Document Information

Analyzed document Zoology Mayur Sonawane PhD Thesis.docx (D158301890)

Submitted 2023-02-10 05:28:00

Submitted by KRC, KBCNMU, Jalgaon

Submitter email library@nmu.ac.in

Similarity 3%

Analysis address library.nmu@analysis.urkund.com

Sources included in the report

URL: https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf
55
Fetched: 2022-08-22 09:54:04

Entire Document
Assessment of livestock with special reference to the quality of milk, breeding performance, disease management and
new technologies involved in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra. A THESIS SUBMITTEDFOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE
OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ZOOLOGY
Supervised by : Submitted by : DR. SHUBHI MISHRA MAYUR. M. SONAWANE HEAD, SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND
RESEARCH : SC19APHDZO004
Faculty of Life Science SARDAR PATEL UNIVERSITY BALAGHAT, MP 2023 EXAMINER’S SHEET
This is to certify that the present work in the form of thesis entitled “Assessment of livestock with special reference to the
quality of milk, breeding performance, disease management and new technologies involved in Jalgaon district of
Maharashtra” is an original work carried out by Mr. Mayur.M. Sonawane, Reg No SC19APHDZO004 is approved for the
award of Ph.D. degree in Zoology in Department of School of Science and Research, Sardar Patel University
Date : Place: Sardar Patel University, Balaghat. M.P
Name and signature of External Examiner Name and Signature of Supervisor
DR. SHUBHI MISHRA
DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE
I declare that the thesis entitled “Assessment of livestock with special reference to the quality of milk, breeding
performance, disease management and new technologies involved in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra ” Is my own work
conducted under the supervision of DR. SHUBHI MISHRA at Department of School of Science and Research, Sardar Patel
University Approved by Research Degree Committee. I have put in more than 200 days /600 Hrs. of attendance with
supervisor at the centre. I further declare that to the best of my knowledge, the thesis has not formed the basis for the
award of any degree, diploma, associate ship or fellowship of similar other titles. It has not been submitted to any other
University or Institution for the award of any degree or diploma. Place: Sardar Patel University, Balaghat. M.P Date:
Mr. Mayur Mahendra Sonawane
CERTIFICATE OF SUPERVISOR
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Assessment of livestock with special reference to the quality of milk, breeding
performance, disease management and new technologies involved in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra ” has been
undertaken and written under my supervision and it describes the original research work carried out by Mr. Mayur
Mahendra Sonawane , in the faculty of Life Science, Sardar Patel University,Balaghat .M.P. For the Degree of Doctor of
Philosophy. I certify that the candidate has put in an attendance of more than 200 days /600 Hrs.with me. To the best of
my knowledge and belief, this work has not been submitted elsewhere for any degree of any other institution in India or
abroad.
DR. SHUBHI MISHRA
AFFIDAVIT
I Mayur M .Sonawane S/D/o Prof Mahendra Nathu Sonawane and Prof Dr Sandhya Mahendra Sonawane Registered in
Doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.), Subject in Sardar Patel University,Balaghat M.P I solemnly affirm that the thesis entitled
“Assessment of livestock with special reference to the quality of milk, breeding performance, disease management and
new technologies involved in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra” submitted by me is the result of my own original work
carried out under the supervision of Dr approved by the university.
Furthermore, I confirm that this thesis has not yet been submitted as part of another examination process neither in
identical nor in similar form in any other university. If these conditions found anywhere in my thesis at a later stage than
university can withdraw the degree.
Mayur Mahendra Sonawane
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This thesis could never be described as a solo effort, and would never have come in existence without the supervision,
assistance and support provided by the following individuals. To these people I would like to express my deepest
gratitude. First of all I want to take this moment to give tremendous thanks to the Chancellor of Sadar Patel university
Hon Dr. Diwakar Singh Sir, for providing me an opportunity to carry out my research at Sardar Patel University. I am
deeply grateful to Mr. Vireshwar Singh Pro- Chancellor, Sardar Patel University, Balaghat M.P for their encouragement
and support for the student. I express special thanks to Dynamic Personality Dr. Biplab Paul, Vice Chancellor, Sadar Patel
University, Balaghat for his Sincerity , Motivation and vision has deeply inspired me. I would like like to express gratitude
to Miss Swati Jaiswal, Registrar , Sadar Patel University. I would like to thank Mr. Anil Pandey, Dy. Register for helping me
at every step of my journey. Thank you, Dy. E Surya Pratap singh sir, for being Incredible advice and Co-operation. I
would Like to thank Dr.Tryambak Hiwarkar, Dean – Research, whose invaluable feedback greatly influence how I
conducted my experiments and interpreted my findings. I am highly indebted and grateful to Dr. Divya Parashar madam
for her continuous support and cooperation. I avail this opportunity with immense pleasure to express my deep sense of
gratitude and indebtedness for her valuable advices at the hour of need. I am extremely grateful to my supervisor Hon.
Dr. Shubhi Mishra mam for their invaluable advice, continuous support and patience during my Ph.D. study. I feel very
fortunate to have an opportunity to work under her patient supervisor. I thankfully appreciate the encouragement and
help received from Prof. Dr. Prakash Lohar, Professor and Head Department of Zoology and Biotechnology. I would like
to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. Dr. Santoshji Chavhan, Joint Director Higher Education Jalgaon, for his
continuous moral support and his inspiration to complete PhD.. An immense thanks to Dadasaheb Prof. Dr. Sanjay
Sonawane for their unconditional support and guidance. I am also grateful to our sanstha’s secretary Hon.Shri. Nileshji
Bhoite, Chairman, Vice- chairman, Directors, all teaching and non-teaching members of our ACS College, Yawal. I would
like to acknowledge MGSM ASC College, Chopda Dist- Jalgaon, Principal ACS College Yawal and Quality Control
Jalgaon Jilha Sahakari Dudh Utpadak Sangh Maryadit, Jalgaon for providing me the characterization research facilities. I
am grateful for the grate guidance I received from my grandparents, specially Late Aappa Saheb Mr N.K Sonawane,
Aaisaheb Late Mrs Saraswati Patil. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my father Prof. Mahendra Sonawane,
Mother Prof. Sandhya Sonawane (Offg. Principal), my elder sister Jaytee Patil, Brother- in- law Kunal Patil, our little Saavi
and Shubhu, my wife Tanaya, Father-in-law, shri Rajendra Patil, Mother- in -law Mrs. Vaishali Patil, Chi. Nayan Patil, all
Sonawane and Nikam family members without their tremendous understanding and encouragement in the past few
years it would be impossible for me to complete my study.
Mr. Mayur Mahendra Sonawane. Research Scholar
LIST OF TABLE
Sr No Table number Description 1 Table 1.1 Phenotypic Characters of Sangamneri goat 2
Table 1.2 The pH values of milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo 3
Table 1.3 Lactometer reading (LR) and Specific gravities
of goat, cow and buffalo milk samples 4 Table 1.4 Values of titratable acidity (%) of milk samples of goat, cow and Surti
buffalo 5
Table 1.5
Concentration of total solids in milk samples collected form goat, cow and buffalo 6 Table 1.6
The
percentage of SNF in milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo 7 Table 1.7 Ash content in the milk samples collected from
goat, cow and buffalo 8
Table 1.8 Fat content (%) in milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo 9 Table 1.9 Protein
content (%) in milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo 10 Table 1.10 Lactose
content in milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo 11 Table 1.11 Water content in milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo 12
Table 1.12 Nitrogen distribution in milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo 13 Table 1.13 Calcium, Magnesium,
Phosphorous and Chloride content in milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo. 14
Table 2.1 Periodical Physiological response of Sangamneri goat in hot dry (HD) and hot humid (HH) season 14 Table 2.2
Periodical Physiological response of Nimari cow in hot dry (HD) and hot humid (HH) season 15 Table 2.3 Periodical
Physiological response of Surti buffalo in hot dry (HD) and hot humid (HH) season 16 Table 2.4 Variation in milk
composition of Sangamneri goat in hot dry (HD) and hot humid (HH) season 17 Table 2.5 Variation in milk composition of
Sangamneri goat in hot dry (HD) and hot humid (HH) season 18 Table 2.6 Variation in milk composition of Surti buffalo in
hot dry (HD) and hot humid (HH) season 19 Table 2.7 Overview of dairy cow heat stress indices (HSIs 20 Table 2.8
Different heat stress models for formulating temperature humidity indices. 21
Table 3.1 Demographic and Animal husbandry characteristics of smallholders or livestock producers in different tehsils of
Jalgaon district. 22 Table 3.2 Animal health management practices of smallholder or livestock producers participating in a
cross-sectional study in Jalgaon district in 2019-2020. 23 Table 3.3 Animal with different problems in hoof 24 Table 4.1
Animal Farm and farmers’ characteristics non-respondents and all livestock respondents and of respondents to ruminant
farming in Jalgaon district. 25 Table 4.2 Frequencies (%) of adoption of electronic sensors and measuring devices,
electronic controls and data-processing options in cattle farms of Jalgaon district in Maharashtra
LIST OF FIGURE
Sr No Figure Number Description 1 Figure:1.1 A)Map of India showing states and Union Territories B) Map of Maharashtra
showing 35 districts states 2
Figure 1.2. Map of Jalgaon district showing 15 Tehsils and adjoining boundaries 3
Figure 1.3 Sangamneri goat raised in Jalgaon district 4 Figure 1.4 Nimari cow raised in Jalgaon district 5 Figure 1.5 Surti
buffalo raised in Jalgaon district 6 Figure 1.6 Surveying the
dairy farms and analysis of milk samples collected in Jalgaon district
of Maharashtra during the study period. 7 Figure 2.1 A &B Shape of teats of Sangamneri goat 8 Figure 2.2 A &B Milking
and suckling of milk by kid of Sangamneri goat 9 Figure 2.3 Nimari cow-Female and Male 10 Figure 2.4 Surti buffalo-
Female and Male 11 Figure 3.1 The location of smallholder of Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo in Jalgaon
district participated in the survey. 12 Figure 3.2 A & B Symptoms of foot root disease in Sangamneri goat 13 Figure 3.3 A &
B Symptoms of Foot and mouth disease in cow 14 Figure 3.4 Buffalo infected with lumpy skin disease 14 Figure 3.5 Cow
infected with lumpy skin disease 15 Figure 41. Cowlar, a wearable that can be attached to cows on a collar and used to
better manage a herd of dairy bovines. 16
Figure 4.2 Automation in Dairy cows in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra 17 Figure 4.3 The miRobot used as milking
machine in dairy cattle farming in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra 17 Figure 4.4 Use of GPS and cattle monitoring system
in Dairy farms of Jalgaon district of Maharashtra 18 Figure 4.5 Milk fresher technology in dairy farm of Jalgaon district.
LIST OF ABRREVATIONS
• AICRP: All India Coordinated Research Project
• AOAC: Official Methods of Analysis
• APHA: American Public Health Association
• B2B: Business-to-business
• B2C: Business to customer
• BAHS: Basic animal husbandry statistics
• BGT: Black-globe temperature
• CCI: Comprehensive climate index
• CHSZ: Critical Heat stress zone
• CLR: Correct Lactometer Reading
• DAHD: Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying
• DCAD: Dietary cation-anion difference
• DMI: Directorate of Marketing & Inspection
• DMI: Dry matter intake
• ETI: Ethical treading initiative
• FAO: Food and agriculture organization
• FDM :Five Domains Model
• FMD: Foot and Mouth Disease
• FMDCP: Foot-and-mouth disease control programme
• FSO: Federal Statistical Office
• FSSA: Food Safety and Standards Act
• GDP: Gross Domestic production
• GIS: Geographic Information System
• HD: Hot dry
• HH: Hot humid
• HLI: Heat load index
• HLI: Heat lead index
• HSZ: Heat stress zone
• IFAD: International Fund for Agricultural Development
• IFDA: International Foodservice Distributors Association
• IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
• IT: Information technology
• ITSC: Index for thermal stress for cow
• LSD: Lumpy skin disease
• MSPI: Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
• NCN: Non-casein nitrogen
• NDCIS: National Disease Control Information System
• NDDB: National Dairy Development Board NDDB
• NDRI: National Dairy Research Institute;
• NPN: Non-protein nitrogen
• NR: Non-return rate
• NSSO: National sample survey office
• PCM: Phase Changing Material
• PLF: Precision Livestock Farming
• QR: Quick response
• RFID: Radio Frequency Identification
• RH: Relative humidity
• RR: Respiration rate
• SAARC: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
• SDAH: State Departments of Animal Husbandry
• SNF: Solid Not Fat
• TH: Humidity Index
• TNZ: Thermoneutral zone
• TS:Total Solids
• UN: United Nations
• UNEP: Nations Environment Programme
• UNPD: United Nations Population Division
• UNPF: United Nations Population Fund
• USGCRP: United State Global Change Research Program
• UT: Union territory
• WMO: World Meteorological Organization
• WS: Wind speed
LIST OF GRAPH
Sr No Graph Number Description 1 Graph 1 Comparative population of four major species of livestock in India 2 Graph 2
Comparative livestock population in 10 major states of India 3 Graph 3 Total cattle,Male cattle and female cattle 2012 and
2019 4 Graph 4 Cattle Population, 2012 & 2019 in 10 major states in India 5 Graph 5 Buffalo population in Livestock
population Census 2012 & 2019 6 Graph 6 Buffalo Population during Livestock Census 2012 & 2019 in 10 major states of
India 7 Graph 7 Sheep population in 2012 and 2019 in India 8 Graph 8 Sheep Population in 2012 & 2019 in 10 states/UT
of India 9 Graph 9 Categorised Goat Population in 2012 & 2019 in India 10 Graph 10 Goat Population in census 2012 &
2019 in 10 states of India 11 Graph 2.1 Comparison of average high and low temperature of Jalgaon and Delhi in 2021. 12
Graph 2.2 The average temperature in Jalgaon and Delhi during year 2021. 13 Graph 2.3 Average wind speed in Jalgaon
and Delhi during 2021 14 Graph 2.4 Average wind speed in Jalgaon during 2021 14 Graph 2.5 Monthly precipitation rates
in Jalgaon district during 2021. 15 Graph 2.6 Monthly precipitation rates in Jalgaon district during 2021. 16 Graph 2.7
Humidity comfort levels in Jalgaon district during year 2021
INDEX
SR. NO PARTICULARS PAGE. NO 1 Preface 1 2 Introduction 16 3 Literature Review 61 4 Material and Methods 77 5 Result
and Discussion 93 6 Summary, Conclusion and Future Prospects 174 7 Refecences 187
Abstract
Milk samples of Surti Buffalo had higher pH, titratable acidity, total solids, solid not-fat (SNF), ash, fat, protein, lactose,
total Nitrogen and some selected minerals viz., Calcium, Phosphorous and Chloride content than Nimari cow and
Sangamneri goat. Whereas Sangamneri goat milk samples were having higher water and magnesium content than that
of milk samples collected from Nimari cow and Surti buffalo. The results of the present part of investigation help to
suggest that milk of Surti buffalo was rich source of macro nutrients (fat, protein, lactose and selected minerals than that
of Nimari cow milk. Surti buffalo milk was more energetic, than that of milk of Nimari cow and Sangamneri goat.
The adoption of digital technologies in livestock farming in Maharshtra in general and Jalgaon district in special varies
strongly between different agricultural groups and is most common on large specialist ruminant livestock farms. The
industrial revolution has made a radical change in the production method and systems throughout the world. The net
result has been the more comfortable animal, higher production, and decreased labor. The rapid penetration of these
new age technologies will provide a further layer of sophistication of farm work and new strategies in animal production.
Future disease trends are likely to be heavily modified by disease surveillance and control technologies.In general, easy-
to-use sensors and measuring devices, for example, integrated in the milking automated system is more widespread than
data-processing technologies. Animal husbandry system also determines the use of digital technologies, with the result
that farmers with tie stall barns are less likely to use digital technologies than farmers with loose housing systems. Studies
of farmers’ personal determinants of adoption and prospects of implementation can help identify further barriers to the
adoption of digital technologies.
Key Words -
pH, titratable acidity, total solids, solid not-fat (SNF), fat, protein, lactose, total Nitrogen Calcium, Phosphorous and
Chloride, Nimari cow, Sangamneri goat,
digital technologies, milking automated system, agricultural groups
PREFACE Animal husbandry comprises rearing of animals and other schemes like cattle farming, fisheries, and poultry
farming. Animal husbandry is a side branch of agriculture which is associated with ranching of domestic animals inclusive
of breeding, feeding and providing shelter to them. Cattle farming involves hearing of two types of animals such as cow
and ox where cow as food purpose and ox help in ploughing that is farm work. It is considered to improve standard of
living of farmer means helps their living conditions. Cattle are domestic ungulates, a member of sub family Bovini of the
family Bovidi. Cattle farming is conducted for two main purposes such as dairy and draught.In Dairy farms, animals which
are reared for extraction of milk. Examples of milch breeds are cows, goats, buffaloes, etc. and under the category of
draught, Animals are used in agricultural and transportation purpose such as to pull bullock cart, irrigation for example
horse, he buffaloes and Ox. Indian cattle belong to two distinct species viz.,Bos indicus i.e., ox and Bos bubalis i.e.,
buffalo. Both species have distinct characteristics and do not interbreed. Bullocks are still used in rural areas. Firstly, they
were used for all the purposes such as field work, transportation etc. But now a days the bullock is replaced by the
mechanical power of machineries. Bullock is so useful in human life, there are some limitations for them, and then also
the bullock is use for farming in the rural area by common farmers. Cattle farming plays a vital role in the life of farmer.
Those farmers who do cattle farming are all days busy even in off season of farming. In the prevailing condition the
farmers can do this animal husbandry as a side business which helps him financially. Cows, buffalos and goat share the
main animals which convert the wastages of the farm in to a useful product the milk. Cattle are source of Milk that is the
main source of protein and used by all the vegetarian’s, who do not eat meat and fish in their diets. In addition, the cow
dung is to increases the fertility of the soil. Although the climatic conditions in India are very adverse, the cow is the
animal which is use for the milk purpose which is the subsidy occupation to the farming. The Indian breeds of cattle are
collectively known as Zebu in Europe and South America. In the United States they are called Bhrama. In recent years
cattle have attracted great attention in foreign countries for crossing with local breeds and for the development of new
breeds. They have good qualities of endurance, docile temperament, resistance to tropical diseases and ability to utilize
coarse forage. A new breed called Santa Gertrudes have been evolved by crossing bulls of Indian breeds with short horns
cows. They can stand heat well. These characteristics have made these cattle very popular in area of the southern part of
the United States, especially for developing hardy beef cattle.
DUAL PURPOSE OF DAIRY CATTLES: - Kankrej: It is an Indian breed. These are found in Dessa in east to extremes of
Radhanpur district of west. It is most powerful and heaviest of all Indian breeds. Bullocks are fast and strong. Cows of this
breeds is fairly good milkers. The udder of these is of well-shaped and medium size. The legs are strong and hard hoofs.
Cattle color is silver and iron grey. Females are lighter than males Narrow face is seen and fore head is slightly dished.
The big eyes have wrinkles above eyelids. The Krishna valley breeds: The animals belong to this category found in the
southern portion of Bombay and Hyderabad state. They are found mostly in Solapur, Miraj, Sangli, Belgaum, Satara
district. In black cotton soil, the bullocks are very much useful. Cows are fairly milkers. The barrel if these is deep and legs
are short with tail almost touching the hock. Horns are thick curving upwards and outwards. Gaolao: Found in Wardha
Chindwara district of Madhya Pradesh. The cow is white and males are grey over the neck, hump and quarters. The long,
narrow bodies are present. Muscular and short legs. Haryana: This dual-purpose breed found in Rohtak, Karnal, Hissar,
Gurgaon, district of Hayana and Delhi. It is a medium heavy. These have long and narrow face, small heads, short and
horizontal horns, which grows laterally and curve upwards. The barrel is long and compact Legs are long and sturdy.
They are generally white and light grey in colour. Legs are sturdy and with well-shaped hoofs. The tails are thin and short.
The cow udder is well developed. The barrel is well developed. Mewati (Kosi): Origin of this breed is from the kosi of
Mathura district and former states of Bharatpur and Alwar. The bullocks are Small but very powerful for working. The
cows are fair milkers. The animals have medium size head, thick horn, bulging forehead, horns curving inward, backward,
and outward. Ongole (Nellore): The main characteristic of these animal are having the medium size head and broad
forehead. Horns are short and stumpy. Barrel of these animals is deep. Tail is long and tapering Breed belongs to the
region of Nellore and Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. Also seen in the arid districts of Godavari and Krishna. The
bullocks are heavy and powerful, are not use for fast work, suitable for cart work and ploughing. Cows of these are good
milkers. The udder is medium size and teats are evenly placed. Tharparkar: This animal is having medium size head and
the forehead is broad. Horns are curved upwards and they are placed apart from each other in the same line that of pole.
They are medium in length fairly thick at the base. The udder is large and well developed with good sized teat. The breed
is generally white or red. It is a dual-purpose breed. It belongs to the arid region of Tharparkar district in West Pakistan.
BREADS OF DAIRY CATTLES: - Deoni: It originates from north- western and western parts of Andhra Pradesh. The colour
varies considerably. These are present in red and white colour and black and white is most commons in them. This is a
medium size bread. It mostly resembles the Gir breed. Deoni cow are good milk producers. Average yield is about 650
kilograms. The teats are well placed and wedge- shape barrel is the characteristic feature. This breed is having slightly
prominent forehead, medium size pendulous ears, head is of medium size and thick horns curving outward and
backward. Gir: Gir breed is present in Gir forest of south Kathiawar and Junagadh, also in western Rajputana, northern
Maharashtra and Baroda. Gir is the medium size animal. It is a good milker. They produce about 850 litres of milk in their
lactation period of about 290 days. In best breads herds average lactation yield is 1550 kilograms. Forehead of these is
bulging type massive heads, face is small and narrow. Ears of these are pendulous. The medium thick horns curve
upwards, forwards and backward. The face of the Gir is narrow with the ears pendulous and leaves like making notch at
tip. The colour of Gir cow is black and red, red and white etc. The horns are thick and move backward and ending in
sweep. The barrel is round and long deep. Legs are well proportionated and teats are well placed. Sindhi (Red Sindhi): It
belongs to the West Pakistan nearby to Karachi. It includes the north west of it. It spreads around the Indus River banks.
The progeny of these is mostly found in the Tamil Nadu, Mysore, Orissa and Punjab. These are high milk yielder. Milk yield
in these animals is about 1,110 kilogram in their 300 days of lactation period. Best breads of these group yield about 1,760
kilograms of milk. Character of this bread is having red colour and some are having white dots. Moderated head size.
Horns are short and thick, they move laterally from pole curving upwards, forward and inward with having ends blunt.
