their republican ideals, found it harder to accept despotic rule.

Overall, the passage paints a picture of a relatively stable and content period in the Roman Empire,
highlighting the virtues of the emperors and the lingering fear of a return to tyranny.

1. Period of Prosperity: The passage discusses a period from the death of Domitian to the
accession of Commodus as a time of relative prosperity and stability in the Roman Empire.
2. Wise and Virtuous Rule: The absolute power of emperors during this period was guided by
wisdom and virtue, leading to a sense of happiness among the people.
3. Positive Emperors: The reigns of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines are highlighted
for their positive impact on the Roman world.
4. Contrast with Earlier Tyranny: The passage contrasts this period with earlier times marked
by tyrannical rule, mentioning infamous emperors like Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, and Domitian.
5. Roman Sensitivity to Freedom: Romans were sensitive to their freedom, educated in the
ideals of their ancestors and influenced by Grecian philosophy, maintaining a spirit of liberty even
under imperial authority.
6. Precarious Happiness: The happiness of this period is considered precarious, with the
looming threat that a tyrant could abuse absolute power, bringing an end to prosperity.
7. Inability to Escape Oppression: Romans faced the challenge of being unable to escape
from the oppressor due to the vast extent of the empire and the lack of places to seek refuge.
8. Contrast with Orientals: Romans are contrasted with Orientals, who, conditioned by
history and religion, were more accepting of despotic rule.
9. Republican Ideals: The Romans, educated in the ideals of their ancestors, found it harder
to accept despotic rule despite facing the challenges of imperial authority.
10. Overall Stability with Lingering Fear: The passage presents a picture of a stable and
content period in the Roman Empire, highlighting the virtues of emperors, yet acknowledging the
lingering fear of a return to tyranny.

Chapter 4-6:

In chapters IV to VI, Gibbon discusses the collapse of the Antonine régime and the transformation of
the principate into the military monarchy of Severus. The weakening of the Senate’s authority and
the shift from republican ideals to monarchical power are highlighted. The influence of polished and
eloquent slaves from the eastern provinces in the Senate, promoting obedience to the emperor and
downplaying the value of freedom, is noted. The legal framework, with jurists like Papinian, Paulus,
and Ulpian, aligned itself closely with the monarchical system. Severus’ reign, initially praised for
peace and glory, is later seen as a catalyst for the decline of the Roman Empire, especially under
the tyrant Maximin in chapter VII.
the tyrant Maximin in chapter VII.

1. Transition to Monarchy: Gibbon discusses the decline of the Antonine régime and the
conversion of the principate into the military monarchy of Severus.
2. Senate’s Weakening Authority: The Senate, lacking popular election, military support, and
public spirit, sees its authority decline, giving way to the rising power of the emperor.
3. Erosion of Republican Ideals: The once cherished theory of a republic fades as the
tradition of republican maxims diminishes, making room for the more natural sentiments of
monarchy.
4. Imperial Power and Name: Despite avoiding the title of king, the Roman emperor wields
full regal power. The Senate’s authority diminishes, and the emperor is considered free from civil
laws, able to command lives, fortunes, and the empire itself.
5. Influence of Eastern Slaves: Polished slaves from the eastern provinces fill the Senate,
justifying flattery with principles of servitude. They advocate for passive obedience and warn of the
dangers of freedom.
6. Legal Perspective: Civil lawyers like Papinian, Paulus, and Ulpian, associated with the
house of Severus, contribute to the idea that the emperor holds authority through irrevocable
resignation by the Senate.
7. Severus’ Reign: Initially praised for peace and glory, Severus is later seen as a principal
contributor to the decline of the Roman Empire, with his maxims and examples negatively impacting
posterity.
8. Rise of Maximin: Severus’ establishment of a new form of government facilitates the rise
of the tyrant Maximin, a dramatic and lurid figure described in chapter VII of Gibbon’s work.

Chapter # 7:

1. Hereditary Monarchy: The author discusses the concept of hereditary monarchy and its
potential for ridicule, but also acknowledges its usefulness in establishing a stable rule of
succession.
2. Challenges in Electing a Monarch: The text argues that in a large society, the election of a
monarch by the people is impractical due to the lack of unity and wisdom among the populace.
3. Roman Empire’s Lack of Hereditary Succession: The Roman Empire faced turmoil due to
the absence of a clear hereditary succession. Ambitious individuals could rise to power, leading to
civil wars and unrest.
4. Maximin’s Rise to Power: Maximin, born of mixed barbarian heritage, rose through the
military ranks, gaining favor and eventually leading to his proclamation as emperor after the murder
of Alexander Severus.
5. Maximin’s Tyranny: Maximin’s rule is characterized by cruelty, suspicion, and persecution.
He targeted the noble class, leading to executions, confiscations, and exile.
6. Oppression of Provinces: Maximin’s avarice extended to confiscating public property,
including treasures from temples. This led to rebellion in some provinces, notably in Africa.
7. Gordian Family’s Revolt: Gordian, a respected senator, reluctantly accepts the title of
emperor in Africa, along with his son. The people hope for a return to virtuous rule reminiscent of
the Antonines.
8. Gordian’s Background: Gordian comes from an illustrious Roman family, possessing
wealth, cultural refinement, and a history of public service. His son is also described as having
diverse interests.