Legs are short. The barrel deep, long, wedge shape. Tail is long. The udders are of medium size teats. Sahiwal
(Montgomery): This bread is generally red and light red in colour. Some are having white patches too. This is fleshy,
medium size. This is a milk producing breads. It is a bread present in large cities of India such as Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,
Delhi and Bihar. The characters of this breads is having the head long and size of forehead is medium. The barrel is
wedge shape. Horns are short and thick. They do not suit the wet climatic condition. Individual cow yields about 4,550
kilograms of milk. Legs are short. Back is long. The udder is well developed with good size teats.
Indian Buffalo In India some various animals are found in domestic category, buffalo is the one of the domestic animals.
They are found in large number. They are also mostly present in the countries such as China, Philippines, Thailand, and
Pakistan. Buffalo seen in India is different from that of the Europe. In India there are six breeds of buffaloes found in the
entire India. There are some local breeds also present, such as Toda buffalo from Nilgiri hills, Parlakmedi in Orissa,
Bhadawari in Uttar Pradesh. The horns, which are flatten and triangular in cross section, there is a well-marked ridge on
the anterior half of the back of buffalo are the distinguishing features of buffaloes
Breeds of Buffaloes Jaffrabadi: Breed is found in the purest form. The colour of this breed is complete black with the
white patches on the face and legs. It is present in the Gir forest of Kathiawar, especially towards the Jaffrabadi. Individual
have yielded up to 16 to 19 kilograms of milk per day. These are heavy milkers. The udder is large and well developed.
Bulging prominent forehead, heavy head, broad flat horns drooping on each side of head. Surti: Charottar tract of Gujrat
comprising Kaira and Baroda districts. They all are also present in Anand, Nadiad, Petlad, and Barsad. The female are
economical producers of milk and are important to Bombay city. Best specimen has yielded 2,300 to 2,450 kilograms in
a lactation. The colour of Surti breeds is black or brown with hairs which are silver in colour. The characteristics of animal
is long and thin tail, well developed udder, wedge shape body, legs are of medium size, broad and long head, flat and
sickles shaped horns, forehead is bulging type. Murrah: Breed belongs to the southern Punjab, Haryanaand Union
Territory of Delhi. The characteristics of the breed is small and clean head, body is massive, deep and wedge shape, well
developed udder, good size teats, forehead is slightly prominent, horns flat and turning backwards, upwards, and curling
inward in the spiral form. The best breeding tract comprises district of Rohtak, Hissar, Jind, Nabha, and Patiala. This breed
is known about producing the fat and milk. Average yield of lactation is about the 1,450, to 1,850 kilograms of milk per
day. The animals are black in colour with white marking tail’s tip. Nili: The home of the breed is Montgomery district of
West Pakistan and Firozpur district of Punjab. This breed drives the name from the deep water of Sutlej River. Males are
commonly useful for heavy drafts. Female of this breed are heavy milkers. The average milk yield is 1,600 kilogram in
lactation period of 250 days. The usual colour is black with white marking on the forehead, face, legs, and switch.
Mehsana: Breed is local to the Baroda and neighbouring area. Breed have heavy head, light limb with well-developed
udder. Colour of the animal is black and white marking on the legs and tip of the tail. They are valued for their early
maturity, persistently in milk production and regularly in breeding. Nagpuri (Ellichpuri): These animals have long head,
long horns, they are curved on the back of the neck, barrel is long and deep with limb, tail comparatively short. These are
slow mover. Females are fair milkers. Daily average yield is 4 to 7 kilograms of milk.
Breeds of Goat In western countries Toggenburgs, Saanens, Alpines, Anglo Nubian are four breeds of goat, which gives
best milk production. These all-goat breeds are introduced in India to improve the milk production of the goat.
Toggenburg: The Toggenburgs goat originated in Switzerland and is the most common goat in United States. One of the
first animal to be reared by man was goat. References are made to goat in early Biblical literature, where it provides the
milk, meat and manure and was commonly used for sacrificial purposes at ceremonies. It is known as the poor man’s
cow. In Switzerland the milch goat is known to be the Swiss baby foster mother. The goat is an animal that adapts itself
readily to any climate. Goat’s milk is wholesome and nourishing. It is considered especially suitable for invalids and
infants on account of its easy digestibility. In India goat is the animal which produces the principle meat. Goat is the
animal whose growth is quick. As the weight of the goat reaches up to 35 kilograms, the goat can breed and then the
new young one can take birth and thus lactation starts within a year. At the age of 12 months goat can breed. The
gustation period of goat is up to 5 months. Goats feed less than the cow and buffalo. Goat milk is easily digested as
compared to the other animals. Goat milk is somewhat similar to that of human milk in proteins and percent of fat. Ash
content in goat milk is more than human milk. Sugar content is less than human milk. As the globule size of milk in the
goat is small so it is easily digested so it is recommended for medicinal use. Some children are allergic to the cow milk so
goat milk is mostly use. Dairy goats provide stable income, help to solve unemployment problems. Goat manure
increases the crops and soil fertility.
Breeds of goats in India 1) Jamunapari Breed – Found in Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh. 2) Barbartri – It is dairy type
goat. Found in Uttar Pradesh, Agra, Mathura 3) Beetal (Amritsari) – Mainly found in Punjab 4) Surti – Mainly found in
Gujarat state. 5) Kashmiri – Found in the hilly tracts of Kashmir and Tibet 6) Gaddi and Chamba – Found in Punjab and
Chamba and Himachal Pradesh 7) Pashmina – Reared in Ladakh Himachal Pradesh 8) Marwari – Reared in Rajasthan 9)
Osmanabadi – Mainly found in Usmanabad district and Andra Pradesh 10) Sangmaneri- Reared mainly in Nashik,
Ahamadnagar and Pune district of Maharashtra. 10) Malbari – Found ibn Malabar in north Kerala. 11) Bengal goat – Found
in West Bengal, Assam
1.Phenotypic Characters of Osmanabadi Goat 1 Colour Predominantly black 2 Ears Drooping 3 Horns Turned backward 4
Forehead Convex 5 Height 65to 70 cm 6 Girth 65to 70 cm 7 Length 60to 65 cm 2. Weights 1 Weight at birth 2.5kg 2
Wt.of full grown Female 30to 35 kg 3 Wt.of full grown Female 45to 50 kg 3.Reproductive Characters
Ageat Maturity 7to 8 Months 2 Ageat 1st pregnancy 8to 9 Months 3 Ageat 1st kidding 13to 14 Months 4 Male:Female 1 : 1
The systematic position of Surti goat: Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class Mammalia Order Artiodactyla Family
Bovidae Sub Family Caprinae Genus Capra Species Aegagrus Subspecies hircus
The Surti is an Indian breed of goat, from the state of Maharashtra. Its yield of milk an average of 178 litres of milk in a
lactation averaging 166 days. Kid’s weight is about 23 kg in first year of life. Surti is the one of the best breeds in India,
usually distributed in periphery of district of Baroda, Surat and Nasik. They are in 4 to 5 in numbers. They can survive in
adverse conditions. They can graze outside area. They can feed on any food wastage and leaves so they are
economically very good. Female goat is bigger than male goat. They have short legs. They are coat colour white. They
have developed udder and conical teats. Their horns are short and curved in backward direction. The ears are medium
curled, drooping, flat, etc. Usually, surti goat gives birth to single young one in a year. This breed is very good to rear in
India than the other breeds.
Table: Characters of Surti goat 1 Colour Predominantlywhite 2 Ears Flabby& hanging 3. Udder Pattern Well grown 4.
Horns Running backwards & slightly curved 5. Weight at Birth 2.1 k gs 6. Adult weight 25-30 k gs 7. Average Wt. at 1st
kidding 21 months 8. Milk Production Good milch breed giving 1 to 1.5 Kg/day on an average with lactation yield of 120-
150 K gs.
These goats can feed on the Jowar, Bajara, Barley, CO1, CO2 grasses, peanut grass Sorghum, Hybrid green grasses for
healthy weight gain and good yield. Kids consumes the mother milk for 3 months of their like and also eat green grasses.
Thers goat have higher progeny ratio. Surti goat can give birth to twins or triplets and can increase the goat number very
fast. These goats are reared for the goad quality milk yield and meat too. Performance of Surti Goat:
• Kidding: The Surti goat gives birth to their young ones after 12 to 13 months. The most cases they give birth to twins
and in rare cases triplets take birth.
• Milk: Surti goat is a good milk producer. They produce 1 to 1.5 liters per day.
1. Phenotypic Characters Konkan Kanyal goat 1 Colour Black, white marking on collar & lower jaw, ventral surface white.
2 Ears Black with white margin, flat open, long drooping. 3 Horns Backward, straight, pointed. 4 Forehead Flat & broad,
black in colour. 2. Weights 1 Wt.at birth 1.76 to 2.19 Average1.19 Kg. 3. Sex Male
Body weight(kg)=52.57
Height(cms) = 83
Girth(cms)= 90
Length(cms)=84 Female Body weight(kg)=32.83
Height(cms) = 68.8
Girth(cms)= 74
Length(cms)=71
Konkan Kanyal goats are medium-sized animals reared for meat purpose. They are predominantly black in colour with
white markings in a specific pattern of the body. The population of this goat belonging to different sex and age groups
are existing in the different villages of Kudal, Doda Margi, Malvan, Verungla and Sawantwari tehsils of Sindhudurg district
of Konkan region of Maharashtra state of India.
Konkan Kanyal GOAT A) Male B) Female COW (NIMARI): Nimari cow has the features of both the cows such as Khillari
and Gir breeds (Tapi Valley Strain). The colour, convexity of forehead, massiveness matches to Gir. Its hardiness, agility
and temper resemble the Khillari breed. Appearance of Nimari cow is well proportionated and compact. They are red in
colour, with white patches on the entire body. Head is moderately long with bulging fore head. Appearance is graceful.
Horns are similar to Gir cow, having directed backward direction. Sometimes in some species the horns are similar to
that of the Khillari cow in size and shape and the color is copper. Ears ate not pendulous, but they are wide. Body is
strong with a straight back and arched ribs. Hips are somewhat similar to Gir. They have long and thin tail. Limbs are
straight and clean. Hooves of the animal are strong and casn stand on rough or stony ground. Skin is fine and slightly
loose. Udders is well developed. This is a breed of domestication. It is native to the Nimar region. It is good for milk
production. Nimari cow give average amount of milk. Their milk is of good quality and contains about 4.9 % fat.
Surti Buffalo: Surti is a breed of water buffalo. Found in Gujarat. The colour of Surti breeds is black or brown with hairs
which are silver in colour. The characteristics of animal is long and thin tail, well developed udder, wedge shape body,
legs are of medium size, broad and long head, flat and sickles shaped horns, forehead is bulging type. Charottar tract of
Gujrat comprising Kaira and Baroda districts. They all are also present in Anand, Nadiad, Petlad, and Barsad. The female
are economical producers of milk and are important to Bombay city. Best specimen has yielded 2,300 to 2,450 kilograms
in a lactation. It is generally viewed as family business that has been passed down from generations to generations. In
India, dairy farming and agriculture go hand in hand. The farmers rear cows and buffalo along with their full-time
agriculture business, to make some extra bucks. As the time passed, this so-called family business found its way into a
new era of dairy farming that was much more organized, technologically advanced and as a result much more profitable.
However, in earlier times, the hard fact is that instead of being an asset to the farmers/dairy farmers, it has started turning
into a loss-making business for them. Low productivity and high cost of milch animals, heir upkeep, their vaccination,
lack of fodder management, and higher number of manpower hours being put into the care of the animals started is
affecting the dairy farming business in the country. Through present study, the focus is on the study of comparative study
on composition of milk and its nutritional value. The effect of sultriness on production and breeding performance of
livestock is significant part of this research project. The disease management and role of new technologies in livestock
production is also add the value in the thesis.
INTRODCUTION
Increasing size of population of human beings, need for shelter and food are strongly intrgrated factors. The food
dependency of human beings is on animal and plant sources. Every living being on the earth is suffering from population
explosion. Livestocks, rared for milk and meat, are the best source of food for human population. It becomes quite
inevitable to study the nutritional values and composition of milk, effect of heat on their physiology, breeding
performance, prevalence of diseases and status of new technologies in livestock management. United Nations
Population Division (UNPD, 2008) estimated that Human population in 2050 is estimated to be 9.15 billion. Most of the
increase is projected to take place in developing countries including India. East Asia will have shifted to negative
population growth by the late 2040s (FAO, 2010). In contrast, population in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) will still be growing
at 1.2 per cent per year. Rapid population growth could continue to be an important impediment to achieving
improvements in food security in some countries, even when world population as a whole cease growing sometime
during the present century. Another important factor determining demand for food is urbanization. As of the end of
2008, more people now live-in urban settings than in rural areas (UNFPA 2008), with urbanization rates varying from less
than 30 per cent in South Asia to near 80 per cent in developed countries and Latin America. The next few decades will
see unprecedented urban growth, particularly in Africa and Asia. Urbanization has considerable impact on patterns of
food consumption in general and on demand for livestock products in particular: urbanization often stimulates
improvements in infrastructure, including cold chains, and this allows perishable goods to be traded more widely
(Delgado, 2005). A third driver leading to increased demand for livestock products is income growth. Between 1950 and
2000, there was an annual global per capita income growth rate of 2.1 per cent (Maddison, 2003). As income grows, so
does expenditure on livestock products (Steinfeld et al, 2006). Economic growth is expected to continue into the future,
typically at rates ranging from between 1.0 and 3.1 per cent (van Vuuren, 2009). Growth in industrialized countries is
projected to be slower than that in developing economies (Rosegrant et al. 2009). India has the world's largest livestock
population accounting for over 37.28 per cent of cattle, 21.23 per cent of buffalo, 26.40 per cent of goats and 12.17 per
cent of sheep. The livestock industry in India is making rapid strides forward and plays a multifaceted role in providing
livelihood support to the rural population. Livestock sector contributes approximately 4% GDP and 25.6% to agriculture
GDP. Poultry and dairy sectors are the major sectors contributing to the economic development. Livestock sector
provides employment generation opportunities, asset creation, coping mechanism against crop failure and social and
financial security. The livestock sector globally is highly dynamic. In developing countries, it is evolving in response to
rapidly increasing demand for livestock products. In developed countries, demand for livestock products is stagnating,
while many production systems are increasing their efficiency and environmental sustainability. Historical changes in the
demand for livestock products have been largely driven by human population growth, income growth and urbanization
and the production response in different livestock systems has been associated with science and technology as well as
increases in animal numbers. In the future, production will increasingly be affected by competition for natural resources,
particularly land and water, competition between food and feed and by the need to operate in a carbon-constrained
economy. Developments in breeding, nutrition and animal health will continue to contribute to increasing potential
production and further efficiency and genetic gains. Livestock production is likely to be increasingly affected by carbon
constraints and environmental and animal welfare legislation. Demand for livestock products in the future could be
heavily moderated by socio-economic factors such as human health concerns and changing socio-cultural values.
Livestock systems have both positive and negative effects on the natural resource base, public health, social equity and
economic growth (World Bank 2009). Cow, Buffalo, Goat and Sheep are the animals which are mostly reared and are
very useful animals. These animals are useful as they provide the essential things to the mankind. They give milk, meat,
cheese, etc. these are the most beautiful animals. Cattle are the animals which have more uses than the cost which is
required for their rearing. Cattle farming is done on large scale to complete the increasing demands of milk and meat.
Cow and buffalo manure is more useful for the crop yield.Currently, livestock is one of the fastest growing agricultural
sub sectors in developing countries. Its share of agricultural GDP is already 33 per cent and is quickly increasing. This
growth is driven by the rapidly increasing demand for livestock products, this demand being driven by population
growth, urbanization and increasing incomes in developing countries (Delgado, 2005).
The global livestock sector is characterized by a dichotomy between developing and developed countries. Total meat
production in the developing world tripled between 1980 and 2002, from 45 to 134 million tons (World Bank 2009).
Much of this growth was concentrated in countries that experienced rapid economic growth, particularly in East Asia,
and revolved around poultry and pigs. In developed countries, on the other hand, production and consumption of
livestock products are now growing only slowly or stagnating, although at high levels.
As per Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, In India Gross Value Added (GVA) at current prices for the
services sector is estimated at 96.54 lakh crore INR in 2020-21. The services sector accounts for 53.89% of total India's
GVA of 179.15 lakh crore Indian rupees. With GVA of Rs. 46.44 lakh crore, the Industry sector contributes 25.92%. While
Agriculture and allied sector including livestock management system share 20.19% (Sector wise GDP of India, 2021. The
combination of growing demand in the developing world and stagnant demand in industrialized countries represents a
major opportunity for livestock keepers in developing countries, where most demand is met by local production, and this
is likely to continue well into the foreseeable future. At the same time, the expansion of agricultural production needs to
take place in a way that allows the less well-off to benefit from increased demand and that moderates its impact on the
environment.
In India, the Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying under Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry & Dairying
attributes critical importance to livestock and to the collection and availability of up-to-date and accurate data related to
livestock, as they are the vital component of rural economy. For proper planning and formulation of any programme
meant for bringing further improvement in this sector and its effective implementation and monitoring, valid data are
required at every decision making stage.
The Livestock Census is the main source of such data in the country. The livestock census is conducted across the
country periodically since 1919. The census usually covers all domesticated animals and head counts of these animals
are taken. So far, 19 Livestock Censuses were conducted in participation with State Governments and UT
Administrations. The 20th Livestock Census was launched during the month of October, 2018. The enumeration was
done in both rural and urban areas. Various species of animals (cattle, buffalo, mithun, yak, sheep, goat, pig, horse, pony,
mule, donkey, camel, dog, rabbit and elephant)/poultry birds (fowl, duck and other poultry birds) possessed by the
households, household enterprises/non-household enterprises were counted at that site. Another important feature of
20th Livestock Census is it has been designed to capture Breed-wise number of animals and poultry birds.
Key outcomes of the 20th Livestock Census are as given below: • The total Livestock population is 535.78 million in the
country showing an increase of 4.6% over Livestock Census 2012 • Total Bovine population (Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun and
Yak) is 302.79 Million in 2019 which shows an increase of 1.0% over the previous census.
• The total number of cattle in the country is 192.49 million in 2019 showing an increase of 0.8 % over previous Census.
• The Female Cattle (Cows population) is 145.12 million, increased by 18.0% over the previous census (2012).
• The Exotic/Crossbred and Indigenous/Non-descript Cattle population in the country is 50.42 million and 142.11 million
respectively.
• The Indigenous/Non-descript female cattle population has increased by 10% in 2019 as compared to previous census.
• The population of the total Exotic/Crossbred Cattle has increased by 26.9 % in 2019 as compared to previous census.
• There is a decline of 6 % in the total Indigenous (both descript and non-descript) Cattle population over the previous
census. However, the pace of decline of Indigenous Cattle population during 2012-2019 is much lesser as compared to
2007-12 which was about 9%.
• The total buffaloes in the country is 109.85 Million showing an increase of about 1.0% over previous Census.
• The total milch animals (in-milk and dry) in cows and buffaloes is 125.34 Million, an increase of 6.0 % over the previous
census.
• The total sheep in the country is 74.26 Million in 2019, increased by 14.1% over previous Census.
• The Goat population in the country in 2019 is 148.88 Million showing an increase of 10.1% over the previous census.
• The total Pigs in the country is 9.06 Million in the current Census, declined by 12.03% over the previous Census.
• The total Mithun in the country is 3.9 Lakhs in 2019, increased by 30.0% over previous Census.
• The total Yak in the country is Fifty Eight Thousand in 2019, decreased by 24.67% over previous Census.
• The total Horses and Ponies in the country is 3.4 Lakhs in 2019, decreased by 45.6% over previous Census.
• The total population of Mules in the country is Eighty Four Thousand in 2019, decreased by 57.1% over previous Census.
• The total population of Donkeys in the country is 1.2 Lakhs in 2019, decreased by 61.23% over previous Census.
• The total Camel population in the country is 2.5 Lakhs in 2019, decreased by 37.1% over previous Census.
• The total Poultry in the country is 851.81 Million in 2019, increased by 16.8% over previous Census.
• The total Backyard Poultry in the country is 317.07 Million in 2019, increased by 45.8% over previous Census.
• The total Commercial Poultry in the country is 534.74 Million in 2019, increased by 4.5% over previous Census.
Graph 1. Comparative population of four major species of livestock in India (Source: https://vikaspedia.in//20th-
livestock-census) From Graph 1, it becomes clear that there is 0.83% increase (190.9 million to 192.49 million) in Cattle
population in India during livestock census 2019 as compared to previous livestock census 2012. In population of
Buffalo, there is 1.06% increase, the highest 14.13% increase in Sheep population and 10.14% increase in Goat population
have noted during Livestock census 2019 as compared to previous livestock census 2012.
Graph 2. Comparative livestock population in 10 major states of India (Source: https://vikaspedia.in//20th-livestock-
census)
From Graph 2, it is to note that Utter Pradesh had the highest livestock population in India as compared to other 9 major
states. Another significant observation made during Livestock census 2019 that there is slight decrease in livestock
population in Utter Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat as compared to Livestock census 2012, while comparatively
considerable increase in livestock population had taken place during 2019 as compared to previous livestock census in
Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Maharashtra. Statistically total Cattle
Population in the country is 192.49 Million during 2019. And it is increased by 0.8% over previous Livestock Census
(2012).Female Cattle Population increased by 18.0% whereas Male Cattle decreased by 30.2% over previous census.
About 36% of the total livestock is contributed by cattle (Graph 3).
Graph 3. Total cattle, Male cattle and Femal cattle in 2012 & 2019 (Source: https://vikaspedia.in//20th-livestock-census)
Graph 4 Cattle population, during livestock census 2012 and 2019 in ten major states of India (Source:
https://vikaspedia.in//20th-livestock-census)
Comparatively, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh have highest number of Cattle Population in 2012 and 2019 livestock
census followed by West Bengal and other 7 major states of India, while Maharashtra stands 4th with cattle population
15.5 million in 2012 (Graph 4).
In relation to total Buffalo Population in the country, it was 109.85 Million during 2019.Total Buffalo has increased by 1.1%
over previous Livestock Census (2012).Female Buffalo Population increased by 8.61% whereas Male Buffalo is declined by
42.35% over previous census.About 20.5% of the total livestock is contributed by buffaloes. Milch buffalo population has
increased marginally by 0.2% over previous census in which in-milk has increased by 4.3% whereas Dry category has
declined by 10.2% (Graph 5).
Graph 5. Buffalo population in livestock Census 2012 and 2019. (Source: https://vikaspedia.in//20th-livestock-census)
Graph 6 indicates that Uttar Pradesh had highest population (33 million) of Buffaloes during livestock census 2019 as
compared to other 9 major states of India. Comparatively the population of Buffaloes increased during 2019 in Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh as compared to its population in 2012.
Haryana and Punjab states showed statistically decrease in Buffaloes population (-28.22% and -22.17% respectively) in
census 2019 as compared to previous livestock census. In comaprision of 10 major states on India, Maharashtra state
stands 7th in case of buffalo population in 2012 and 2019.