1. Gordians Seek Senate Approval: The Gordians, proclaimed emperors by Africa, seek the
approval of the Roman Senate, sending a delegation to Rome to justify their actions.
2. Senate Ratifies Election: The Senate, influenced by the nobility and the merits of the
Gordians, ratifies their election as emperors. This decision marks a shift from the previous
acceptance of Maximin, portraying a desire for a return to a more virtuous rule.
3. Maximin Declared Public Enemy: The Senate, led by Consul Syllanus, declares Maximin a
public enemy and urges resistance. This is fueled by Maximin’s tyrannical rule and the fear of
reprisals.
4. Maximus and Balbinus Elected: The Senate elects Maximus and Balbinus as emperors to
lead the defense against Maximin. Both emperors possess distinct qualities, with Balbinus known
for his wisdom and Maximus for his military achievements.
5. Tumult in Rome: The Roman people, fearing Maximin’s wrath, demand the inclusion of a
third emperor from the Gordian family. The situation becomes tumultuous, leading to a compromise
with the appointment of a young Gordian as Caesar.
6. Maximin’s Siege of Aquileia: Maximin, facing challenges, especially at Aquileia, encounters
obstacles in his attempts to conquer Italy. The citizens’ resilience and the strategic measures of the
Senate contribute to the difficulties faced by Maximin’s army.
7. Maximin’s Death: Discontent and rebellion within Maximin’s own ranks lead to his
downfall. The Praetorian guards, fearing for their families, turn against Maximin, resulting in his
death and the end of his reign of tyranny.
8. Maximus and Balbinus in Power: Maximus and Balbinus return triumphantly to Rome,
restoring hope for a better era. Their rule is marked by justice, the repeal of oppressive taxes, and
the enactment of wise laws to rebuild civil order.
9. Internal Strife in Rome: Despite external victories, internal strife plagues Rome. Balbinus
faces challenges in the Senate, with distrust and jealousy prevailing. A deadly conflict ensues,
revealing a lack of unity and stability.
10. Civil War in Rome: Rome experiences a civil war between factions supporting Balbinus and
those resentful of the Senate and Praetorians. The conflict causes widespread chaos, destruction,
and loss of life. Balbinus struggles to maintain order and reconcile the factions.

1. Maximus’ Assumption of Power: After the death of a tyrant, Maximus assumed control,
addressing the army with moderation and seeking their loyalty. However, the Praetorian Guards
remained discontent.
2. Discord Between Civil and Military Powers: The Senate elected emperors who were
perceived as weak by the Praetorian Guards, leading to a conflict between civil and military
authorities.
3. Massacre of Maximus and Balbinus: The Praetorian Guards, dissatisfied with the
emperors, orchestrated an attack on Maximus and Balbinus, leading to their gruesome deaths.
4. Rise of Gordian III: Amidst the chaos, Gordian III, only 19 years old, emerged as the choice
of the soldiers to fill the vacant throne, saving the empire from further civil war.
5. Innocence and Virtues of Gordian: Gordian’s early reign was influenced by his mother’s
eunuchs. However, he later found a capable minister, Misitheus, who guided him wisely.
6. Persian War: Under Misitheus, Gordian successfully dealt with a Persian invasion,
achieving early victories. Misitheus maintained discipline and ensured the well-being of the army.
7. Philip’s Rise and Murder of Gordian III: After Misitheus’ death, Philip, an Arab and former
robber, rose to power. Suspicion surrounds Gordian III’s death, with accusations of poison.
8. Philip’s Reign and Secular Games: Philip, seeking to legitimize his rule, celebrated the
secular games with grandeur. The passage reflects on the decline of the Roman Empire, comparing
it to earlier ages of strength and virtue.
9. Military Government: The military’s influence in Roman politics is highlighted, emphasizing
the soldiers’ role in electing and disposing of emperors.
10. Decline of the Roman Empire: The passage concludes with a reflection on the decline of
the Roman Empire, citing factors like internal corruption, a decline in discipline, and vulnerability to
external threats.

These points capture some of the political turmoil, military challenges, and broader reflections on
the state of the Roman Empire during this period.