Graph 6. Buffalo Population during Livestock Census 2012 & 2019 in 10 major states of India (Source:
https://vikaspedia.in//20th-livestock-census)
In the India, the total Sheep Population is 74.3 Million during 2019.Total Sheep has increased by 14.13% over previous
Livestock Census (2012). About 13.8% of the total livestock contributed by Sheep (Graph 7)
Graph 7. Sheep population in India during 2012 and 2019 (Source: https://vikaspedia.in//20th-livestock-census)
Sheep population shown increasing trend in 2019 census in 10 states of India as compared to previous census
2012.Comparatively 48%, 30% and 15% increase in Sheep population in census 2019 in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka respectively as compared to previous census 2012 (Graph 8).The lowest population of Sheep in noted in Uttar
Pradesh.
Graph 8. Sheep Population in 2012 & 2019 in 10 states/UT of India (Source: https://vikaspedia.in//20th-livestock-census)
Total Goat Population in the country is 148.88 Million during 2019.Total Goat has increased by 10.14% over previous
Livestock Census (2012).About 27.8% of the total livestock is contributed by goats (Graph 9).
Graph 9. Categorised Goat Population in 2012 & 2019 in India (Source: https://vikaspedia.in//20th-livestock-census)
Ten State-wise Goat population is shown in Graph 10 to note that Rajasthan had highest Goat population (21.67 million
in 2012 and 20.84 million in 2019) followed other 9 states of India. Overall increasing trend was noted so far the Goat
population in India is concerned expect in Uttar Pradesh, where there was decrease in population of Goat (-7%) in Goat
census in 2019 as compared to its previous census 2012. Specifically, Maharashtra was at 6th position so far population
of goat during cenus 2019 concerned.
Graph 10. Goat Population in census 2012 & 2019 in 10 states of India (Source: https://vikaspedia.in//20th-livestock-
census)
Dairy sector in India: India’s journey from a milk deficit country to one of surplus has been momentous. Initiated in 1970,
Operation Flood was arguably the world’s most ambitious dairy development programme that transformed India into
one of the largest milk producers. India’s milk production rate in the past few decades has, in many ways, been symbolic
of the upward trajectory of the country’s economy and influence. The cattle and buffaloes are known for their milk
production and they contribute approximately 96% to total milk production in India. Though milk production in India has
been reached to 132.4 million tonnes in 2012-13 with a growth rate of 3.5%, but there is high demand of milk (BAHS,
2014) and it is projected that by 2030 India will be able to produce 200 million tonnes of milk (NDRI Vision 2030). This
target will be achieved if there is the optimum balance between productivity and fertility. Fertility is a very broad term
which is influenced by various factors including genetic, nutritional, hormonal, physiopathology, management and
environment or climate. The fertility traits in dairy animals show a very low heritability value, and this indicates that most
of the variations in the fertility are determined by non-genetic factors or environmental effects (Thiruvenkadan et al,
2010).
The per capita availability of milk in 2018-19 was 394 grams per day as against the world average of 302 grams. Between
2016 and 2019, the annual milk production in the country registered a compound annual growth rate of 6.4%. As per
2018-19 data, an annual production is reached to 187.75 million tonnes. India accounts for about 22% of the world’s milk
production. However, India is yet to join the ranks of major milk exporting nations, as much of what we produce is
directed towards meeting domestic demands. So, to unpack the issues facing our dairy sector, it is pertinent to dive deep
and list out the factors that have been hampering the productivity levels of our cow, buffalo, goat and sheep. Based on
estimates by the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), the demand for milk is likely to reach 180 million tonnes by
2022. To supply the market, an average incremental increase of 5 million tonnes per annum over the next 15 years is
required – a doubling of the average incremental rate achieved over the past 15 years. In the absence of sufficient
increased production, India will need to rely on the world market for imports.
The dairy sector assumes a great deal of significance on account of multiple reasons–for one, it has to do with the
socio-cultural affinity towards cows and dairy products in large parts of the country, and as an industry, it employs more
than 70 million farmers. However, the crying need of the hour is for us to identify ways in which we can enhance the
return on investment for our farmers. Recent data indicates that indigenous cows produce 3.01 kgs of milk per cow per
day, while the yield of exotic crossbred cows is 7.95 kgs. This implies that, overall, the average productivity output of
indigenous cattle (both non-descript and high yielding indigenous breeds) is only 1,099 kg per animal per year, while for
cross-bred cattle average productivity is 3,073 kg per animal per year.
Millions of small and marginal farmers in dairying who own two to three animals and produce an average of 5 litres
comprise a critical portion of India’s dairy industry. Livestock development in general and dairy development activities in
particular are key components of pro-poor development strategies because livestock distribution is much more
equitable than land distribution. Thus, changes in the dairying environment have important implications for the
smallholder farmers and for poverty reduction.
The following characterizes India’s dairy farming and its relevance to inclusive growth:
• Small and marginal farmers own 33 percent of land and about 60 percent of female cattle and buffaloes.
• Some 75 percent of rural households own, on average, two to four animals.
• Dairying is a part of the farming system, not a separate enterprise. Feed is mostly residual from crops, whereas cow
dung is important for manure.
• Dairying provides a source of regular income, whereas income from agriculture is seasonal. This regular source of
income has a huge impact on minimizing risks to income. There is some indication that areas where dairy is well
developed have less incidence of farmer suicide.
• About a third of rural incomes are dependent upon dairying.
• Livestock is a security asset to be sold in times of crisis.
Scope of Dairy Farming in Maharashtra:
Maharashtra has a geographical area of about 3 lakh sq km which makes it the 3rd largest state in the country. It is
divided into 7 regions and 35 districts. With a population of 112.4 million people, it has the 2nd largest population
amongst all states and union territories in India. Maharashtra is one of the main industrialized and urbanized states inIndia
with 45 percent population residing in urban areas. According to food Science, the regular consumption of milk should
be 280grams/day. It is vastly dissimilar in the consumption of milk in Maharashtra. In Mumbai daily 24 lakh Liter Milk will
bedistributed while it is 38 lakh liters in the rest of Maharashtra.
In Maharashtra, more than three-fourth of the agriculture is rain-fed. More over uneven distribution of rainfall across
various regions of the state and also with erratic pattern, dairying is gaining importance as a source of livelihood for the
small and marginal farmers of the state. The state of Maharashtra has the distinction of being the initial state in the field
of dairy development in the country.The dairy farm business is a traditional activity in rural areas of Maharashtra, and it is
one of the leading states in termsof milk production with an annual output of 6.7 million tonnes. However, there is no
uniformity in different regions inMaharashtra as far as milk production is troubled. In contrast, western parts of
Maharashtra could produce 3 quartersof million liters a day. Just two districts, namely Kolhapur and Sangli produce
additional milk than that of the entireeastern parts of Maharashtra known as the ‘Vidarbha region’.Region-wise, the
Marathawada and Vidarbh are gions are characterised by frequent droughts, cracked soils, parched wells, dry
handpumps, low yielding livestock and accordingly, dairying is relegated to western parts of the state. The perpendicular
strip of land in western part comprising of Ahmadnagar, Nasik, Pune, Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur and Solapur districts
comprises more than one-third of bovine population of the state, mainly crossbred cows and buffaloes. The main
intention of dairy farming in Maharashtra was to provide an attractive, alternative means of development tothe vast
majority of farmers, including large and small farmers as well as the landless. The milk farming society in Maharashtra
was 450 in 1960-61 which increased to 610 in 1978-79 and in 1990 increased 31294 dairying the same year36 co-
operative milk project in the state. In 2009 total of 1012 chilling centers were started. The project of milkoperation, fluid
was carried out in 1971 and the 2nd phase in 1978 now 85 % of the total milk supply is made throughthe co-operative
sector in Maharashtra. The milk production in 1975 was four lakh liters. While fifty lakh liters in 1980were in Maharashtra.
The milk production about 154 lakh liters in 2003. The milk was imported in Maharashtra until1983 but now it is exported
to other states. As per 19th Livestock Census-2012, bovine population in Maharashtra has declined by about 5 percent to
2.1 crore as against 2.2 crore in 2007. While crossbreds cattle increased by 19 percent, local cows and buffaloes have
shown 8-9 percent decline. However, the indigenous cattle and buffalo milch population declined by 5-7 percent
between 2007 and 2012, while there has been an impressive growth of 26 percent in crossbred milch animals.
Factors affecting livestock system:
Livestock sector plays an important role in generating income and employment, augmenting income of marginal farmers
and landless labourers and in meeting nutritional requirement. Farmers in general in India follow mixed crop and
livestock farming system because of strong linkage between these two. Beside land owning households, livestock are
also reared by a large number of other households, most of which belong to poorer sections of the society. Because of
this, livestock wealth in India is more egalitarian, compared to land, and hence it is found to promote equity and
livelihood security (Chand and Raju, 2008). An availability of fodder, quality of herd, infrastructure for output marketing,
veterinary facilities, institutional factors, and technology on livestock output affect the livestock system.
In addition, the main natural physical environmental factors affecting livestock system includes air temperature, relative
humidity (RH), solar radiation, atmospheric pressure and wind speed (WS) (Hahn et al, 2003). All these environmental
factors are pooled to produce heat stress on animals, which is defined as any combination of environmental variables
producing conditions that are higher than the temperature range of the animal’s thermoneutral zone (TNZ) (Buffington
et al, 1981). Heat stress has an adverse effect on reproduction traits of dairy cattle (Ravagnolo and Misztal, 2002; Garcia-
Ispierto et al, 2007) and buffaloes (Dash et al, 2015). The negative influence of heat stress on reproduction traits of cattle
and buffaloes can be quantified through formulating temperature humidity index (THI). The THI is a single value which
incorporates the both of the air temperature and RH in the index (Thom, 1959). Heat load index (HLI) is another index to
measure the level of heat stress in feedlot cattle through incorporating the RH, wind speed and black-globe temperature
(BGT) (Gaughan et al, 2008). A negative correlation exists between reproduction traits of cattle and buffaloes with THI
and animals experience the adverse effects of heat stress when the THI crosses a threshold level. The conception rate in
lactating dairy cows declines with THI more than 72-73 in cattle (Morton et al, 2007; Schuller et al, 2014) and 75 in
buffalo (Dash, 2013). The significant (p≤0.05) decline in the first service pregnancy rate of dairy cattle was observed at
THI level above 72 (McGowan, 1996) and heat stress was one of the major factors for a significant reduction in a
pregnancy rate of crossbred cows in India (Khan, 2015). The buffaloes are also susceptible to heat stress with respect to
decline in fertility above THI level 75 in a subtropical climate (Das et al, 2015).
There is tremendous gap in research citations that specifically include the study on comparative study of milk
composition of livestock in Maharashtra specifically in Jalgaon district. There is scarcity of research on seasonal
comparative effect of sultriness on production and breeding performance of Maharashtra’s livestock. Pertaining to
available literature, there are no research citations for economics of milk and milk products in Maharashtra and role of
science and technologies involved in management of livestock in Maharashtra. Hence the present research project is
undertaken to throw the fresh light on this significant topic that involves Sangamneri Goat, Nimari Cow and Surti Buffalo.
This project work includes four chapters for better understanding and to have statistically proved scientific insight on the
topics under study. The first chapter involves
the comparative study on nutritive properties and composition of milk of
livestock selected for the study.The physico-chemical parameters of milk samples of different species like buffalo, cow,
and goat are compared. The second chapter is experimentally design to evaluate the effect of sultriness on physiology,
production and breeding performance of livestock. The relation of production and fertility of animals are greatly
influenced by management of environment or climate The third chapter deals with study of livestock disease
management with special reference to Sangamneri Goat, Nimari Cow and Surti Buffalo.Livestock systems in developing
countries like India are characterized by rapid change, driven by factors such as population growth, increases in the
demand for livestock products as incomes rise, and urbanization. Livestock diseases contribute to an important set of
problems within livestock production systems. In the fourth chapter deals with studies of new technologies that play
significant role in raising the livestock. Innovations are becoming faster, more efficient and more accessible than before.
Technology also becoming connected, we are seeing technology & biology merge together.New technologies are
shifting society that raise the livestock. Economics, values, identities and possibilities for future generations will be
influenced by technology. Overview of Maharashtra The Maharashtra state is situated in the western region of India.In the
population Maharashtra ranks second and in area it ranks third in India. The area covered by this state is 307,713km2, and
is bordered by Arabian Sea to the west and the Indian states of Goa, Karnataka, Telangana, Gujrat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh and the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli.It is divided into seven regions and36 districts.The population
of Maharashtra is around 11 crore as per census 2011, which is 9.3% of the total population of India. 45% people residing
in urban areas imply that the state is highly urbanized (Figure 1.1).Due to industrialization and urbanization the economy
of Maharashtra is becoming strong. Maharashtra contributes 25% of the country’s industrial output. Mumbai is the capital
of Maharashtra which is also a finance capital of India. India’s largest stock exchange Bombay Stock Exchange which is
oldest in Asia is located in Mumbai. This share market transacts almost 70% of the country’s stock. The State has largest
proportion of taxpayers in India.
In terms of Net State Domestic Product, it has emerged as these cond richest state among stall major states in India. It
has one of the fastest growing economy in India with sustained higher growth rate and its per capita income is
significantly higher than national average. The four urban districts of Mumbai, Thane, Pune and Nasik account for about
50 percent of the state income and balance 32 district share remaining other half. The Coastal and Inland Western
regions are better off than the state average in terms of standards of living, rainfall, resources, and poverty compared to
other regions.
In Maharashtra, more than three-fourth of the agriculture is rain-fed. Moreover uneven distribution of rainfall across
various regions of the state and also with erratic pattern, dairying is gaining importance as a source of livelihood for the
small and marginal farmers of the state. As per 20th Livestock Census-2019, bovine population in Maharashtra has
declined by about 6 % to 2.5 crore as against 2.1 crore in 2012. While crossbreds cattle increased by 21percent, local
cows and buffaloes have shown 9-10 percent decline. However, the indigenous cattle and buffalo milch population
declined by 8-9 percent between 2012 and 2019, while there has been an impressive growth of 26 percent in crossbred
milch animals. Region-wise, the Marathwada and Vidarbha regions are characterised by frequent droughts, cracked soils,
parched wells, dry handpumps, low yielding livestock and accordingly, dairying is related to western parts of the state.The
perpendicular strip of land in western part comprising of Ahmadnagar, Nasik, Pune, Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur and Solapur
districts comprises more than one-third of bovine population of the state, mainly crossbred cows and buffaloes.
Figure:1.1 A)Map of India showing states and Union Territories B) Map of Maharashtra showing 35 districts states and
adjoining boundaries (Source:www.mapsofindida.com).
Overview of Jalgaon District in Maharashtra
Jalgaon district is located in the north-west region (N latitudes 20°15’ and 21°25’ and E longitudes 74°55’ and 76°28) of
the state of Maharashtra and is bounded by Satpuda mountain ranges in the north, Ajanta mountain ranges in the south.
Jalgaon district is having area of 11757 sq. kms. With 15 tehsils (Figure1.2). Jalgaon district is bounded by Madhya Pradesh
state to the north, and by the districts of Buldhana to the east, Jalna to the southeast, Aurangabad to the south, Nashik to
the southwest, and Dhule to the west. Fifteen tehsils are included in Jalgaon districts namely 1. Jalgaon, 2. Jamner, 3.
Erandol, 4. Dharangaon, 5. Bhusawal, 6. Bodwad, 7. Yawal, 8. Raver, 9. Muktainagar, 10. Amalner, 11. Chopda, 12. Parola,
13. Pachora, 14. Chalisgaon, and 15. Bhadgaon.
Jalgaon district is known for its advances in horticulture. The soil which is found in Jalgaon district is well suited for
cotton production. Its production of bananas and cotton, especially by resorting to drip irrigation, has created a role
model for cultivators in other parts of India. The district is very famous for the production of Banana’s in the country also
known as banana capital of the country. Bananas grown in the district are exported outside the State and to other
countries. Jalgaon is also famous for gold. It is a major business center for tea, gold, pulses, cotton and bananas due to
which the city is developing rapidly. The famous, Jain irrigation systems producing solar product is situated in Jalgaon.
The other different types of industries like coal products, chemical products, metal products and parts, food products,
dairy products, gold and silver, silk, sugar, cotton, irrigation instruments, pipes and many more are helping in the
development of the city. There are total 63 large scale 128 medium scale and 3303 small scale industries in Jalgaon.
There are local farmers, Kathiyawadi people and Animal Farm Houses in Jalgaon district are having cattle raised for milk
and meat.
Figure 1.2. Map of Jalgaon district showing 15 Tehsils and adjoining boundaries. (Source: www.mapsofindia.com) Milk is
considered as nearly complete human food and it is considered as the first food for the newlyborn offspring. Milk is an
almost ideal food having high nutritive value. It supplies body building proteins, bone forming minerals and furnishes
energy giving lactose and milk fat. Besides supplying certain essential fatty acids, it contains the above nutrients in an
easily digestible and assimilable form (Vishweshwar and Krishnaiah, 2005). World milk production derives from cows,
buffaloes, goats, sheep, and camels, with buffalo milk being the second most consumed type after cow’s milk. Both
buffalo and cow’s milk are highly nutritious and provide a great amount of vitamins and minerals, but buffalo milk packs
more nutrients and calories per serving. Buffalo milk is extremely rich in calcium, and is a good source of minerals like
magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus. It contains less cholesterol, more fat, and more calories. It is good for healthy
bones, dental health, cardiovascular health, and weight gain. It has 100% more fat content than cow's milk and can be
preserved for longer. Whereas cow’s milk has lower in fat than buffalo milk and preserved for less time. Cow's milk is rich
in a variety of minerals, vitamins, and proteins, it is also an excellent source of calcium. More cholesterol, less fat, fewer
calories. It is beneficial for healthy bones, dental health, reducing obesity in children, protection from thyroid diseases,
and cardiovascular health (Sahin et al,2014; Navale and Gupta(2016). There are nearly 500 breeds of goats in the world;
however, only a half dozen are generally raised for their milk purpose and about 600-700 million of dairy goats are
present in the world (Kris, 2008). Goat is one of the oldest domesticated animals. In ancient times also goat milk was
valued the most. Goat milk still plays an important role in human nutrition. All over the world riding on high profile or big
budget campaign cow milk has been made very popular, however it doesn’t mean that cow milk is the best with better
quality than the goat milk. Goat milk offers a wide variety of health benefits such as better digestibility (Desjeux, 1993),
more alkalinity (Saini and Gill, 1991), less αs1 casein than cow’s milk and is, therefore, less allergenic (Merin et al, 1988).
Goat milk also has antioxidant, antimicrobial, and medicinal property (Lopez et al, 1985; Rincon et al, 1994). Goat milk
contains a higher carotene (pro-vitamin A) having cancer-preventing properties. It is also useful in the treatment of ulcers
due to its more effective acid buffering capacity (Boros, 1989). Goat milk has a stronger flavour due to the liberation of
short-chain fatty acids during rough handling, which gives off a goaty smell (Babayan, 1981; Haenlein, 1993).In fact 65%
of the milk consumption worldwide is from goat milk and is superior to cow milk in many aspects. (Mahmood and
Usman, 2010; Kumar and Sharma, 2016).Milk of different species contains the same kind of constituents but in varying in
amount. Within a given species, genetic factors, environmental conditions and stage of lactation influence the
composition of milk (Kanwal et al, 2004). Pertaining to available literature, comparative study between the nutritive
quality and composition of milk collected from Sangamneri Goat, Nimari Cow and Surti Buffalo raised in Jalgaon district
is not available. Hence present investigation was carried out to compare the milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo from
the point of view of its composition and nutritional values.
Human population explosion and global warming are burning issues on the planet Earth which affected every living
organism directly or indirectly. Population Humans have sought to understand the relationship between population
dynamics and the environment since the earliest times (Petersen, 1972; Cohen, 1995), but it was Thomas Malthus’ Essay
on the Principle of Population (Malthus, 1978) in 1798 that is credited with launching the study of population and
resources as a scientific topic of inquiry. The future size of world population is projected on the basis of assumed trends
in fertility and mortality. Current world population stands at 7.9 billion people (www.populationu.com). The 2006 revision
of the United Nations World Population Prospects presents a medium variant projection by 2050 of 9.2 billion people
and still growing day by day. It's no surprise that as the world population continues to grow, the demands for essential
global resources such as potable water, fertile land, forests, fisheries and livestock are becoming more obvious (UN,
2007). The largest single threat to the ecology and biodiversity of the planet in the decades to come will be global
climate disruption due to the buildup of human-generated greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. A 2009 study (Paul et
al, 2009) of the relationship between population growth and global warming determined that the “carbon legacy” of just
one child can produce 20 times more greenhouse gas than a person will save by driving a high-mileage car, recycling,
using energy-efficient appliances and light bulbs, etc. Climate is changing, and with it climate variability and this adds to
the already considerable development challenges faced by many countries in the tropics and subtropics. Most climate-
related and other environmental impacts on livestock production are closely related to the normal biological functions of
animals (food intake, digestion and manure production) (IFDA, 2009). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) is the UN body for assessing the science related to climate change. It was established by the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988 to provide political leaders
with periodic scientific assessments concerning climate change, its implications and risks, as well as to put forward
adaptation and mitigation strategies. In the same year the UN General Assembly endorsed the action by the WMO and
UNEP in jointly establishing the IPCC.Scientists are observing changes in the Earth’s climate in every region and across
the whole climate system, according to IPCC Report, 2021. Many of the changes observed in the climate are
unprecedented in thousands, if not hundreds of thousands of years, and some of the changes already set in motion—
such as continued sea level rise—are irreversible over hundreds to thousands of years. Climate changes are occurring in
every region and globally, according to the latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report. There is still time
to act, but it must happen immediately. Global warming has a great impact on the reproductive activity of cattle and
buffaloes. Global warming has risen the surface temperature about 0.7°Csince the early 20th century. It is anticipated
that thetemperature rise will be 1.8-4°C by 2100 (IPCC, 2014). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change also
indicated that the developing countries tend to be more vulnerable to extreme climatic events as they largely depend on
climate sensitive sectors like agriculture and forestry. The greenhouse gas emission from agriculture sector is the most
important factor for global warming, and livestock sector share 18% of total greenhouse gas emissions. The productive
and reproductive performances of cattle and buffaloes are likely to be aggravated due to climate change and global
warming. Assessment of the potential direct impacts of climate change on the reproduction of buffaloes indicate that
there is increasing trend in incidences of silent estrus, the decline in reproductive activity and conception of buffaloes
due to increase in air temperatureduring summer (Sing et al, 1989; Das et al, 2010; Upadhyay, et al , 2012). Emissions of
greenhouse gases from human activities are responsible for approximately 1.1°C of warming since 1850-1900, and finds
that averaged over the next 20 years, global temperature is expected to reach or exceed 1.5°C of warming. This
assessment is based on improved observational datasets to assess historical warming, as well progress in scientific
understanding of the response of the climate system to human-caused greenhouse gas emissions.In the coming
decades climate changes will increase in all regions. For 1.5°C of global warming, there will be increasing heat waves,
longer warm seasons and shorter cold seasons. At 2°C of global warming, heat extremes would more often reach critical
tolerance thresholds for agriculture and health. India is agriculture-based country and about 70% people are depending
on it for their livelihood (DAHDF, 2010). The agriculture and allied sectors contribute about 15.87 per cent of gross
domestic production (GDP) of the country which is much higher than world's average (6.4%) in 2018-19 (MSPI, 2018-
2019). India is leading milk producer in the world having production of 176.3 million tonnes with per capita availability of
375 gm/day in 2017-18 (NDDB, 2019). But it is expected that in near future with increase in population, the demand of
animal products will increase simultaneously and thereby, security for food and water will be one of the biggest
challenges. Global warming would be a greater frequency and greater duration of exposure to hotter temperatures,
especially during the summer months. Typical hyperthermia sometimes occurs during severe heat in summer and as a
result of hard expose to sun throughout the world. In animals and humans, some physiological and biochemical
adaptations could occur to protect essential cell functions against heat stress and to permit a rapid recovery from
moderate hypothermic damage (USGCRP, 2016). In the current perspective of global climate change, it is essential to
understand the effect of environmental changes on the organism as well asthe adaptive mechanisms in their arsenal to
combat them.
Livestock systems globally are changing rapidly in response to a variety of drivers. Human population growth, rapid
urbanization, and growing incomes will lead to substantial increases in the demand for livestock products in the coming
decades. Meeting this increased demand may put substantial pressure on a wide range of natural resources such as land
and water. Together with climate change and increasing climate variability, these drivers of change add up to a
formidable set of development challenges for developed as well as developing countries.
This part of investigation
discusses the linkages between the burgeoning demand for livestock products, the subsequent growth in livestock
production, and the impacts that this may have on natural resources, as well as how these may both affect, and be
affected by, climate change in the coming decades (Thornton
and Mario, 2010). The cattle and buffaloes are known for their milk production and they contribute approximately 96% to
total milk production in India. As reported by BAHS (2014) the milk production in India has been reached to 132.4 million
tonnes in 2012-13 with a growth rate of 3.5%, and it increased in 2018 in up to 187.7 million tonnes at a growth rate of 4%
but there is high demand of milk and it is projected that by 2030 India will be able to produce 200 million tonnes of milk
(NDRI Vision 2030). This target will be achieved if there is the optimum balance between productivity and fertility. Fertility
is a very broad term which is influenced by various factors including genetic, nutritional, hormonal, physio pathology,
management and environment or climate. The fertility traits in dairy animals show a very low heritability value, and this
indicates that most of the variations in the fertility are determined by non-genetic factors or environmental effects
(Thiruvenkadan et al, 2010). Body weight, growth, physiology of animal is affected due to hyperthermia. Heat stress is
defined as the sum of forces external to a homeothermic animal that acts to displace body temperature from the resting
state (Yamamoto and Ogura, 1985). However, when the environmental temperature becomes near the Sheep body
temperature, high ambient relative humidity percentage (RH %) reduces evaporation, overwhelms the sheep cooling
capability, and the body temperature rises. This is due to the negative effects of high RH% on dissipation of body heat,
because of the decline in effectiveness of radiation, conduction and convection, in addition to the decline in the
efficiency of evaporative cooling needed to maintain the heat balance. Such stresses can disrupt the physiology and
productive performance of an animal (West 2003). The studies on potential climate effects on warm season livestock
production in the Greats plains indicated that production losses in domestic animals are largely attributed to increases in
maintenance requirements associated with sustaining constant body temperature and altered feed intake (Mader et al,
2009). In order to maintain body function in steady state homeotherms are required to maintain body temperature
within narrow range. Deviation from the set level of body temperature under stressful hot environment, leads to
interference with physiological events and consequently negatively impacts animal productivity (Hatfield, 2009). The
properties of the skin and hair, sweating and respiration capacity, tissue insulation, the relationship between surface area
per unit body weight or relative lung size, endocrinological profiles and metabolic heat production are factors that
influence heat load, but the underlying physiological, behavioural or genetic mechanisms are largely unknown (McManus
et al. 2009). Animals can adapt to the hot climate, nevertheless the response mechanisms are helpful for survival but are
detrimental to productive and reproductive performance (Rivington et al. 2009). The main natural physical environmental
factors affecting livestock system includes air temperature, relative humidity (RH), solar radiation, atmospheric pressure
and wind speed (WS) (Hahn et al, 2003). All these environmental factors are pooled to produce heat stress on animals,
which is defined as any combination of environmental variables producing conditions that are higher than the
temperature range of the animal’s thermoneutral zone (TNZ) (Buffington et al, 1981). Summer stress results in increased
respiration frequency, pulse rate and rectal temperature which in turn impose higher energy demand upon the animal
body (Hooda and Singh 2010). Heat stress in lactating buffaloes affect their milk production (Singh et al. 2005) and milk
composition (El-Khashab 2010).
In Jalgaon district of Maharashtra (Latitude: 18° 38' 59.99" N Longitude: 75° 05' 60.00"), the wet season is oppressive and
mostly cloudy, the dry season is mostly clear, and it is hot year round. Over the course of the year, the temperature
typically varies from 58°F to 108°F and is rarely below 52°F or above 112°F. Figure 2.1 indicates comparison of average
high and low temperature of Jalgaon and Delhi during year 2021.
Graph 2.1 Comparison of average high and low temperature of Jalgaon and Delhi in 2021.(Source:
https://weatherspark.com/y) Jalgaon district is recognized for its hottest environmental conditions during summer. For
convenience, the range of temperature compared with that of Delhi. Daily high temperatures increase by 4°F, from 103°F
to 107°F, rarely falling below 99°F or exceeding 112°F. Daily low temperatures increase by 6°F, from 73°F to 79°F, rarely
falling below 68°F or exceeding 82°F. For reference, on May 11, the hottest day of the year, temperatures in Jalgaon
typically range from 80°F to 108°F, while on January 7, the coldest day of the year, they range from 58°F to 86°F.
Graph 2.2 indicates the average temperature in Jalgaon and Delhi during year 2021. (Source:
https://weatherspark.com/y) When the cold, hot and sweltering periods of Delhi and Jalgaon were compared, it
becomes clear that sweltering period was extended from March to mid June 2021 and hot period was extended from
January to December 2021 (Graph 2.2) The figure below shows a compact characterization of the entire year of hourly
average temperatures. The horizontal axis is the day of the year, the vertical axis is the hour of the day, and the color is
the average temperature for that hour and day.
Graph 2.3 Average wind speed in Jalgaon and Delhi during 2021 (Source: https://weatherspark.com/y)
The average wind speed is far more that in Delhi. Graph 2.3 indicates the average wind speed in Jalgaon and Delhi, which
confirms that May to mid-September 2021 the average wind speed remained higher (12.5 mph) in Jalgaon and about 6
mph in Delhi throughout the year.
Graph 2.4 Average wind speed in Jalgaon during 2021 (Source: https://weatherspark.com/y) More specific about the
average wind speed in Jalgaon that increased from 9 mph on 21st April 2021 and attained highest speed of 12.4 mph on
27th May and then showed declined trend up to 9.0 mph on 30th August 2021 and this trend continues up to September
2021 (Graph 2.4). A wet day is one with at least 0.04 inches of liquid or liquid-equivalent precipitation. The chance of wet
days in Jalgaon varies significantly throughout the year. The wetter season lasts 3.9 months, from June 5 to October 3,
with a greater than 27% chance of a given day being a wet day. The chance of a wet day peaks at 51% on July 25. The
drier season lasts 8.1 months, from October 3 to June 5. The smallest chance of a wet day is 2% on April 14.
Graph 2.5 Monthly precipitation rates in Jalgaon district during 2021. (Source: https://weatherspark.com/y)
Among wet days, distinguish between those that experience rain alone, snow alone, or a mixture of the two. Based on
this categorization, the most common form of precipitation throughout the year is rain alone, with a peak probability of
51% on July 25(Graph 2.5). When precipitation rates compared with average rainfall days in Jalgaon district, it shows
statistical positive correlation (Graph 2.6). Still in the month of September 2021, there is torrential rain in many tehsils of
Jalgaon district.
Graph 2.6 Monthly precipitation and rainfall in Jalgaon district during 2021. (Source: https://weatherspark.com/y)
Humidity is the concentration of water vapour present in the air. Water vapor, the gaseous state of water, is generally
invisible to the human eye. The percentage of humidity can be categories as dry, comfortable, humid, muggy, oppressive
and miserable. Graph 2.7 indicates the humidity comfort levels in Jalgaon district during year 2021.
Graph 2.7 Humidity comfort levels in Jalgaon district during year 2021. (Source: https://weatherspark.com/y)
Humidity comfort level on the dew point, as it determines whether perspiration will evaporate from the skin, thereby
cooling the body. Lower dew points feel drier and higher dew points feel more humid. Unlike temperature, which
typically varies significantly between night and day, dew point tends to change more slowly, so while the temperature
may drop at night, a muggy day is typically followed by a muggy night.Jalgaon district experiences extreme seasonal
variation in the perceived humidity.The muggier period of the year lasts for 5.3 months, from May 17 to October 26,
during which time the comfort level is muggy, oppressive, or miserable at least 25% of the time. The muggiest day of the
year is August 10, with muggy conditions 100% of the time. Jalgaon district is having a semi-arid climatic conditions. The
small and marginal farmers of the semi-arid region earn their livelihood through sheep and goat production. Semi-arid
environment is one of the major agro-ecological zones of the tropics. There is a strong relationship between agro-
climatic conditions, population density, cropping systems, and livestock production (Maurya et al. 2007). Animal
husbandry has served as sustainable livelihood resource option for people living in the arid and semi-arid region of the
world since time immemorial. Ruminants can make use of low-quality biomass in times of scarcity and transform it into
useful products, such as milk, meat and wool. It is predicted that in coming years, animal industry will grow further and
will play a vital socio-economic role in arid and semi-arid region (Ben Salem and Smith, 2008). Therefore, initiatives must
be taken to accelerate the cattle production through cheap and simple techniques at same time, study for prevalence of
livestock diseases and control measures should be undertaken.
Pertaining to available literature related to study of effect of heat stress (sultriness) on physiological responses,
production and breeding performance of Sangamneri Goat, Nimari Cow and Surti Buffalo is very scanty. Therefore an
attempt was made to find out the effect of heat stress alleviation on physiological response, milk production and its
composition, production and breeding performance of selected cattle namely, Sangamneri Goat, Nimari Cow and Surti
Buffalo of Jalgaon district in Maharashtra. Livestock farming is an integral part of crop farming and contributes
substantially to household nutritional security and poverty alleviation through increased household income. The returns
from livestock especially dairying and mixed farming in small and medium holdings are larger and highly sustainable. The
progress in this sector results in more balanced development of the rural economy and improvement in economic status
of poor people associated with livestock. Indian agriculture is an economic symbiosis of crop and livestock production
with cattle as the foundation. Dairy animals produce milk by converting the crop residues and by products from crops
which otherwise would be wasted. Dairy sector contributes by way of cash income, draught power and manure.
Livestock provides for human needs by way of food, fibre, fuel, fertilizer, skin and traction. It is a living bank providing
flexible finance in time of emergencies and also serves as insurance against crop failure for survival. If Agriculture is the
foundation of our national economy Animal husbandry constitutes the sheet anchor of agriculture. Indian agriculture
marches on the patient back of the bullock. It is estimated that about 18 million people are employed in the livestock
sector in principle or subsidiary status. Export earnings from livestock sector and related products are progressively rising.
Finished leather accounted for 50 % (Rs.1745 crore) and meat and meat products accounted for 42 %( Rs1457 crore) of
the total export from the livestock sector during 2000-01. As per National Accounts Statistics (NAS) 2020 for sector wise
Gross Value Added (GVA) of Agriculture and allied sector, the contribution of livestock in total agriculture and allied
sector GVA (at constant prices) has increased from 24.32 per cent (2014-15) to 28.63 per cent (2018-19). Livestock sector
contributed 4.19 per cent of total GVA in 2018-19 and 5.9 per cent in 2019-20. Though the cattle wealth is quite
abundant in terms of population the production from these animals is very poor viz., 987 k gs per lactation whereas the
world average is 2038 k gs per lactation. The main reasons for this shortcoming is the abundant population of
nondescript cows, chronic shortage of feed and fodder, poor nutritive value of the available feed and fodder, low fertility
rates, destruction of grazing land, increasing human population and competition between animals and man for the
available feed resources (Sing and Somvanshi, 2013). It is indispensable to maintain good health of the livestock to
maintain the balance of demand and supply, good animal health is a notion that is germane to organic dairy production,
and it is expected that such herds would pay significant attention on the health of their animals. Health is the condition in
which all the organs and tissues in the system functions normally and harmoniously. Any change in system from normal
state either to single or great extent is called disease stage. Health is fundamental for a sound enterprise. Most of the
disease can be avoided by proper attention, sanitation, hygiene, nutrition, management practices and proper treatment.
Once there is outbreak of disease, it causes financial loss due to ill health of livestock and expenditure on medicines. So
the farmer should have day to day activities to avoid or prevent spreading of disease and to have a check on financial
loss.
A zoonosis is an infectious disease that has jumped from a non-human animal to humans. Zoonotic pathogens can
spread to humans through any contact point with domestic, agricultural or wild animals. During 1992-96, there were
outbreaks of zoonosis causing buffalo pox in different rural areas adjoing to Jalgaon and Dhule districts in Northern
Maharashtra and Beed districts of Marathawada region in Maharashtra State. In humans, pox lesions were observed on
the hands whereas in affected buffaloes and cows the lesions were noticed mainly on the teats and udder. Twenty two
virus strains were isolated from the skin scabs collected from infected humans and milch animals (Kolhapure et al, 1997).
Neutralizing antibodies were detected not only in the sera of affected humans but also in their contacts. Detection of
antibodies in young individuals from endemic area, who were neither vaccinated for smallpox nor had any contact with
buffaloes or history of any pox virus disease, is suggestive of occurrence of sub clinical infection. A few children who had
no contact with infected animals also showed clinical manifestations with disseminated lesions on the face, arm and
buttocks, and thus suspected to have acquired infection through their infected parents or other family members
indicating a possible man to man transmission. Therefore, in the light of discontinuation of smallpox vaccination, buffalo
pox outbreaks need to be monitored carefully as this may emerge as a serious zoonotic disease in India. Recent years
have also seen growing concern over animals as sources of disease, around 60 per cent of all diseases are zoonotic
(Taylor et al. 2001), animal source foods are the single most common source of food poisoning, and most of the recent
emerging diseases have jumped species from animal hosts. However, much of the animal-associated disease burden is
preventable, treatable or controllable and while concern over zoonotic disease has soared inrecent years, from a long-
term perspective the per capita burden continues to decline. The last half century saw an increase of life expectancy of
20 years in poor countries and middle-income countries and of 10 years in rich countries. As with disease, so with
nutrition: animal-source food has been implicated as a driver of epidemiological transition as infectious diseases are
replaced by obesity and lifestyle diseases. On the other hand, animal source food is energy dense and a source of high
biological value protein and micro nutrients, making it a valuable food for the young, pregnant and immunosuppression
(Murphy and Allen, 2003). For the poor and hungry, the health benefits of animal-source food far outweigh the risks.
Control of livestock pathogens will continue to be a highly important component of efficient food production and
become associated more overtly with the food security agenda. Infectious diseases of livestock are a major threat to
global animal health and welfare and their effective control is crucial for agronomic health, for safe guarding and
securing national and international food supplies and for alleviating rural poverty in India. Some of the bacterial, viral and
parasitic diseases affecting farm animals is as follows:
Bacterial diseases Viral diseases Parasitic diseases Anthrax Footand MouthDisease(FMD) Tapeworminfestation
Blackquarter Rabies Hydatidcyst Tetanus Plague Ascariasis Tuberculosis Pox Babesiosis Colibacillosis Influenza
Theileriosis
The following factors are responsible for the spread of animal diseases:
• Genetic factors: Exotic breeds of cattle are more susceptible to various pathogens as compared to indigenous breeds
of cattle.
• Age factor: Young animals have weak immunity as compared to mature animals and thus get infected with pathogens
easily. For example, E. coli infection is common in one-month old calves.
• Poorly fed and unvaccinated animals easily get infected with pathogens.
• Hot and humid climate and unhygienic farm practices propagate the pathogens at a faster rate.
Various diseases in farm animals are transmitted through the following routes. (i) Respiratory route: When an infected
animal coughs or sneezes, the pathogens are transmitted to other animals. For example, the spread of Influenza happens
through the respiratory route. (ii) Digestive route: When grass or water contaminated with dung or secretions of the
infected animal is consumed by healthy animals, the disease gets transmitted. For example, Foot and Mouth Disease
(FMD) gets transmitted through the digestive route. (iii) Through wounds: In case of an injury or wound on the animal,
some of the pathogens can enter into the body of healthy animals through the wounded part and cause diseases like
Tetanus. (iv) Other routes: Pathogens may transmit diseases among animals through vectors like ticks, mites, fleas, etc.
For example, Babesia pathogen spreads through ticks. Some pathogens also spread through the reproductive tract and
cause diseases like Brucellosis. Biosecurity and animal health management practices of smallholder livestock producers
are often perceived as posing an increased risk for disease introduction and spread (Aslin and Mazur, 2005; Beale et al,
2008). Key components and drivers of these practices are awareness and knowledge of diseases and attitudes toward
monitoring disease and reporting to private veterinarians or relevant authorities. The effectiveness of passive surveillance
systems for early detection of disease introductions rely on these practices. Whilst increasing producer knowledge and
understanding of disease is an essential component of passive surveillance, it is not the only factor that needs to be
considered. The actions of an individual are influenced by a number of factors including knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and
intentions (Fishbein et al, 1975). Whilst the drivers for the on-farm practices of commercial producers are likely to be
closely aligned with financial factors, the smallholder sector of livestock producers is arguably more complex. The
smallholder sector encompasses a broad range of livestock keepers, in relation to species and number of animals kept,
land size, and motivations for keeping livestock (Hollier and Reid, 2007; Hayes et al,2017). The world cattle population is
estimated currently to be approximately 1.3 billion head, with 30 percent in Asia, 20 per cent in South America, 15
percent in Africa, 14 per cent in North/Central America and 10 per cent in Europe (http://cattletoday.info). Estimates of
the global number of smaller livestock vary considerably from source to source, but it is generally accepted that there
are approximately one billion pigs, approximately two billion small ruminants and more than 50 billion poultry reared
annually for food production. Methods of farm production are tremendously varied and bring with them their own
particular risks in terms of the introduction and transmission of infectious diseases. At one extreme is the very low-
intensity subsistence livestock farming, particularly of poultry, sheep and goats that operates in the poorest of the world’s
rural households and that is critical to sustaining local food supplies, alleviating poverty through income generation and
for nutritional status. These animals are often kept under scavenging conditions with little attention to disease control,
housing or feed supplementation, suffer a high burden of endemic disease and are likely to be in close contact with
other livestock species and humans, and potentially in contact with a variety of non-domestic animals. The impact of
epidemic diseases on the livelihoods of these poor farmers, particularly if there is high mortality or the imposition of
animal movement restrictions or culling, is severe (http://smallstock.info). In this issue, Perry and Grace (2009) consider
in detail the impacts that livestock diseases, and control of these, can have on developing and promoting national and
international policies that are pro-poor and that will reduce rural poverty. At the other end of the farming spectrum are
the highly organized and intensive sectors of the poultry industry where the rapid growth rates of birds reared in stocking
densities of up to 50 000 birds in a single shed give the most efficient feed-to-meat conversions of any farm system and
provide cheap, high-quality products for the consumer. This intensity of husbandry can only be done by controlling
many infectious diseases that would otherwise inflict severe losses or even prevent intensive poultry production
completely, by the administration of vaccines at the start of the rearing period. For the poultry sector, the emergence of
a new pathogen, or a new variant of an old pathogen has the potential to spread rapidly and devastate national flocks, as
has happened on several occasions with strains of highly pathogenic avian influenza (Alexander, 2000, 2007; Velkers et
al. 2006). Indeed, some outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza have resulted in the destruction of entire national
flocks of poultry and complete restocking has been required from an international breeding company before poultry
production could be resumed. Such vulnerability illustrates the importance of infectious livestock diseases within the
context of global food security. Animal diseases pose a big threat to the health of livestock and human beings. They
cause economic loss to the farmers by: (a) causing death of productive animals, (b) reducing production of milk, eggs or
wool and (c) decreasing fertility and reproductive capability in animals. The diseases that spread very fast and easily
across the farms, regions and national boundaries are called epidemic diseases, for example, Foot and Mouth Disease in
cattle. Livestock diseases contribute to an important set of problems within livestock production systems. These include
animal welfare, productivity losses, uncertain food security, loss of income and negative impacts on human health.
Livestock disease management can reduce disease through improved animal husbandry practices.These include:
controlled breeding, controlling entry to farm lots, and quarantining sick animals and through developing and improving
antibiotics, vaccines and diagnostic tools, evaluation of ethno-therapeutic options, and vector control techniques. An
effective surveillance systems can improving producer recognition of the presence of unusual signs of disease and
reporting these signs would be the most effective strategy for reducing the time from incursion to detection and
minimizing the potential impact of any disease outbreak in livestock. In summary, a limited number of studies have
investigated animal health management and communication practices which define livestock producer, Kathiyawadi or
dairy farmer’s abilities to recognize and report diseases and therefore the effectiveness of passive surveillance systems in
the country. This study aims to understand these practices and their influences among smallholder livestock producers in
Jalgaon district of Maharashtra. Since the inspection of human civilization, animal husbandry and dairying activities,
along with agriculture, continue to be an integral part of human life. These activities have contributed not only to the
food basket and draught animal power but also by maintaining ecological balance. Owing to conducive climate and
topography, Animal husbandry and Dairying Sectors have played prominent socio-economic role in India. Traditional,
cultural and religious beliefs have also contributed in the continuance of these activities. They also play a significant role
in generating gainful employment in the rural sector, particularly among the landless, small and marginal farmers and
women, besides providing cheap and nutritious food to millions of people.
Growing population, changing lifestyles, expanding urbanization and accelerated climate changes are creating new
challenges in Bovine breeding systems. In the past, the challenge was to ample feed, but now it is to provide essential
nutrients to promote health especially reproductive health; and in the future, the challenge would be to provide optimal
nutrients based on an animal’s genetic profile and productivity. Fortunately, along with challenges, the developments in
science are creating new avenues for tackling the challenges.
Further, biodiversity of livestock, which is so crucial for sustaining long-term productivity, is also under jeopardy. The
genetically uniform systems are vulnerable to external shocks under extreme weather conditions, emerging diseases and
pathogens. In livestock sector, due to continued focus on exotic germplasm based cross breeding, the number of
indigenous breeds with better adaptability, disease-resistance and feed efficiency ratio is declining. The situation is made
worse by unregulated blood levels in the crossbred progeny, in attempts to increase milk yield indiscriminately. Hence it
is the need of the hour to conserve and improve the productivity of Indian indigenous breeds. For accomplishing this
task, the department is now therefore focusing on 100 percent artificial insemination coverage along with the application
of advanced cutting-edge reproductive technology developments. As per 19th Livestock census, there are 88 million In-
Milk animals whose records are unavailable on an annual basis even. In this context, India is blessed with a huge
biodiversity of 43 indigenous cattle breeds and 13 Buffalo breeds which have survived over last hundreds of years in
respect of their suitability for specific purposes in the concerned local environment. Records of those in breeding stage,
their productivity, treatment and vaccination are also not properly maintained by State Animal Husbandry Departments
(SAHD). The Department’s strategy is thus to enhance the average productivity of milk of select breeds from the overall
available breed types (e.g. Gir for high milk productivity) from the present level of 4.85 kg per day to 6.77 kg per day per
indigenous animal.
Impediments like lack of animal identification and traceability, inability to meet sanitary and phytosanitary conditions also
need to be addressed so far the improvement of livestock breed and their milking ability. In this context, an initiative has
been taken namely, “E-Pashu Haat”, the e-market portal for bovine germplasm which provides real time data on
availability of high quality germplasm along with identification and traceability of germplasm sold through e-market,
connecting breeders, State agencies and stake holders. A modern technology like sexing of semen is being taken up to
regulate the sex ratio and to produce large number of progenies with one sex. In advanced dairy nations, female sex
sorted semen is made available to farmers to produce more number of high genetic merit heifers to increase milk
production and profitability of dairy farming.
The increased world population is demanding more reliable quality livestock products the number of farms is decreasing
but the number of animals for per farm and animal production is increasing. In addition to this trend livestock production
problems also increasing. The solution of these problems comes from multidisciplinary studies from very different fields
such as technology. In large enterprises it is not possible to obtain the expected performance without using technology
and automation systems from animals with very high genetic values. Daily work on livestock farming is simple in and
standard application routinely Data monitoring in the modern dairy farm enables the ongoing control of production,
animal health, and welfare (Ipema et al,2012). However, as the number of animals increases, error burden and work load
increase. Successful livestock farmers will be capable of rapidly adapting their infrastructures to exploit changes in
technology for better production. Mechanism and automation systems offer options in front of the user in intense
competition for convenience. Currently, most data is extracted manually, yet manual observation is gradually being
replaced by many milking systems by automated recording (milk yield, milk conductivity, activity recording and body
weight measurements) leading to better data, both in quantity and quality. The number of farms automation systems has
increased rapidly since 1980. Almost any medium- to large-sized farmers can benefit from enhanced automation
(Thornton, 2010). There are many opportunities for facilities in automation technologies and systems. Today livestock
farmers increasingly use robots on production or algorithms to optimize their farm management decisions.
Technological developments are creating a new automation system in which smarter and more flexible work possibilities
in livestock production (Kearney, 2017). The automation of animal husbandry and integration of on-farm systems and
processes have a key role to play in facilitating the process of meeting each of important challenges for competitive
market (Cornou, 2009). The main technologies are electronic recording, milking, heat detection auto-weighing, auto-
drafting, genetic improvement, feeding, barn optimization, and health monitoring, livestock housing and equipment
designs. These technologies provide to dairyman many opportunities to make easier and more convenient their
decisions about dairy future plans.
The potential of India’s huge livestock resources is grossly under utilized, necessitating more rapid progress towards
boosting per unit productivity, quality of products and exports. Whereas, the demand for, and production of livestock and
livestock products in less developed countries (LDCs) is expected to double over the next 20 years (Delgado et al.,1999).
The overall growth rate in livestock sector is steady and is around 6% and this has been achieved despite the fact that
investment in this sector was not substantial (Bhat and Das, 2002). But in terms of productivity, India’s huge livestock
resources are one of the poorest in the world. For instance, the milk yield of a cow in India is 900 kg, which is about 20%
of the world average (Birthal and Jha, 2005). According to Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fishery
(DAHDF), the milk productivity per lactation is only 987 kg in India as against world average of 2,038 kg. Thus, the poor
productivity as well as the quality of production and products remains a cause of concern in Indian livestock sector. For
productivity improvement, technology generation (Research), technology dissemination (extension), technology users
(farmers) and support mechanisms (inputs supply, market credit etc) have to be geared up. The functioning of various
livestock development agencies especially the State Departments of Animal Husbandry (SDAH) in relation to the
extension education activities performed by them need to be analyzed so as to ascertain a paradigm for livestock
extension service suitable to India. To this end, it would be pertinent to review various extension mechanisms currently in
operation in India and their role in delivering livestock related information to the farmers and feedback from them. The
Animal Husbandry Department (AHD) at the state level is the major stakeholder as far as livestock development is
concerned. The AHD with its huge infrastructure, however, is primarily involved in treatment of animals for which it has a
clear mandate. With more effective control of serious diseases such as rinderpest (now eradicated from India) and
Newcastle disease and more easily available treatment for many other conditions, animal health constraints are gradually
being overcome (Morton and Matthew man 1996). But the demand for information on different aspects of livestock
production is growing; as also the great numbers of livestock are now kept by people without traditional background
causes distinct pressure on AHD to educate the owners. It is expected that farmers’ education and extension contacts
enable them to acquire, receive and decode new information to evaluate benefits of alternative sources of economically
useful information and to have earlier access to such information (Duraisamy, 1992; Adeokun and Akinyemi, 2003). This
necessitates a system through which farmer can receive desired information. However, there is no organized system of
providing extension messages to the farmers especially with regard to improved animal husbandry. The activities relating
to livestock extension are sporadic and spread over time and space and do not meet the requirements of a vast majority
of farmers (Lehmann et al. 1994). The problem is further compounded with the neglect of policy makers and by
researchers towards livestock production extension (Morton and Matthewman, 1996; Sen, 2003; GOI 2002) since the
animal health extension gets precedence over production extension in India.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In relation to the first chapter that involves
the comparative study on nutritive properties and composition of milk of
livestock in India the following literature is reviewed: Kanwal et al (2004) studied the milk of four different species like
goat, cow, buffalo and sheep milk, was analyzed compositionally and results showed that the cow milk have highest LR
and specific gravity i.e., 30.0 and 1.03, respectively than other three species i.e. buffalo, goat and sheep. The cow milk
showed maximum pH value (6.65) while sheep milk samples showed maximum titratable acidity (0.181%). The minimum
pH value (6.58) was of sheep milk while the minimum titratable acidity (0.15%) was of the cow milk samples. The results
of fat (%) showed that buffalo, cow, goat milk are non-significantly different from each other but sheep milk is
significantly different from other three species. However, the results of SNF found in this study showed significant
difference (P>0.05) among the milk of buffalo (8.79%) and of goat milk (8.92%). In contrast, the SNF of milk samples
obtained from cow and sheep (9.17 and 9.71%, respectively). The results showed that the sheep milk had the good range
(5.32-7.74%) of protein and the highest average protein contents (6.57%). However the milk of cow (5.23%) and buffalo
(3.87%) were significantly different from each other and from sheep milk. The milk of goat showed the lowest protein
contents (2.38%) as compare to other species. Sheep milk has highest%age of total nitrogen (1.035) contents as
compared to other three species. Mahmood and Usman (2010) carried out investigation to compare the
physicochemical parameters of milk samples of four different species like buffalo, cow, goat and sheep. Milk samples
were collected from the different areas of Gujrat, Pakistan and analyzed for different physiochemical parameters,
including pH, specific gravity, titratable acidity, total solids, ash, fat, protein and lactose. It was recorded that buffalo milk
had 6.75±0.15 pH, 1.033±0.002 specific gravity, 0.21±0.03% titratable acidity, 18.45±0.85% total solids, 0.81±0.09% ash,
7.97±0.44% fat and 4.36±0.23% protein and 5.41±0.54% lactose. Cow milk had 6.64±0.02 pH, 1.029±0.001 specific
gravity, 0.17±0.02% titratable acidity, 12.94±0.97% total solids, 0.60±0.13% ash, 4.00±0.43% fat, 3.37±0.32% protein and
4.51±0.38% lactose. Goat milk had 6.55±0.06 pH, 1.030±0.001 specific gravity 0.16±0.01% titratable acidity, 12.84±0.56%
total solids, 0.75±0.13% ash, 3.97±0.51% fat, 3.15±0.32% protein and 4.39±0.34% lactose. Sheep milk contained
6.63±0.04 pH, 1.034±0.002 specific gravity, 0.23±0.01% titratable acidity, 18.13±0.21% total solids, 0.88±0.07% ash,
6.49±0.23% fat, 5.30±0.29% protein and 4.77±0.31% lactose. All the tested parameters were higher in buffalo and sheep
milk than cow and goat milk Sahin et al (2014) carried out research to determine some constituents and properties of
raw milk samples of Anatolian buffaloes. Raw milk samples were collected from the different areas of the Tokat province
of Turkey and analyzed for density, acidity, urea, free fatty acids (FFA), citric acid, freezing point (FPD), and pH. Milk
samples were collected in February, March, and April 2012. Results of the research showed that the averages of raw milk
density, acidity, urea, free fatty acids, citric acid, freezing point degree, and pH were determined as 1029.66 g/cm3, 8.26
o SH, 0.047%, 4.78 mmol/10L, 0.13%, -0.56 0C, and 6.56, respectively. As a result, the effects of lactation number, calving
age, village, herd, sampling time, and stage of lactation on the determined parameters were found to be statistically
significant (P>0.01). Muhammad et al (2014) conducted to evaluate the nutritive quality of buffalo and cow milk at
Department of Animal Products Technology, Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences, Sindh Agriculture
University, during the year 2012-13. A total of 40 milk samples of buffalo and cow (n = 20, each) were examined for
macro nutrients such as total solids (TS), fat, protein, lactose and ash contents as well as the calorific values. A
remarkable (P>0.05) higher compared to that of cow milk. Buffalo milk was concluded to be a rich source of macro-
nutrients as well as calorific values and suggested to be utilized as nutritional soft drink and/or as better base for dairy
products. While cow milk with low fat content concluded to be utilized as low fat soft drink and/or as base material for
low fat dairy products.The higher protein content in buffalo milk than that of cow milk might be due to the concentration
of both, the casein and whey proteins which are reported higher in buffalo milk than that of cow milk. In general, the
interspecies variability in protein content of milk could be of due to variation in genetic makeup of the animal. It might be
predicted that those animals which grow most rapidly (in proportion to their size) might need milk quite rich in protein
and vice versa, since it furnishes the material for the development of muscle tissue. Navale and Gupta (2016) evaluated
quality of milk and comparative study of chemicals present in the milk of buffalo and cow. Various milk samples was
analyzed and found that solid not fat was low as compared to reducing sugar in the milk. Buffalo milk sample gave
higher result as compeered to Cow milk sample. All these results compared to its World Health Origin value, reducing
sugar and solid not fat were negligible.This study revealed that the milk samples had low average fat, solid not fat (SNF)
and total solids (TS) as compared to standards of the Food Safety and Standards Act (FSSA, 2012).Similar results were
found in study conducted in Pakistan where the milk samples collected from milk vendors had average fat content of
5.20%, SNF of 8.25% and TS of 13.45%. Kapadiya et al (2016) compared
Surti goat milk with cow and buffalo milk for gross composition, nitrogen distribution, and selected minerals content.
Goat milk had the lowest TS, fat, protein, and lactose content among all three types of milk studied in the present
investigation. On the other hand, the highest TS, fat, protein, and lactose content were found in buffalo milk. Buffalo milk
had the highest SNF, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorous content, which was followed by goat milk and lowest in
cow milk. The SNF, protein, TN, and calcium content of goat milk were statistically non-significant (p>0.05) than that
of the cow milk as well as buffalo milk. The goat milk had the highest ash and NCN content, which were followed by
buffalo milk and lowest in cow milk. However, the differences in ash, NPN, and phosphorous content of three types of
milk studied, viz., goat milk, cow milk, and buffalo milk were found statistically non-significant (p<0.05) than that of the
cow milk. The magnesium content of goat
milk was statistically non-significant (p<0.05) than that of the buffalo milk as well as cow milk.
It was concluded from the study that the goat milk has lower TS, fat, lactose, protein content, TN as well as NPN but
higher ash and NCN content compared to cow milk and buffalo milk. The goat milk has lower calcium, phosphorous
compared to buffalo milk while it has higher calcium, phosphorous compared to cow milk, and it has higher magnesium,
chloride content compared to cow milk and buffalo milk.
The second chapter is planned to study effect of heat stress on physiology, production and breeding performance of
livestock. Following researchers investigated effect of heat stress on various aspects of livestock. Hahn et al (2003)
demonstrated the main natural physical environmental factors affecting livestock system includes air temperature, RH,
WS, solar radiation, precipitation, atmospheric pressure, ultraviolet light and dust. This leads to the establishment of
thermal indices which can better reflect the thermal stress of the animal. Hence, a variety of indices is used to estimate
the degree of heat stress affecting performance traits viz., production traits, reproduction traits and growth traits in cattle
and buffaloes. The most common among these indices is the THI. A number of methods have been developed over the
years to formulate the THI, which is applied to measure the level of heat stress on animals. The THI is the common
measure of heat stress for humans through combining the dry bulb and wet bulb temperature. Gudev et al (2007) carried
out experiments with 10 lactating buffaloes (BulgarianMurrah breed) in an interval of two successive days. They were
kept in shade(first day)and exposed to direct solar radiation (second day) with ambient temperature not less than30 0 C
for 12 h. Rectal temperature(RT) and respiratory rate (RR) were measured at 8 a.m.,11 a.m., 3 p.m. and 8 p.m. Both RT and
RR increased significantly at temperature – humidityindex (THI)- 77.83, showing that the lactating buffaloes are sensitive
to heat stressand are not able to maintain their core temperature within the thermoneutral zone. Thesame THI had no
significant effect on rectal temperature elevation when the buffaloes werekept in the barn. These data demonstrate that
lactating buffaloes need protection againstdirect solar radiation. Plasma cholesterol and total protein levels tended to be
lower duringthe exposure to direct solar radiation compared to the morning levels. Plasma urea levelincreased and
plasma indol level remained unchanged when the buffaloes were exposed tosun. It is suggested that the level of the first
three parameters is closely. Indu and Pareek (2015) made review on growth and physiological adaptation in sheep and
mentioned that Asian countries are characterized with humid subtropical climate. Heat stress is the most important
climatic stress which adversely affects the livestock and sometimes even threatens the survival of animals. Among
climatic components that may impose stress on many different traits to sheep are ambient temperature, humidity, air
movement, photoperiod, solar radiation, wind speed, etc., of which the ambient temperature is the most important
variable. Heat stress affects performance and productivity of small ruminants in all phases of production. The degree to
which these stress impacts on productivity will differ between the agro-ecological regions and between production
systems. The level of production achieved by a particular genotype in harsh environment depends on the contribution
and expression of many different traits which may be partitioned into those directly involved with production and
adaptation. Growth, such as body weight and physiological performance of animal is affected due to hyperthermia. As
the primary non-evaporative means of cooling for the small ruminants (radiation, conduction, convection) become less
effective with rising ambient temperature, the animals become increasingly reliant upon evaporative cooling in the form
of sweating and panting. Increasing air temperature, temperature-humidity index and rising rectal temperature above the
critical threshold levels are related to decrease dry matter intake (DMI) and milk yield. Stress depresses growth rate
primarily through the depression of food intake, but also by affecting digestion and metabolism. Alleviation of heat
stressed animals by physical, physiological and/or nutritional techniques, in addition to carrying out proper routine
management practices at the suitable times, can help the heat stressed animals to express their genetic potentials in
tropical and subtropical areas Dash et al (2016) investigated that heat stress has adverse effects on the reproductive
performances of dairy cattle and buffaloes. The dairy sector is a more vulnerable to global warming and climate change.
The temperature humidity index (THI) is the widely used index to measure the magnitude of heat stress in animals. The
objective of this paper was to assess the decline in performances of reproductive traits such as service period,
conception rate and pregnancy rate of dairy cattle and buffaloes with respect to increase in THI. The review stated that
service period in cattle is affected by season of calving for which cows calved in summer had the longest service period.
The conception rate and pregnancy rate in dairy cattle were found decreased above THI 72 while a significant decline in
reproductive performances of buffaloes was observed above threshold THI 75. The non-heat stress zone (HSZ) (October
to March) is favorable for optimum reproductive performance, while fertility is depressed in HSZ (April to September) and
critical HSZ (CHSZ) (May and June). Heat stress in animals has been associated with reduced fertility through its
deleterious impact on oocyte maturation and early embryo development. The management strategies viz., nutrition
modification, environment modification and timed artificial insemination protocol are to be strictly operated to
ameliorate the adverse effects of heat stress in cattle and buffaloes during CHSZ to improve their fertility. The
identification of genes associated with heat tolerance, its incorporation into breeding program and the inclusion of THI
covariate effects in selection index should be targeted for genetic evaluation of dairy animals in the hot climate. Habeeb
et al (2018) evaluated
negative effects of heat stress on growth and milk production of farm animals.
Optimal climatic conditions for cattle, buffaloes, sheep goats, rabbits and poultry would be something like an air
temperature of 13 to 20 ºC, a wind velocity of 5 to 18 km/hr, relative humidity of 55 to 65% and a moderate level of
sunshine and these factors are interrelated. In tropical and subtropical countries, climatic characteristic is the major
constraint on animal productivity. Growth, milk production and reproduction are impaired as a result of the drastic
changes in biological functions caused by heat stress. The summer in Egypt is characterized by high ambient
temperature, intense solar radiation and high relative humidity. Therefore, farm animals raised to such sever climatic
stress for almost 6 months of the year. Exposure of animals to heat stress evokes a series of drastic changes in the
biological functions, which include a decrease in feed intake, feed efficiency and utilization, disturbances in water,
protein, energy and mineral balances, enzymatic activities, hormonal secretions and blood metabolites ending to
impairment the productive and reproductive performance. Purohit et al (2020) reviewed on the relation of production
and fertility of animals that are greatly influenced by management of environment or climate. Buffaloes, due to
morphological, anatomical and behavioral characteristics express the signs of great distress when exposed to work in hot
weather. Thermo neutral zone is range of temperature and other climate parameter within which healthy animal can
maintain its normal body temperature with minimal change in metabolic activity. There are many environmental factors
which influence effective surface temperature, air temperature, relative humidity, air movement and radiation from the
sun or other sources. The effect of heat stress is aggravated when it is accompanied by high ambient humidity.
Temperature humidity index is a simple index, which indicates the degree of heat stress on dairy animals which
incorporates the effect of climate parameters like, temperature and relative humidity. Heat stress is negatively correlated
with production and fertility parameter. Harmful effect of the heat stress is observed by decline in the milk production,
change in composition of the milk, change in growth rate etc. Increase in THI simultaneously increases age at first
calving, service period, dry period, calving interval, incidence of silent heat and decreases conception rate, pregnancy
rate, lactation length in females. Male reproductive performances are also influenced by temperature. Increase in
temperature, decreases sexual desire, ejaculate volume, live sperm concentration, viability, motility, conception rate and
fertility rate. Environmental modification is a short-term strategy but can be applied very efficiently for mitigation of heat
stress on animals. Long term strategy may include the requirement of genetic tolerant animals by selection of animals in
heat stressed conditions and through introgression of heat adaptation genes from local adaptive breed in to non-
adaptive or less tolerant herd.
In relation to third chapter, literature reviewed for deals with disease management in livestock. Since diseases contribute
to an important set of problems within livestock production systems. Animal health is the backbone of the livestock
industry. Any disease outbreak leads to huge economic losses through mortality and loss of productivity. In fact, the
National Commission on Agriculture was emphatic in its observation thatLivestock development programs cannot
possibly succeed unless and until well-organized animal health service is built up and protection of livestock against
diseases and pests, particularly against the deadly infectious one’s is assured. Tomley et al. (2009) suggested that
infectious diseases of livestock are a major threat to global animal health and welfare and their effective control is crucial
for agronomic health, for safeguarding and securing national and international food supplies and for alleviating rural
poverty in developing countries. Some devastating livestock diseases are endemic in many parts of the world and threats
from old and new pathogens continue to emerge, with changes to global climate, agricultural practices and
demography presenting conditions that are especially favorable for the spread of arthropod-borne diseases into new
geographical areas. Zoonotic infections that are transmissible either directly or indirectly between animals and humans
are on the increase and pose significant additional threats to human health and the current pandemic status of new
influenza A (H1N1) is a topical example of the challenge presented by zoonotic viruses. Considerable challenges are
presented by livestock and zoonotic pathogens to the health and well-being of animals and man. For some critically
important diseases, the first line of defense will be the deployment of state-of-the art approaches to diagnosis and
surveillance to provide a network of global intelligence on their spread and an assessment of risk presented. Combined
with this, the delivery of effective vaccine strategies for the control of major pathogens of livestock will be especially
testing and a continuum of new and better vaccines able to deliver more long-lasting and durable protective immunity
and to be effective against multiple strains or variants will be essential.
Perry and Grace (2009) studied impacts of livestock diseases and their control on growth and development processes
that are pro-poor.
Poverty is now at the heart of development discourse; we discuss how it is measured and understood. Authors consider
the negative and positive impacts of livestock on pro-poor development. Taking a value-chain approach that includes
keepers, users and eaters of livestock, they identify diseases that are road blocks on the ‘three livestock pathways out of
poverty’. Authors discussed livestock impacts on poverty reduction and review attempts to prioritize the livestock
diseases relevant to the poor. Authors suggested metrics that better measure disease impact and show the benefits of
more rigorous evaluation before reviewing recent attempts to measure the importance of disease to the poor. High
impact of a disease does not guarantee high benefits from its control; other factors must be taken into consideration,
including technical feasibility and political desirability. They concluded by considering how we might better understand
and exploit the roles of livestock and improved animal health by posing three speculative questions on the impact of
livestock diseases and their control on global poverty: how can understanding livestock and poverty links help disease
control?; if global poverty reduction was the aim of livestock disease control, how would it differ from the current
model?; and how much of the impact of livestock disease on poverty is due to disease control policy rather than disease
itself?This review has explored the complexity of linkages between livestock, livestock disease, livestock disease control
and global poverty.
Laubscher and Hoffman (2012) described the successful national program initiated by the South African government to
produce disease-free African buffalo so as to ensure the sustainability of this species due to threats from diseases.
Buffalo are known carriers of foot-and-mouth disease, bovine tuberculosis, Corridor disease and brucellosis. A long-
term program involving multiphase testing and a breeding scheme for buffalo is described where, after 10 years, a
sustainable number of buffalo herds are now available that are free of these four diseases. A large portion of the success
was attributable to the use of dairy cows as foster parents with the five-stage quarantine process proving highly effective
in maintaining the “disease-free” status of both the calves and the foster cows. The projects proved the successfulness of
breeding with African buffalo in a commercial system that was unique to African buffalo and maintained the “wildness” of
the animals so that they could effectively be released back into the wild with minimal, if any, behavioral problems.
Emanuelson et al (2018) carried out questionnaire study for
biosecurity and animal disease management in organic and conventional Swedish dairy herds. A
total of 192 useable questionnaires were returned; response rates of 30.3 and 20.2% for organic and conventional
farmers, respectively. Herd characteristics of the two herd types were very similar, except that pipeline/ tie-stall systems
were less common in organic farms and that organic farmers had a higher education level than their conventional
counterparts. Also, very few systematic differences in general or specific disease management activities were observed
between the two types of farms. The main exceptions being how milk from cows during antibiotic treatment was used,
views on policy actions in relation to antibiotic use, and attitudes towards calling for veterinary support. Using milk from
cows during antibiotic treatment was more common in conventional herds, although it was mainly given to bull calves.
Farmers of organic herds were more positive to policy actions to reduce the use and need for antibiotics, and they
reported waiting longer before contacting a veterinarian for calves with diarrhea and cows with subclinical mastitis.
Conclusions: The stated biosecurity and animal disease management was relatively equal in Swedish organic and
conventional dairy herds. Our results thus indicate that animal health is as important in conventionally managed dairy
herds in Sweden as in organically managed herds. Marta et al (2019) are of the opinion that the risks posed for disease
introduction and spread are believed to be higher for smallholder livestock producers than commercial producers.
Possible reasons for this is the notion that smallholders do not implement appropriate animal health management
practices and are not part of traditional livestock communication networks. These factors contribute to the effectiveness
of passive disease surveillance systems. A cross-sectional study, using a postal survey (n = 1,140) and group interviews
(28 participants in three groups), was conducted to understand the animal health management and communication
practices of smallholders keeping sheep, cattle, pigs, dairy goats and alpacas in Australia. These practices are crucial for
an effective passive surveillance system. Findings indicate that there is a need for improvement in animal health
management practices, such as contact with veterinarians and attitudes toward reporting. Results also indicate that these
practices differ depending on the livestock species kept, with sheep ownership being associated with lower engagement
with surveillance activities and smallholders keeping dairy goats and alpacas having in general better practices. Other
factors associated with surveillance practices among participant smallholders are gender and years of experience raising
livestock. Despite the differences observed, over 80% of all smallholders actively seek information on the health of their
livestock, with private veterinarians considered to be a trusted source. Emergency animal diseases are not a priority
among smallholders, however they are concerned about the health of their animals. The finding that veterinarians were
identified by producers to be the first point of contact in the event of unusual signs of disease, strengthens the argument
that private veterinarians play a vital role in improving passive surveillance. Other producers are also a point of contact for
animal health advice, with government agencies less likely to be contacted. The effectiveness of on-farm passive
surveillance could be enhanced by developing strategies involving both private veterinarians and producers as key
stakeholders, which aim to improve awareness of disease and disease reporting responsibilities.
In relation to the fourth chapter, role of new technologies are explore to raise the livestock, the research output is
reviewed as follows: Chander et al (2010) published review on livestock technology transfer service in India. The Planning
Commission, Government of India (GOI), in its document, “Agriculture Strategy for Eleventh Plan: some critical issues”
has observed, ‘unfortunately, extension advice is almost totally absent in animal husbandry, special efforts need to be
made in this area”. This motivated the authors, besides the experience they gained in detailed study of extension role of
state departments of Animal husbandry, to write this review indicating a direction to livestock technology transfer service
suitable to India. To cater to the diverse needs of livestock farmers, among others an efficient livestock extension services
delivery system is required. Whereas, there is no exclusive livestock extension service in India to cater to the specific
needs of livestock farmers, as also the general extensive services are oriented mainly for crops. The Government of India
(GOI) spends below 10% on livestock extension activities. The State Departments of Animal Husbandry (SDAH) - the
major stakeholders for the livestock development in India is mostly dominated by animal health concerns with negligible
attention to production related advice to farmers. Moreover, their spending on livestock extension activities is only
around 1–3% of their total budget. Consequently, the NSSO survey revealed that only 5.1% of the farmer households in
India were able to access any information on animal husbandry against 40.4% of the Indian households accessing
information on modern technology for crop farming. This situation was analyzed towards improving the framework for
livestock extension services delivery system suitable to India. Philip (2010) written review on evolving in response to
rapidly increasing demand for livestock products in developing countries. In developed countries, demand for livestock
products is stagnating, while many production systems are increasing their efficiency and environmental sustainability.
Historical changes in the demand for livestock products have been largely driven by human population growth, income
growth and urbanization and the production response in different livestock systems has been associated with science
and technology as well as increases in animal numbers. In the future, production will increasingly be affected by
competition for natural resources, particularly land and water, competition between food and feed and by the need to
operate in a carbon-constrained economy. Developments in breeding, nutrition and animal health will continue to
contribute to increasing potential production and further efficiency and genetic gains. Livestock production is likely to be
increasingly affected by carbon constraints and environmental and animal welfare legislation. Demand for livestock
products in the future could be heavily moderated by socio-economic factors such as human health concerns and
changing socio-cultural values. There is considerable uncertainty as to how these factors will play out in different regions
of the world in the coming decades. Ravindra Kumar et al (2012) reviewed on integration of information technology (IT)
in livestock management in India. IT has been used in abroad widely for the study and improvement of various aspects of
livestock production, research and education. In developed countries IT is being successfully used for the sustainable
livestock management, precision livestock farming, livestock disease control and diagnosis and treatment through IT
aided instrumentation. IT has a great role in dissemination of livestock related information and ITKs. Now a days the
mobile phone looks like tomorrow’s most likely access device for information dissemination. The livestock related
information such as vaccination alert can be delivered through mobile service provider before monsoon. Despite of all
constraints of under Indian condition the IT is spreading with its own pace and in future the process will speed up. It
seems that in near future there will be sound platform for communication and service delivery in rural area through the
IT based devices and value added services. Serap and Cahit (2018) stated that the transfer of computer systems and
software to the application has made an important contribution in livestock management system. Technologic
instruments made farmers can work more comfortable and increased animal production efficiency and profitability.
Therefore, technologic developments are the main research area for animal productivity and sustainability. Many
technologic equipment and tools made animal husbandry easier and comfortable. Especially management decisions and
applications are effected highly ratio with this rapid development. In animal husbandry management decisions that need
to be done daily are configured according to the correctness of the decisions to be made. At this point, smart systems
give many opportunities to farmers. Milking, feeding, environmental control, reproductive performance constitute
everyday jobs most affected by correct management decisions. Human errors in this works and decisions made big
effect on last product quality and profitability are not able to be risked. Technological developments are creating a new
automation system in which smarter and more flexible work possibilities in livestock production. According to Schillings
et al (2021) the rise in the demand for animal products due to demographic and dietary changes has exacerbated
difficulties in addressing societal concerns related to the environment, human health, and animal welfare. As a response
to this challenge, Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) technologies are being developed to monitor animal health and
welfare parameters in a continuous and automated way, offering the opportunity to improve productivity and detect
health issues at an early stage. However, ethical concerns have been raised regarding their potential to facilitate the
management of production systems that are potentially harmful to animal welfare, or to impact the human-animal
relationship and farmers’ duty of care. Using the Five Domains Model (FDM) as a framework, the aim is to explore the
potential of PLF to help address animal welfare and to discuss potential welfare benefits and risks of using such
technology. A variety of technologies are identified and classified according to their type [sensors, bolus, image or sound
based, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)], their development stage, the species they apply to, and their potential
impact on welfare. While PLF technologies have promising potential to reduce the occurrence of diseases and injuries in
livestock farming systems, their current ability to help promote positive welfare states remains limited, as technologies
with such potential generally remain at earlier development stages. This is likely due to the lack of evidence related to the
validity of positive welfare indicators as well as challenges in technology adoption and development. Finally, the extent to
which welfare can be improved will also strongly depend on whether management practices will be adapted to minimize
negative consequences and maximize benefits to welfare.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Equipment/Apparatus
• Hot Air Oven
Hot air oven (BST/HAO-1128, Bionics Scientific Technologies (P). Ltd. India) was used to evaporate the moisture content
of milk samples.
• Analytical Balance
Analytical balance (Smith Model: MO00440007) was used to weigh the milk samples and reagents.
• Centrifuge Machine Centrifuge machine (Tanco CEN-16, Medico Centrifuge, India) was used to centrifuge the milk
samples during determination of fat content of milk samples.
• Micro Kjeldhal Digestion and Distillation Unit
Micro Kjeldhal digestion unit (BST/KDU-6, Bionics Scientific Technologies (P). Ltd. India) was used to digest the samples
during determination of protein content of milk.
• Titration Kit
Titration kits were used to titrate the samples after distillation during determination of protein content of milk.
• Muffle Furnace
Muffle furnace (Biolinx Labsystems Pvt Ltd, Mumbai)) was used to ignite the milk samples during the determination of ash
content of milk.
• Butyrometer
Borosilicate Glass Butter Butyrometer (Hindustan Thermostat, India) were used to measure fat content of the milk
samples.
• pH meter
SELTIX pH Test Meter ± 0.1pH was used to measure the pH of milk samples
• Pcynometer
Specific gravity of milk samples were measured using Pcynometer (Thomas Scientific, USA) COLLECTION OF MILK
SAMPLES Fresh milk samples form Sangamneri Goat, Nimari Cow and Surti Buffalo were used (each type four
samples).All these samples were collected from local farmers, animal farm houses and Kathiyawadi people who have
lactating cattle in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra. The samples were transported to the laboratory within 24 hours, prior
to refrigeration. All the milk samples were stored at -20°C until analysis.
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF MILK SMAPLES
• Specific gravity The specific gravity of the milk is measured using a Lactometer and the temperature deviation of milk is
taken into considerationand correction applied, the Lactometer is called
Correct Lactometer Reading (
CLR) with the formula. Specific gravity of milk can be calculated by the following formula: CLR Sp. Gr. = ————— + 1
1000 Corrected lactometer reading (CLR) = LR + CF Where CF for Quevenne lactometer CF (+) = 0.1 x difference in
temperature above 600F CF (-) = 0.1 x difference in temperature below 600F
Titratable
acidity of Milk
The alkaline range of the titration curve is important because of the widespread use of titratable acidity to characterize
milk. The titratable acidity is the buffering capacity of milk between its own pH (6.6) and pH 8.3 (the phenolphthalein end
point). The measurement of titratable acidity (usually expressed, somewhat arbitrarily, as percentage lactic acid) is useful
for determining the freshness of milk and for controlling the manufacture of fermented dairy products. Thetitratable
acidity of fresh milk seldom falls outside the range 0.14–0.16% (McCarthy, 2002). · Total Solids Content Total solids
content (TS) was observed according to the method of Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2000). The
milk sample (5g) was taken in a per-weighed flat bottom dish. The dish was placed in hot air oven at101±1oC for 3 hrs
and transferred to desiccator. After 1 hr, the dish was weighed.The drying and desiccating were repeated till achieving the
constant weight and calculation was made as per following formula.
Total solids content (%) = Wt. of dried sample (c-a) x 100 Wt of sample taken (b-a) Where, a = weight of empty dish b =
weight of sample + dish
c = weight of dried sample + dish
• Solids Not Fat (SNF) Solid not-fat is an important criterion of milk selection for further processing. Milk solids non-fat
would include the nitrogenous substances, milk sugar and mineral matter. Whole fluid milk contains a minimum 8.25
percent SNF. The determination of
solid non-
fat is done by taking Lactometer reading at 40°C. Solids-not-fat (SNF) content was determined by the following formula
(HarrisandBachman, 2003).
SNF content (%) = TS (%) – Fat (%)
• Fat Content
Fat content was determined by Gerber method as described by James (1995). Milk sample (11 ml) was mixed with 90 %
sulfuric acid (10 ml) and amyl alcohol (1 ml) in butyrometer and closed with rubber cork. The butyrometer was placed in
a Gerber centrifuge machine and centrifuge for 5 min at 1100 rotation per minute (r.p.m). The fat percentage was noted
on the butyrometer scale.
• Protein Content Protein content was determined according to the method of British Standards Institution (BSI, 1990).
The sample (5g) was digested using Micro Kjeldhal digester in the presence of catalyst (0.2 g of copper sulfate and 2 g of
sodiumsulfate) where sulfuric acid (30 ml) was used as an oxidizing agent. The digested sample was diluted with distilled
water (250 ml). Then 5 ml portion from the diluted sample was distilled with NaOH (40 %) using Micro-Kjeldhal
distillation unit,
where steam was distilled over 2 % boric acid (5 ml) containing an indicator for 3 minutes. The ammonia trapped in boric
acid was determined by titrating with 0.1N HCl. The nitrogen percentage (N%) was calculated using following formula:
….…………………. N% = 1.4 (V1-V2) x Normality of HCl x 250 Wt. of sample x Vol. of diluted sample
Where, V1 = Titrated value of milk sample V2 = Titrated value of Blank sample While protein content was calculate from
the N%
using above formula and and
by multiplying with conversion factor i.e. 6.38 as reported by James (1995).
• Lactose Content Lactose content was determined by subtracting the sum of total percent of fat, protein and ash
contents from
that of total solids content of milk.
• Water Content
A Lactometer measures the density of milk. It helps to understand the users how much water is in the milk that is being
sampled. Lactometer was used to measure the amount of water in the milk. It works on the principle of specific gravity of
milk. It consists of a Test-Tube and a Meter Bulb. Using this instrument to know the water content is very simple. Some
milk in taken in the test-tube. The density of pure milk is 1.04 g cm-3. Hence, Lactometer sinks less in it. On addition of
water in the milk, the density of milk decreases and the Lactometer submerges more. Thus, density of milk is marked at
the base of the stem. The reading on the meter indicates how pure/impure milk sample is. The deeper the bulb sinks, the
more water was added in the milk. If the reading is at the red mark, it showed that the milk is rich and pure.
• Nitrogen content
Total nitrogen (TN) content of all the milk samples of Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo determined using
the micro Kjeldahl method described in BIS handbook.
Non-casein nitrogen (NCN) content and
non-protein content of all the milk samples were determined using Rowland’s analytical scheme for nitrogen fractions of
milk as described in a laboratory manual on chemical analysis of milk protein
by Kumar et al, 2012.
The Kjeldahl method involves a three-step approach to the quantification of protein: digestion, distillation, and titration.
Digestion of organic material is achieved using concentrated H2SO4, heat, K2SO4 (to raise the boiling point), and a
catalyst (e.g., selenium) to speed up the reaction. This process converts any nitrogen in the sample to ammonium sulfate.
The digestate is neutralized by the addition of NaOH, which converts the ammonium sulfate to ammonia, which is
distilled off and collected in a receiving flask of excess boric acid, forming ammonium borate. The residual boric acid is
then titrated with a standardized hydrochloric acid with the use of a suitable end-point indicator to estimate the total
nitrogen content of the sample. Following determination of the total nitrogen, the use of a specific conversion factor is
needed to convert the measured nitrogen content to the crude protein content. Most proteins contain 16% of nitrogen,
thus the conversion factor is 6.25.
•
Ash Content Ash percentage was determined by Gravimetric method as described by AOAC (2000) using muffle
furnace.The milk sample (5g) was taken in per-weighed crucible, and transferred to muffle furnace (550oC) for 4±1 h.
Ignited sample
was transferred to desiccator having silica gel as desiccant. After 1 hr. the crucible was weighed and the content
was calculated
by following formula:
Ash (%) = Wt. of ignited sample x 100 Wt. of sample taken
• Calorific Values of milk samples
Calorific/energy values were calculated from the proximate analysis results using the following generalized equation:
Kcal 100g-1 = (% protein × 4) + (% fat × 9) + (% lactose × 4)
•
Calcium, Magnesium Phosphorus and Chloride
content
Calcium and magnesium were determined simultaneously in milk by complexometric method of Davies and White
(1962) using disodium salt of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (
EDTA).
The method uses a very large molecule called EDTA which forms a complex with calcium and magnesium ions. EDTA is
short for ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid. A blue dye called Eriochrome Black T (ErioT) is used as the indicator. This blue
dye also forms a complex with the calcium and magnesium ions, changing colour from blue to pink in the process. The
dye–metal ion complex is less stable than the EDTA–metal ion complex.
For the titration, the sample solution containing the calcium and magnesium ions is reacted with an excess of EDTA. The
indicator is added and remains blue as all the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions present are complex-ed with the EDTA. A back
titration is carried out using a solution of magnesium chloride. This forms a complex with the excess EDTA molecules
until the end-point, when all the excess EDTA has been complexed. The remaining magnesium ions of the magnesium
chloride solution then start to complex with ErioT indicator, immediately changing its colour from blue to pink. The main
reaction is Ca2+ + EDTA4− → [Ca-EDTA]2− Back titration EDTA4− + Mg2+ → [Mg-EDTA]2− Indicator reaction: note,
ErioT is blue and ErioT-Mg is pink ErioT + Mg2+ → ErioT-Mg Titration Method 1. Pipette 10 mL of the milk sample solution
into a conical flask. 2. Add 20 mL of 0.05 mol L−1 EDTA solution. 3. Add 10 mL of ammonia buffer, 50 mL of distilled
water and 1 mL of Eriochrome Black T indicator solution. 4. Titrate the sample with the standard 0.025 molL−1
magnesium chloride solution until a permanent pink colour appears Result Calculations 1. Calculate the total moles of
EDTA added to the sample solution. 2. Calculate the moles of the magnesium chloride solution used in the back titration
from your concordant results. From the equation of the titration below, the moles of Mg2+ will be equivalent to the
moles of excess EDTA. EDTA4− + Mg2+ → [Mg-EDTA]2− 3. Given the ratio of Ca2+ + Mg2+ : EDTA = 1 : 1, calculate the
moles of Ca2+ and Mg2+ that must have been complexed with EDTA by subtracting the excess EDTA from the total
moles of EDTA added to the sample. This result is the moles of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the milk sample.
Phosphorous was determined by the colorimetric method of Fiske and Subbarow (1925).
An amount of the phosphorus to be tested is measured into a 15 ml milk sample in volumetric flask. Water added to
about 10 ml. 1 ml. of 72 % perchloric acid, 1ml. of molybdate and 0 5 ml. of sulphonic acid are added, and water to 15 ml.
The contents of the flasks are gently shaken between each addition, and finally mixed by inverting and shaking. The
reduction of phosphomolybdic acid to give a blue colour, the intensity of which is proportional to the concentration of
phosphate. The colours are read after 5 minutes in a colorimeter.
Prepare a standard stock solution of phosphorus of 100 mg L-1 by dissolving 0.11g of KH2PO4 in distilled water and
diluting to 250 cm3 in a volumetric flask (Stock Solution A).
Accurately transfer 10 ml of this solution to a 250 ml volumetric flask (Stock solution B) and make up to volume with
distilled water. Use stock solution B to prepare standards of approximately 0.20, 0.40, 0.60, 0.80 and 1.0 mg L-1, that is,
pipette 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 ml portions respectively to separate labeled 100 ml volumetric flasks. Place roughly 50 ml of
distilled water into a 100 ml flask as a blank solution, then organize all the analytical solutions for colour development.
Prior to measurement, set the wavelength of the instrument to 880nm then zero with distilled water in a 1-cm cuvette.
Measure the absorbance of the standards in order of increasing concentration followed by that of the sample solutions.
Results were recorded and graph plotted with the corrected absorbance vs the corresponding concentration. The
concentration of phosphorus calculated from absorbance of milk sample processed.
The chloride content of all the milk sample of milk was determined by Hammer and Bailey (1917) using AgNO3.
Take 5.0 ml of milk sample and add 1.0 ml of 0.1 N silver nitrate solution (10%). Mix the content thoroughly and add 0.5
ml of 10% potassium chromate solution and observe the colour. Appearance of chocolate brown precipitate indicates
the absence of dissolved chloride in milk and appearance of yellow colour indicates presence of dissolved chloride. The
limit of detection of method is 0.02%.
• Statistical Analysis Results were analysed by
statistical package of GraphPad Prism (Analytical software, San Diego, CA 92108).
The data were further analysed through statistical procedure of analysis of variance (ANOVA) to observe the significant
differences among the variables and in case of significant difference exist, the mean were further computed using least
significant difference (LSD),
which is the value at a particular level of statistical probability (e.g.P≤ 0.01 means with 99% accuaracy)
Lactating Sangamneri Goat, Nimari Cow and Surti Buffalo form Jalgaon district in Maharashtra were selected for study.
Under the hot and humid atmospheric conditions, physiological responses, milk production abilities and composition of
milk as well as breeding performance were assessed and statistical correlation was established. Animals are generally
driven out on feet for pasture grazing. When kept onstall feeding they are fed with brown pea, oil cakes and local grass.
The kids are allowed to suckle from their mothers. Pregnant animals are fed with the concentrate and mineral mixture.
To find out the effect of heat stress (sultriness) in lactating goat, cow and buffalo during hot-dry (HD; April to mid June)
and hot-humid (HH; mid June to August) seasons, lactating cattle were selected from the local farmers, farm houses and
cattle raised by Kathiyawadi people in Jalgaon district. Cattle were studied on the basis of lactation, stage of lactation,
body weight, dam’s highest milk yield and milk yield in current lactation. Goats, cows and buffaloes were uniformly
selected for physiological responses, milk production and Composition and breeding performance. Physiological
responses: The rectal temperature was recorded with the help of digital thermometer. Pulse rate was taken from
coccygeal artery. Respiration rate was noted by observing the movement of flank region of buffaloes. All these
parameters were recorded at 9 AM and 2 PM during starting of experiment and then at every week up to the end of the
experiment. Milk production and composition: Daily morning and evening milk production were recorded for all
experimental buffaloes. Per day average milk production were calculated in control and treatment group buffaloes.
Morning and evening milk fat %, SNF %, lactose %, protein %, density, salt %, freezing point, pH were estimated at the
beginning of experiment and then, fortnightly intervals up to the end of experiment with the help of automatic milk
analyser. Production and breeding performance: Cattle breeding performance is closely monitored by studying following
parameters:
Temperature Humidity Index (THI)
It is one of the best predictors of body temperature in heat-stressed cows than other measurements of environmental
conditions (Bohmanova et al., 2007).
Heat Stress Zone (HSZ)
In general, the TNZ is bounded by two boundaries of temperature as lower critical temperature and upper critical
temperature.
Female Fertility Traits: length of estrous cycle, service period, age at first calving, dry period, calving interval, incidence of
silent heat.
Pregnancy Rate
Pregnancy rate is defined as the percentage of cattle eligible to become pregnant that actually do become pregnant in a
given period of time. Daughter pregnancy rate (%) calculated by the formula (VanRaden et al., 2004)
DPR = 21/ (First Service Period – Voluntary Waiting Period + 11)
Conception Rates
Conception rate is calculated by dividing the number of pregnant cattle by the total number of inseminations.
Lactation Length: time period for which animal give milk after calving
Male Reproductive Performance through bio-physical characteristics of semen.
Statistical analysis: All data set of cattle groups during HD and HH seasons will be reported as Mean ± SD. Data analysed
by the method of analysis of contrast variables using the GLM (generalized linear model) procedures on analysis of
variance for repeated measures using the GraphPad Prism 9.
A questionnaire was developed to acquire information on livestock management routines that were hypothesized to be
related to bio-security and animal disease in dairy cattle herds and smallholder livestock producers in Jalgaon district of
Maharashtra. The study was conducted in two different phases during 2019-2020. The first phase involved a cross
sectional survey of smallholder livestock producers (Part I) and the second phase involved group interviews of livestock
producers (Part II). Part I of this study also involved consultation with stakeholders to conduct analysis as reported by
Hayes et al (2017) and Hernández-Jover et al (2019).
Part I study: Cross-Sectional Study based on Development of the Questionnaire:
A questionnaire was developed to gather information on demographics and general husbandry, biosecurity, animal
health management as well as to create awareness about livestock diseases with suggestions incorporated where
appropriate.The questionnaire comprised short-closed, semi-closedand open questions and was prepared.
Part II: Group Interviews of smallholders who are engaged in livestock production and rearing: Group interviews were
undertaken to gain a broader and deeper level of understanding of the attitudes, behaviours and communication
networks of smallholders in relation to biosecurity and the management of animal health. This activity provided a follow
up to the questionnaire, focussing on areas livestock diseases and management practices.
For smallholder producers of Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo in different tehsils of Jalgaon district were
selected for study. The sample size calculation was performed using Epitools epidemiological calculators
(epitools.ausvet.com.au), and assumed a population of smallholders <1000, a 95% confidence level and 5% precision,
with ∼20–30% of smallholders conducting a specific animal health management practice. The required sample size was
between 250 and 351. The questionnaire was distributed randomly in selected sample of livestock holders. Data
collected from questionnaires were entered into Microsoft Excel (Window 2010) and checked for data entry errors.
Descriptive and statistical analysis were conducted using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 24 on
Windows 2010. Associations were investigated between explanatory variables and animal health management practices
(dependent variables), using logistic regression analyses. Animal health management practices included in the analysis
were: (1) the frequency of livestock inspection; (2) keeping records of animal health events; (3) contact with veterinarians;
(4) actions in response to recognizing unusual signs of disease; and (5) sources of animal health information. All of these
dependent variables were binary. Association of animal health practices with the explanatory variable “species” was
initially investigated using univariable logistic regression analysis. This step was conducted to identify differences in
animal health practices between smallholders keeping different livestock species specifically Sangamneri goat, Nimari
cow and Surti buffalo. The next step in the analysis of the data was to investigate those factors (explanatory variables)
associated with animal health practices within smallholders keeping the same livestock species. For these analyses, uni
variable logistic regression was initially conducted to investigate preliminary associations of the animal health practices
with a group of explanatory variables. These explanatory variables were: Age, gender, state, property size (hectares), years
owning livestock, species kept, number of animals kept and bio security knowledge. Variables with P>0.2 in the uni
variable analysis were investigated further in a multi variable logistic regression model. Prior to building the multi variable
model, correlation between these explanatory variables was tested by a chi-square test and only one of a pair of highly
correlated variables was considered for inclusion in the multi variable model. Correlations were found between species
kept and number of animals kept; property size and number of cattle or sheep kept; and, state and property size. Age and
gender were included in the multi variable models as potential con founders. A backward selection method was used to
build the multi variable logistic regression model for each animal health practice, with only those explanatory variables
with a P-value > 0.05 being retained in the final model. Further, first order interaction terms were included to the final
models and retained if significant at P-value > 0.05. The fitness of model was assessed using the XLSTAT- a complete
statistical add-in for Microsoft Excel. To investigate the bio security knowledge of smallholders, participants were asked
with an open-ended question, to provide a definition of the term, bio security. This information was qualitatively analyzed
using content analysis and classification of answers into four categories: (0) No knowledge (I don't know/incorrect
reference to introduction and spread of diseases);(1) Low level of understanding of bio security (general mention of
disease prevention but no reference to introduction and/or spread); (2) Moderate level of understanding of bio security
(correct reference to practices preventing the introduction or the spread); and (3) High level of understanding of bio
security(correct reference to practices preventing the introduction and spread of disease). Part II study based on group
interviews in which livestock producers were participated in group interviews. It was undertaken to gain a broader and
deeper level of understanding of the attitudes, behaviors and communication networks of smallholders in relation to bio
security and the management of animal health specifically related to Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo. This
activity provided a follow up to the questionnaire, focussing on areas selected in Jalgaon district to be of high interest.
The structure for the group of smallholders was planned according to the method described by Tobias et al (2018). Focus
group discussion is frequently used as a qualitative approach to gain an in-depth understanding of social issues. The
method aims to obtain data from a purposely selected group of individuals rather than from a statistically representative
sample of a broader population. Even though the application of this method in conservation research has been
extensive, there are no critical assessment of the application of the technique. Focus group discussion intended with a
highly moderated structured interview, 6–8 participants per group and three groups were interviewed in each tehsil of
Jalgaon district in Maharashtra. Collection and Analysis of Data Livestock producers as smallholders were contacted and
information statement and consent form distributed and asked to confirm their willingness to participate during personal
visits to different locations in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra. Smallholders confirming their intent to participate were
contacted 7 days prior to the group interview, serving as a reminder. Each group interview, which had 2–3 hrs duration
that comprised structured activities and open discussions in relation to diseases of importance. All discussions were
noted and descriptive as well as categorical data from the structured activities was recorded and analyzed in Microsoft
Excel (Windows XP, 2010) and qualitative data was analyzed using applied thematic content analysis (Guest, 2012; David,
2019).
Data collection The design of experiment was done with specific objective to assess the current state of mechanization
and automation used in cattle farms located in different tehsils of Jalgaon district of Maharashtra. For this purpose,
specific questionnaires for 12 different types of cattle farms were visited during the study period. The questionnaires
contained different numbers of questions and answer options, which are relevant to use of technology in animal farm
and dairy business. Because our study focused on digital technology adoption on livestock farms, questionnaires were
related to dairy cattle specifically buffaloes, cows and goats. For most questions, multiple answers were possible. The
answer options included various sensors and applications from the thematic areas of feeding, animal behaviour and
activity, animal monitoring and identification and, if applicable, milking technologies. For better understanding of the
adoption process, farm and farmers’characteristics related to the adoption of digital technologies in Jalgaon district
farming were examined. Relevant farm variables linked to the respective farms from the questionnaires. The following
variables were considered for further analyses: the continuous variables ‘age’, ‘agricultural area’ and ‘number of livestock
units’, the dichotomous variables ‘gender (male/female)’, ‘production system (conventional/organic)’ and ’on-farm
working time (part-time/full-time)’. Furthermore, the barn systems ‘loose housing’ and ‘tie stall’ were included in the
analyses as well as ‘both’ if both systems were in use on the farm.
Statistical analysis In the first part, frequencies of digital technology adoption were calculated for all livestock-related
farm house. In the second part, farm and farmers’ characteristics associated with digital technology adoption in catlle
farming were assessed using regression analyses to better understand the adoption process.
Based on the results from the first part, the digital technologies were divided into implemented ones that have been
already proven in practice and new ones that make farmers pioneers in their use. Thus, three categories were created:
The category of implemented technologies includes all technologies used by at least 10% of the farmers surveyed. The
category of new technologies includes all technologies used by less than 10%. Because multiple answers were possible,
individual farmers can occur in both groups. The third group comprises the non-adopters who didn’t implemented any
digital methodology for livestock management. Two binary regression analyses were done to evaluate correlations
between farm and farmers’ characteristics and the adoption of implemented and new digital technologies, each
compared with the group of non-adopters. For both cases, the dependent variable was the adoption decision (0/1) and
the independent variables included the farm and farmers’ characteristics. Estimated marginal changes (dF/dx) in the
regression results indicate the change in the probability of adoption when the respective independent variable (clustered
at the enterprise level) changes by one unit while keeping all other variables at their averages. The livestock units and age
variables are presented in standardized form that is, expressed in standard deviation differences from the overall sample
mean. This presentation allows a meaningful interpretation because the variables contain comparatively large numeric
values, so that single unit changes represent only incrementally small changes compared with the overall spread of the
distribution. Results were analysed with the statistical software R Version 4.0.5 using the package ‘mfx’ (Fernihough,
2019).
RESULTS and DISCUSSION
Based on the survey of dairy farms and analysis of milk samples collected in Jalgaon district (Figure 1.6) the following
results were noted. pH of the milk samples: Milk has acidic properties inside of mammals due to the presence dissolved
carbon dioxide. But the milk has alkaline properties outside of the mammals because of losing carbon dioxide to the
air.The negative log of hydrogen ion concentration (pH) of the milk samples collected from Sangamneri goat, Nimari
cow and Surti buffalo is summarized in table 1.2. The pH of the milk was measured at the time of sampling using portable
pH meter. Table 1.2: The pH values
of milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo
pH value Source of milk Min. Max. Mean SD (±) Sangamneri goat 6.48 6.65 6.56 0.06 Nimari cow 6.54 6.71 6.62 0.05 Surti
Buffalo 6.62 6.98 6.73 0.08 Significance
of Statistical difference Significance level: *** = p > 0.01, * = p > 0.05, n.s .= p < 0.05 n.s. = not significant
Mean is average of 6 milk samples from each cattle a)
Goat milk v/s Cow milk n.s b) Goat milk v/s Buffalo milk *** c) Cow milk v/s Buffalo milk * Min.=Minimum, Max.=
Maximum, SD = Standard Deviation
The results showed that pH values were in the range of 6.48 to 6.65 in goat milk, 6.54 to 6.71 in cow milk and 6.52 to
6.95 in buffalo milk. The pH of buffalo milk were significantly (p>0.05) higher than that of cow and goat. Whereas, the
pH of cow and goat were not significantly different form each other (p<0.05). The pH value of buffalo found the
present investigation is in agreement of the findings of Kanwal et al (2004). Cow and goat milk shown pH in accordance
with pH reported by Abay and Kebede (2016). Specific gravity of milk samples:
Fat present in the milk causes the specific gravity slightly higher than the water. Alteration in the composition of milk can
reflect in change in the specific gravity of milk. If the fat is removed form milk, its specific gravity can be increased
because ofthe weight of fat is much lower than the water. Milk adulterated with water converts milk into less nutritive
and its quality becomes substandard. The Lactometer are normally standardized at a particular temperature (say 60°F or
15.6° C)
Table 1.3 represents the lactometer reading (
LR) and specific gravity of milk samples taken from Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo. Results showed in the
present study that Nimari cow’s milk has highest specific gravity and LR i.e. 29.9 and 1.03 respectively. These figures are
followed by Sangamneri goat and lowest specific gravity and LR were noted for the milk sample of Surti buffalo.
Table 1.3: Lactometer reading (LR) and Specific gravities of goat, cow and buffalo milk samples
Source LR (Range) LR (Mean) Sp.Gravities (Range) Sp. Gravities (Mean) Goat 27-29 28.7 1.02- 1.03 1.02* Cow 28-33 29.9
1.02- 1.03 1.03
Buffalo 26-29 28.3 1.02- 1.02 1.02*
The results obtained during this study were resembling the findings of Getaneh et al (2016). Values of Mean LR and Mean
specific gravity of goat and buffalo
calculated from six milk samples from each cattle
were no significantly differ from each other while these figure significantly with that of cow’s milk. Normal milk rarely has
the specific gravity at (600F) less than 1.03 (LR=30), hence lower LR may be due to adulteration of milk.
LR (Mean) is average of 6 milk samples from each cattle and Specifi Gravity with same figure* do differe significantly from
each other (
P>0.05).
Table 1.4: Values of titratable acidity (%) of milk samples of goat, cow and Surti buffalo.
Titratable acidity (%) Source of milk Min. Max. Mean SD (±) Sangamneri goat 0.14 0.17 0.155 0.02 Nimari cow 0.14 0.19
0.165 0.01 Surti Buffalo 0.15 0.20 0.175 0.03 Significance
of Statistical difference Significance level: *** = p > 0.001, * = p > 0.05
Mean is average of 6 milk samples from each cattle a)
Goat milk v/s Cow milk * b) Goat milk v/s Buffalo milk *** c) Cow milk v/s Buffalo milk * Min.=Minimum, Max.=
Maximum, SD = Standard Deviation
Titrable acidity: Table 1.4 shows the values of titratable acidity (%) of milk samples collected from Sangamneri goat,
Nimari cow and Surti buffalo. The results indicated the titratable acidity were fluctuated between 0.14 to 0.19% in goat
milk, 0.14 to 0.17% in cow milk and 0.15 to 0.20% in buffalo milk.The mean value of titratable acidity (%) of buffalo milk
were higher than that of goat milk and it showed highly significant differences at p>0.001 level. Whereas, it was
observed that differences in mean values of titratable acidity (%) of goat milk and cow milk as well as of the cow milk and
buffalo milk were significant (p>0.05).
The mean value of the titratable acidity (%) in Sangamneri goat was in accordance with results of Kumar and Sharma
(2016). Whereas the milk of Nimari cow showed resembling figure of titratable acidity with that of Mahboba and Zubeir
(2007).The Surti buffalo milk was similar as reported by Sahin et al (2014).
Table 1.5: Concentration of total solids in milk samples collected form goat, cow and buffalo.
Total solids (%) Source of milk Min. Max. Mean SD (±) Sangamneri goat 12.86 13.65 13.25 0.62 Nimari cow 11.46 14.65
13.05 0.56 Surti Buffalo 15.59 19.44 17.52 0.85 Significance
of Statistical difference Mean is average of 6 milk samples from each cattle
Goat milk v/s Cow milk n.s. Goat milk v/s Buffalo milk *** Cow milk v/s Buffalo milk *** n.s. = not significant; *** = p >
0.001, Min.=Minimum, Max.= Maximum, SD = Standard Deviation
Total Solids (TS) in milk samples:
Total solids are measured to ensure the quality of milk samples. The total solids in milk can be determined from the
specific gravity and fat content from lactometer reading. Besides carrying out the total solids percentage from the
indirect method of using lactometer reading, a direct method of gravimetric analysis can also be useful. This method
involves accurately weighing a few grams of the material and subjecting it to heat until all moisture has been driven off
on a water bath. The dry residue is weighed, its percentage calculated as total dry solids. TS of milk samples were
measured as per the method of AOAC (2000) and give in table 1.5.
The results illustrated that the concentration of total solids were fluctuated in the range of 12.86 to 13.65% in the milk
samples of Sangamneri goat, 11.46 to 14.65% in milk samples of Nimari cow and 15.59 to 19.44% in the milk samples of
Surti buffalo. The concentration of total solids in buffalo milk was higher than that of the values noted in milk samples of
cow and goat and showed highly significant differences at p>0.001 level. Whereas, TS values in goat and cow milk
samples were not significantly differ from each other (p<0.05).
Solid not fat (SNF): Results regarding solid not-fat (SNF) in milk samples collected from Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and
Surti buffalo are shown in table 1.6. Statistical analysis indicated that source of milk has significant (p > 0.05) influence
on SNF content. The SNF of milk samples were in the range of 6.97 % (Sangamneri goat) to 8.93 % (Surti Buffalo). The
differences in percentage of SNF in goat and buffalo milk samples as well as in cow and buffalo milk samples were highly
significant (p > 0.001) whereas SNF% in goat milk sample and cow milk sample were not significantly differ from each
other at p<0.05. Rasheed et al (2016) reported similar results of SNF% in the milk samples of various sources of milk.
Table 1.6: The percentage of SNF in milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo.
Solid Not Fat (%) Source of milk Min. Max. Mean SD (±) Sangamneri goat 6.97 7.05 7.01 0.04 Nimari cow 7.24 7.98 7.61
0.07 Surti Buffalo 8.23 8.93 8.58 0.12 Significance
of Statistical difference Significance level *** = p > 0.001, n.s.= p < 0.05 Mean is the average of 6 milk samples from
each cattle a)
Goat milk v/s Cow milk n.s. b)Goat milk v/s Buffalo milk *** c)Cow milk v/s Buffalo milk *** Min.=Minimum, Max.=
Maximum, SD = Standard Deviation
On the other hand, results reported by Pandya and Ghodke (2007) were slightly different and this might be due to the
variation in breed, diet and animal health and environmental conditions (Zicarelli, 2004; Ahmad et al. 2008). Hence,
concluded that SNF content not only depends on source of milk but also depends on various factors such as breeds,
animal feed and season. Ash: Ash is the inorganic residue remaining after the water and organic matter have been
removed by heating in the presence
of oxidizing
agents, which provides a measure of the total amount of minerals within a food. Analytical techniques for providing
information about the total mineral content are based on the fact that the minerals can be distinguished from all the
other components within a food in some measurable way. The most widely used methods are based on the fact that
minerals are notdestroyed by heating and that they have a low volatility compared to other food components. The main
analytical
techniques used
to determine the ash content of foods are based on this principle: dry ashing, wet ashing and low temperature plasma
dry ashing.
By dry ashing method its percentage in the milk samples were calculated.
The percentage of ash content in the milk samples of Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo are given in table
1.7. Table 1.7: Ash content in the milk samples collected from goat, cow and buffalo
Ash (%)
Source of milk Min. Max. Mean SD (±) Sangamneri goat 0.57 0.98 0.77 0.11 Nimari cow 0.38 0.79 0.58 0.08 Surti Buffalo
0.70 0.97 0.83 0.09 Significance
of Statistical difference Significance level *** = p > 0.001, n.s.= non significance
Mean is the average of 6 milk samples from each cattle
Goat milk v/s Cow milk *** b) Goat milk v/s Buffalo milk n.s. Cow milk v/s Buffalo milk *** Min.=Minimum, Max.=
Maximum, SD = Standard Deviation
The milk samples from Surti buffalo shown the highest ash content (0.83%) and its values were fluctuated between 0.70
to 0.97%, followed by goat milk (0.77%) in which its values showed range between 0.57 to 0.98% and the lowest ash
content (0.58%) was noted in milk samples collected form Nimari cow, where in the values fluctuated between 0.38 to
0.79%. The differences in values of ash content in goat milk and cow milk samples as well as in cow milk and buffalo milk
samples were highly significant (p>0.001), whereas there were non-significant (p<0.05) difference between values of
ash content in milk samples collected form goat and buffalo. The amount of ash content in Surti buffalo milk samples
were similar to that were reported by Imran et al (2008). There was resembling reports noted by Bhosale et al (2009) so
far the ash content values in milk samples of collected form Sangamneri goat were concerned. The percentage of ash
content in milk sample of Nimari cow were in accordance with results obtained by Javaid et al (2009) and Sreedhar et al
(2009). Table 1.8: Fat content (%) in milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo
Fat (%)
Source of milk Min. Max. Mean SD (±) Sangamneri goat 3.45 4.27 3.86 0.48 Nimari cow 3.98 5.21 4.59 0.53 Surti Buffalo
6.89 8.12 7.50 0.42 Significance
of Statistical difference Significance: *** = p > 0.001, ** = p > 0.01 Mean is the average of 6 milk samples from each
cattle
Goat
milk v/s Cow milk ** Goat milk v/s Buffalo milk *** Cow milk v/s Buffalo milk *** Min.=Minimum, Max.= Maximum, SD =
Standard Deviation
Fat
content: The results related to fat content in milk samples collected from Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo
are shown in table 1.8.The results related to fat content (%)
in milk samples
indicated that maximum mean value (7.5) was noted in milk samples of Surti buffalo, followed by Nimari cow (4.59).
Whereas milk sample taken from Sangamneri cow showed lowest percentage of fat (3.86). There were highly significant
differences (p>0.001) between goat and buffalo milk samples as well as in in cow and buffalo milk samples. The
differences in fat content (%) between goat and cow milk were significantly differ (p>0.01). Mean fat content 5.25% in
buffalo milk and 4.04% in cow milk were noted by Salman et al (2014).
Fats in milk are called butterfat and occur as suspended globules, which are easily seen through low power microscopes.
Cattle milk derives many of its most distinctive properties from its lipid fraction. The average total fat content in the milk
is similar to that found in other ruminant species, despite reports that the
percentage of fat in goat’s milk exceeds that of the cow (Getaneh et al, 2016). Such a controversy most likely derived
from the fact that the average percentage of milk fat, as with cow’s milk fat, is a variable component, often ranging
between 3.0 and 6.0 percent. There are also distinct breed differences in fat composition. It should be remembered,
however, the quality and quantity of feeds, genetics season, stage of lactation, etc. all influence the average percentage
of goat milk fat. According to analytical results obtained by Garry et al (2000) in terms of cholesterol, goat’s milk appears
to offer a specific distinction in comparison to cow’s milk, cow’s milk typically contains about 14 to 17 mg cholesterol per
100 g milk, while goat’s milk is more usually recorded at 11 to 25 mg per 100 gram of milk. Protein content: Milk protein
is mainly in the form of casein, lactoalbumins and lactoglobulins. About 82 percent of the protein in milk is casein and
the remaining proteins are whey proteins, which are lactoalbumin and lactoglobulin. Casein binds with calcium in milk
and forms the calcium caseinate complex, which is present in the colloidal form. The protein content (%) in the milk
samples collected from Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo are shown in table 1.9.
Table 1.9: Protein
content (%) in milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo Protein (%) Source of milk Min. Max. Mean SD (±) Sangamneri goat
2.49 3.55 3.02 0.24 Nimari cow 2.93 3.96 3.44 0.28 Surti Buffalo 4.11 4.82 4.46 0.22 Significance
of Statistical difference Significance level: *** = p > 0.001, n.s. = p <0.05 Mean is the average of 6 milk samples from
each cattle
Goat milk v/s Cow milk n.s. Goat milk v/s Buffalo milk *** Cow milk v/s Buffalo milk *** Min.=Minimum, Max.= Maximum,
SD = Standard Deviation
The results indicated that the value of mean protein in Surti buffalo milk was highest (4.46%) as compared to that of cow
milk (3.44%) and goat milk (3.02%). The values of protein content of buffalo milk with that of goat milk and cow milk were
differ highly significant (p>0.001) whereas differences in protein content in goat milk and cow milk were not
significant (p<0.05). The proteins in milk
contain all the essential amino acids and elements that our bodies cannot produce. It is important to remember that
proteins are the building blocks of all living tissue. Milk proteins have
roughly the
same composition as the egg protein, except for the amounts of methionine and cysteine, significantly lower. Indeed,
the sulphur containing
amino acids are the limiting factors in milk. Casein is the complex milk protein contains good
proportion of
all amino acids essential for growth and maintenance (Ghada, 2005). The amino acids present in the milk can be
precipitated by acid, rennet or alcohol.
The
protein content is an important feature of the milk (Arora et al, 2013). Lactose: Chemically lactose is disaccharide made
up of glucose and Galactose. It is main component of milk. Except for the milk of mammals, lactose is rarely found in
other whole, unprocessed foods. Infants use it as an important energy source during their first year of life (Silanikove et
al., 2015). It also supports the development of probiotic bacteria in gastrointestinal tract, which helps protect them from
infections (Fassio et al., 2018).In cows, lactose is synthesized in the mammary gland from about 20% of the glucose in
the bloodstream. It makes up an estimated 4.7% of the total nutrient content in a cow's milk, typically more by weight
than even fat or protein (Costa et al., 2019).
Table 1.10: Lactose content in milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo
Lactose (%)
Source of milk Min. Max. Mean SD (±) Sangamneri goat 3.76 4.42 4.09 0.28 Nimari cow 4.44 5.32 4.88 0.31 Surti Buffalo
4.68 5.37 5.02 0.44 Significance
of Statistical difference Significance level *** = p > 0.001, * = p >0.05 Mean is the average of 6 milk samples from
each cattle a)
Goat milk v/s Cow milk * b)Goat milk v/s Buffalo milk *** c) Cow milk v/s Buffalo milk * Min.=Minimum, Max.= Maximum,
SD = Standard Deviation
Lactose content in the milk samples collected from Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow
and Surti buffalo are given in table 1.10.
The results of the present investigation reveals that lactose (%) is highest in milk samples of Surti buffalo, in which values
ranged between 4.68 to 5.37%. It then followed by milk samples of Nimari cow, in which the percentage of lactose were
lower (4.88%) than Surti buffalo and higher than that of Sangamneri goat. Lactose content in goat milk fluctuated
between 4.44 to 5.32%. The lowest lactose content were noted in milk of Sangamneri goat (4.09%), where the values
showed the range between 3.76 to 4.42%. The differences in values of lactose content between milk samples of goat and
cow as well as in cow milk and buffalo milk were moderately significant from each other at p>0.05 level. While,
differences in values of lactose content in milk samples of goat and buffalo were highly significant at p>0.001 level.
Pertaining to the results obtained, it important to mention that Kapadiya et al (2016) reported resembling values of
lactose content during their studies on the gross composition, nitrogen distribution, and selected mineral content ingoat
milk, and its comparison was made between cow and buffalo milk. The resembling results were also noted by Imran et al
(2008) and Bhosale et al (2009).Variationin lactose content might be due to the differencesin the breed, feeding and
environmental conditions (Pandya and Ghodke, 2007; Ahmad et al, 2008).
Water content Water content of milk samples of Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalois given in table 1.11.
Results illustrated that average water contentof goat, cow and buffalo milk samples were 88.3, 87.2, and 84.3 %,
respectively. Statistical analysis showed a significant (P > 0.05) difference between the water content of goal and
buffalo as well as in milk samples of cow and buffalo. Maximum water content was observed for goat milk (88.3 %), while
minimum value was recorded in buffalo milk (84.3 %). Abdelgawad et al (2014) and Rasheed et al (2016) observed higher
water content in case ofgoat and cow milk. Cow milk contains a considerable amount of water that ranged from 87.2 to
87.4% (Abay and Kebede, 2018). Health of animal, stage of lactation, breed and somehow animal age has significant
influence on water content of milk (Park, 2007). Table 1.11: Water content in milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo Water
content (%) Source of milk Min. Max. Mean SD (±) Sangamneri goat 87.7 88.9 88.3 0.11 Nimari cow 86.7 87.8 87.2 0.09
Surti Buffalo 83.9 84.8 84.3 0.08
Significance of Statistical difference Significance level * = p >0.05 n.s.= not significant Mean is the average of 6 milk
samples from each cattle
Goat milk v/s Cow milk n.s. Goat milk v/s Buffalo milk * Cow milk v/s Buffalo milk * Min.=Minimum, Max.= Maximum, SD
= Standard Deviation
Nitrogen distribution:
Total nitrogen (TN), non-casein nitrogen (NCN) and non-protein nitrogen (NPN)
content of all
the milk samples of Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo are given in table 1.12.
The
mean value of TN% in milk samples of Surati buffalo was the highest (0.702±0.046) followed by Nimari cow
(0.547±0.028) and lowest in Sanganeri goat (0.536±0.021). The mean value of NCN% was highest in milk sample of
Sangamneri goat (0.153±0.015) followed Surti buffalo (0.140±0.020) and lowest in Nimari cow (0.124±0.013). The mean
value of NPN% was highest in milk sample of Nimari cow (0.054±0.014) followed by Surati buffalo (0.051±0.024) and
lowest in Sangamneri goat (0.029±0.007).
Table 1.12: Nitrogen distribution in milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo Types of milk Parameters (%)
TN NCN NPM Goat 0.536±0.021a (0.498-0.548) 0.153±0.015a (0.132-0.167) 0.029±0.007a (0.019-0.036) Cow
0.547±0.028a (0.499-0.568) 0.124±0.013b (0.103-0.136) 0.054±0.014a (0.036-0.074) Buffalo 0.702±0.046b (0.644-
0.743) 0.140±0.020c (0.118-0.157) 0.051±0.024a (0.023-0.082) SEM 0.015 0.007 0.007 CD 0.05 0.022 - Test * * NS CV%
5.62 11.64 37.003 a-c Values with different letters within a column are significantly different at 5% level of significant (i.e.,
p>0.05). SEM=Standard error of mean, CD=Critical difference, CV=Coefficient of variance, NS=Not significant,
TN=Total nitrogen, NCN=Non-casein nitrogen, NPM=Non-protein nitrogen.
Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphorus and Chloride content in milk samples: The above mentioned
mineral content of Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow, and Surti buffalo milk is mentioned in Table 1.13. The values of calcium
content ranged between 125.2 to 138.5 mg/100 ml with a mean value of 131.8 mg/100 ml in milk samples of Sangamneri
goat. Similarly, in Nimari
cow milk, range
of calcium was 112.5 to 134.8 mg/100 ml with a mean
value of 123.6 mg/100 ml.
On the
other hand, calcium content ranged between 164.8 to 182.7 mg/100 ml with a mean value of173.7 mg/100 ml in Surti
buffalo milk. The calcium
content of
buffalo milk was statistically higher than that of the goat milk as well as cow milk. The
Table 1.13: Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphorous and Chloride content in milk samples of goat, cow and buffalo. Milk
source Calcium (mg/100ml) Magnesium (mg/100ml) Phosphorous (mg/100ml) Chloride (%) Goat (G) 131.8 ± 8.32 (125.2
to 138.5) 18.72 ± 1.56 (17.27 to 20.18 ) 94.85 ± 11.32 (80.21 to 109.5) 0.11± 0.04 (0.09 to 0.13) Cow (C) 123.6 ± 5.68 (112.5
to 134.8) 13.41 ± 2.14 (11.58 to 15.24) 87.26 ± 9.02 (75.96 to 98.57) 0.12 ± 0.02 (0.10 to 0.14) Buffalo (B) 173.7 ± 6.89
(164.8 to 182.7) 17.79 ± 1.94 (15.47 to 20.12) 106.9 ± 9.02 (92.33 + 121.5) 0.12 ± 0.03 (0.11 to 0.13)
Level of
Significance G v/s C milk * ** * * G v/s B milk *** n.s. ** * C v/s B milk *** ** *** n.s. Significance: *** p>0.001 **=
p>0.01 * p>0.05 n.s. p<0.05 Each figure is Mean ± Standard Deviation of 6
milk samples of each cattle.
n.s. =non-significant. Figures in bracket are range of parameters.
differences in calcium content in milk samples of goat and buffalo as well as in milk samples of cow and buffalo were
highly significant (p>0.001) while calcium content values of goat and cow milk differ from each other at p>0.05.
The magnesium contents in milk samples of Sangamneri goat fluctuated between 164.8 to 182.7 mg/100 ml with a mean
value of 18.72 mg/100 ml. Similarly, in Nimari cow milk, range of magnesium was 164.8 to 182.7 mg/100 ml with a mean
valueof 13.41 mg/100 ml. On the other hand, magnesium content fluctuated between 15.47 to 20.12 mg/100
ml with a mean value of 17.79 mg/100 ml in buffalo milk.
These results are in accordance with Kapadiya et al (2016). The magnesium content of goat milk was significantly higher
than that of the Nimari cow and Surti buffalo milk.The differences in magnesium content in milk samples of goat and
cow as well as cow and buffalo milk were significant at p>0.01 level, while there no significant different in calcium
content values of goat and buffalo milk samples (p<0.05). In relation to range of phosphorous content in the milk
samples of Sangamneri goat were 80.21 to 109.5mg/100 ml with a mean value of94.85 mg/100 ml. While in milk samples
of Nimari cow, phosphorous content fluctuated between 75.96 to 98.57mg/100 ml
with a
mean value of 106/9 mg/100 ml in Surti buffalo milk.The mean value of phosphorous content in Surti buffalo milk was
significantly higher than that of the Sangamneri goat and Nimari cow milk. The differences in phosphorous content in
milk samples of goat and cow
were significant at p>0.05 level, in milk samples goat and buffalo were significant at p>0.01 and in milk samples of
cow and buffalo were highly significant at p<0.001. The values of chloride content in the milk samples of Sangamneri
goat were fluctuated between0.09 to 0.13% with a mean value of 0.11% in goat milk. Similarly, in Nimari cow milk, range
of chloride was0.10 to 0.14% with a mean value of 0.12%. On the other hand, chloride content ranged between 0.10%
and0.12% with a mean value of 0.12% in Surti buffalo milk.The chloride content of goat milk samples were significantly
higher (p>0.05) than that of the cow and buffalo milk samples, while there in no significant difference (p<0.05) in
chloride content of cow and buffalo milk samples. These results differed from the findings of Kapadiya et al (2016), which
might be due to differences in species and environmental conditions including physio chemical parameters of water
used for cattle (Guzeler et al., 2010). Asif and Usman (2010) compared the physicochemical parameters of milk samples
collected from buffalo, cow, goat and sheep and recorded higher levels of physicochemical parameters in buffalo and
sheep milk than cow and goat. They noted comparatively higher values of specific gravity, titratable acidity, ash and
protein content in sheep than that in buffalo milk but the estimated values of pH, total solids, fat and lactose in sheep
milk were lower than that in milk samples of buffalo in addition to findings that all tested parameters were similar in cow
and goat milk except ash which was higher in milk samples of goat under study.
Jalgaon district is well known for its higher temperature in summer season. During two consecutive years of study,
(2019-20 and 2020-21) The hottest day of the year was noted on 11thMay 2021, temperatures in Jalgaon typically range
from 80°F to 108°F, while on 7thJanuary 2021, the coldest day of the year, they range from 58°F to 86°F. The average
minimum and maximum temperature all group were 6.6°F and 108 °F during hot dry (HD) period. The respective values
during hot humid (HH) period were 68°F and 104°F. The average temperature humidity indices (THI) for the animals
selected for the study were recorded to be 82.75 and 91.18, and 83.40 and 86.40 at 7:30 AM and 1:30 PM in HD and HH
period, respectively. Dairy cattle display typical behavior as there is increasing levels of heat stress. A description of typical
behaviors is associated with each level. Vulnerable animals will show stress symptoms early. Varying stages of stress will
be evident throughout the herd as environmental conditions become more intense. Agricultural Research Service of US
Department of Agriculture suggested following signs of heat stress: Stage 1: elevated breathing rate, restless, spend
increased time standing Stage 2: elevated breathing rate, slight drooling, most animals are standing and restless Stage 3:
elevated breathing rate, excessive drooling or foaming, most animals are standing and restless, animals may group
together Stage 4: elevated breathing rate, open mouth breathing, possible drooling, most animals standing, animals may
group together Stage 5: elevated breathing with pushing from the flanks, open mouth breathing with tongue protruding,
possible drooling, most animals standing and restless Stage 6: open mouth breathing with tongue protruding, breathing
is labored, and respiration rate may decrease, cattle push from flanks while breathing, head down, not necessarily
drooling, individual animals may be isolated from the herd.
Physiological responses The physiological responses in the form of rectal temperature (°F), pulse rate (beats/ min) and
respiratory rate (beats/ min) of Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti Buffalo at both times (7:30 am and 1:30 pm) under
hot dry (HD) and hot humid (HH) seasons are presentedin Table 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3. In morning time 7:30 am and in noon
time 1:30 pm were selected through out the study period due to fact that chemical analysis and physiological responses
should have coordinated impact of intensity cold and heat during morning and noon temperatures respectively. The
mean value of rectal temperature in Sangamneri goat during HD season was 98.87°F at 7:30 AM and at HH it was
99.05°F. At 1:30 PM, The mean value of rectal temperature in Sangamneri goat during HD season was 100.02°F and
during HH it was 101.32°F. The mean value of pulse rate in Sangamneri goat during HD season was 50.32 beats/min at
7:30 AM and at HH it was 52.69 beats/min. At 1:30 PM, The mean value of pulse rate in Sangamneri goat during HD
season was 61.28 beats/min and during HH it was 64.57 beats/min. The mean value of respiratory rate in Sangamneri
goat during HD season was 24.08 times/min at 7:30 AM and at HH it was 26.78 times/min. At 1:30 PM, The mean value of
respiratory rate in Sangamneri goat during HD season was 28.75 times/min and during HH it was 34.24 times/min (Table
2.1).
Table 2.1: Periodical Physiological responses of Sangamneri goat in hot dry (HD) and hot humid (HH) season
Parameter Time Season Sangamneri goat
Mean SD P value Rectal temperature (°F) 7:30am HD HH 98.87 99.05 10.23 11.46 >0.0001 >0.0001
1:30pm HD HH 100.02 101.32 8.34 7.34 >0.0001 >0.0001 Pulse rate (beats/ min) 7:30am HD HH 50.32 52.69 4.35
5.32 >0.0001 >0.0001
1:30pm HD HH 61.28 64.57 3.48 4.21 >0.0001 >0.0001 Respiration rate (times / min) 7:30am HD HH 24.08 26.78
2.13 2.38 >0.0001 >0.0001
1:30pm HD HH 28.75 34.24 3.24 3.56 >0.0001 >0.0001 Each figure is Mean and SD of six observations
At both time, Sangamneri goat showed significant (P>0.0001) lower rectal temperature during HD than HH at 7:30 am
and 1:30 pm. Similarly, pulse rate and respiration rate of Sangamneri goat were also recorded with lower values during
HD than HH at 7:30 am and 1:30 pm.The average rectal temperatures of Sangamneri goat seasonally fluctuated between
98.87°F to 101.32°F, the mean value of pulse rate in Sangamneri goat seasonally varied from 50.32 beats/min to 64.57
beats/min and the mean value of respiratory rate in Sangamneri goat seasonally fluctuated between 24.08 times/min to
34.24 times/min. Table 2.2 shows the mean value of rectal temperature in Nimari cow during HD season was 99.07°F at
7:30 AM and at HH it was 99.76°F. At 1:30 PM, The mean value of rectal temperature in Nimari cow during HD season
was 100.78°F and during HH it was 101.97°F. \ Table 2.2: Periodical Physiological responses of Nimari cow in hot dry (HD)
and hot humid (HH) season Parameter Time Season Nimari cow
Mean SD P value Rectal temperature (°F) 7:30am HD HH 99.07 99.76 8.56 9.02 >0.0001 >0.0001
1:30pm HD HH 100.78 101.97 9.34 9.21 >0.0001 >0.0001 Pulse rate (beats/ min) 7:30am HD HH 54.12 56.87 6.45
5.45 >0.0001 >0.0001
1:30pm HD HH 64.03 65.33 5.87 6.12 >0.0001 >0.0001 Respiration rate (times / min) 7:30am HD HH 23.21 25.65
3.45 2.68 >0.0001 >0.0001
1:30pm HD HH 26.12 33.27 2.78 2.95 >0.0001 >0.0001 Each figure is Mean and SD of six observations The mean
value of pulse rate in Nimari cow during HD season was 54.12 beats/min at 7:30 AM and at HH it was 56.78 beats/min. At
1:30 PM, The mean value of pulse rate in Nimari cow during HD season was 64.03 beats/min and during HH it was 65.33
beats/min. The mean value of respiratory rate in Nimari cow during HD season was 23.21 times/min at 7:30 AM and at
HH it was 25.65 times/min. At 1:30 PM, The mean value of respiratory rate in Nimari cow during HD season was 26.12
times/min and during HH it was 33.27 times/min. Table 2.3 Periodical Physiological responses of Surti buffalo in hot dry
(HD) and hot humid (HH) season Parameter Time Season Surti buffalo
Mean SD P value Rectal temperature (°F) 7:30am HD HH 99.89 100.78 8.54 9.32 >0.0001 >0.0001
1:30pm HD HH 101.23 101.98 9.65 10.21 >0.0001 >0.0001 Pulse rate (beats/ min) 7:30am HD HH 49.59 51.44 3.68
4.57 >0.0001 >0.0001
1:30pm HD HH 60.35 62.87 5.79 5.93 >0.0001 >0.0001 Respiration rate (times/ min) 7:30am HD HH 23.22 24.35
2.87 1.88 >0.0001 >0.0001
1:30pm HD HH 27.56 32.23 3.41 3.76 >0.0001 >0.0001 Each figure is Mean and SD of six observations The average
rectal temperatures of Nimari cow seasonally fluctuated between 99.07°F to 101.97°F, the mean value of pulse rate in
Nimari cow seasonally varied from 54.12 beats/min to 65.33 beats/min and the mean value of respiratory rate in Nimari
cow seasonally fluctuated between 23.21 times/min to 33.27 times/min. The mean value of rectal temperature in Surti
buffalo during HD season was 99.89°F at 7:30 AM and at HH it was 100.78°F. At 1:30 PM, The mean value of rectal
temperature in Surti buffalo during HD season was 101.23°F and during HH it was 101.98°F (Table 2.3). The mean value of
pulse rate in Surti buffalo during HD season was 49.59 beats/min at 7:30 AM and at HH it was51.44 beats/min. At 1:30
PM, The mean value of pulse rate in Surti buffalo during HD season was 60.35beats/min and during HH it was 62.87
beats/min. The mean value of respiratory rate in Surti buffalo during HD season was 23.22times/min at 7:30 AM and at
HH it was 24.35 times/min. At 1:30 PM, The mean value of respiratory rate in Surti buffalo during HD season was 27.56
times/min and during HH it was 32.23 times/min. The average rectal temperatures of Surti buffalo seasonally fluctuated
between 99.89°F to 101.98°F, the mean value of pulse rate in Surti buffalo seasonally varied from 49.59 beats/min to
62.87 beats/min and the mean value of respiratory rate in Surti buffalo seasonally fluctuated between 23.22 times/min to
32.23 times/min. Overall, Surti buffalo showed higher average rectal temperatures at 7:30 am and 1:30 pm during HD
and HH seasons than that of Sangamneri goat and Nimari cow. The average values of pulse rate and respiration rate of
Surti buffalo at 7:30 am and 1:30 pm during HD and HH seasons remained lower than the average values pulse rate and
respiration rate of Sangamneri goat and Nimari cow. The fluctuations in physiological responses shown by Sangamneri
goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo during HD and HH seasons might be due to the cumulative effect of difference in
micro climatic conditions in and around geographical area of Jalgaon district. Thus, internal heat production as well as
external heat load were reduced favoring improved physiological parameters.Singh et al. (2005) found that in lactating
Nili-Ravi buffaloes there were significant decline in rectal temperature, pulse rate and respiration rate when the buffaloes
were either wallowed or splashed with water than the buffaloes not provided cooling. In another experimenton, Nili-Ravi
buffalo calves, Das et al. (2011) concluded that rectal temperature, pulse rate, and respiration rate werelower with the
increase in number of washing frequency in hot environments. Joshi and Tripahi (1991) noted an increase in rectal
temperature from 102.0 °F to 103.8 °F when buffalo calves were exposed to 104.9 °F for 8 h daily for 3 months. A rise in
rectal temperature up to 36.68 °F was recorded when they were exposed to direct sun rays in month of June and July.
They concluded that the high rectal temperature in the heat stressed animals was the indicator of disturbance in the
homeothermic status of the animals which was not being effectively countered by the enhanced heat loss by physical
and physiological process of thermolysis. Similar finding was also put forth by Gudev et al (2007) in lactating Bulgarian
Murrah buffaloes. Joshi et al. (1982) reported moderate increase in pulse rate during exposure to hot environment in
Murrah buffaloes. In review, Ganaie et al (2013) described that pulse rate increased with the increase in environment
temperature in swamp buffaloes and the increasing trend in pulse rate continued even when the ambient temperature
declined. It indicated that the physiological response of animals returned to its normal levels only after a definite period
when animals were brought to comfort zone. Radadia et al (1980) observed positive correlation between ambient
temperature and respiration as well as pulse rate in lactating Murrah buffaloes. In an experiment, Singh et al (2011)
indicated that yeast supplementation in heat stressed buffaloes decreased respiration and pulse rate significantly and
rectal temperature non-significantly. Salem (1980) recorded an increase in respiration rate of buffaloes during summer
compared to other seasons. There was no significant difference in rectal temperature of buffaloes during hot humid,
warm and cold seasons but pulse rates were significantly (P>0.01) higher in warm followed by cold and hot humid
seasons. The respiration rates were also significantly (P>0.01) different and highest during hot humid followed by
warm and cold seasons. Reports of Das et al. (1999) and Joshi and Tripathy (1991) in Murrah buffalo calves also supported
this finding. Rectal temperature, pulse rate and respiration rate increased significantly (P>0.05) in buffalo heifers
(young female) after exposure to the thermal stress (104°F) than those not exposed to thatstress (Hooda and Singh 2010).
Vijoykumar (2005) in buffalo heifers and Gudev et al. (2007) in buffalo also reported increased respiration rate resulting
from exposureof animals into hot environment. Table 2.4 Variation in milk composition of Sangamneri goat in hot dry
(HD) and hot humid (HH) season Parameters Time Season Mean SD P-value Av. milk fat % 7:30am HD 3.56 0.52 0.124
HH 3.78 0.83 0.035
1:30pm HD 4.04 0.42 0.189
HH 4.78 0.48 0.176 Av. Milk SNF % 7:30am HD 6.98 0.55 0.213
HH 7.54 0.64 0.423
1:30pm HD 6.78 0.58 0.342
HH 7.88 0.64 0.368 Milk lactose (%) 7:30am HD 4.10 0.39 0.023
HH 4.22 0.37 0.032
1:30pm HD 4.39 0.42 0.234
HH 4.78 0.53 0.043 Milk protein (%) 7:30am HD 3.56 0.44 0.323
HH 3.67 0.38 0.764
1:30pm HD 3.78 0.29 0.342
HH 3.89 0.31 0.347 Milk pH 7:30am HD 6.49 0.49 0.423
HH 6.51 0.56 0.445
1:30pm HD 6.52 0.82 0.367
HH 6.55 0.93 0.564 Each figure is Mean and SD of six observations
Milk production and composition: The percentage of fat, SNF, protein, lactose and pH
in milk samples collected from Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo
were analyzed seasonally and statistically compared. During HD and HH seasons, average milk fat of Sangamneri goat in
morning was found 3.56 and 3.78 respectively which was found increased at afternoon with values of 4.94 and 4.78
during HD and HH seasons respectively (Table 2.4). The percentage of solid not fat (SNF) in milk sample of Sangamneri
goat in morning of HD and HH seasons were 6.98 and 7.54 respectively. And in afternoon of HD and HH seasons, the
average SNF% was increased 6.78 and 7.88 respectively. Similarly, the percent values of lactose and protein as well as
values of pH in mils samples of Sangamneri goat were found elevated in afternoon of HH and HD seasons as compared
to values of morning of HH and HD seasons. An increase in average percent values of fat, SNF, lactose, protein and pH of
Sangamneri goat at afternoon of HH and HD seasons as compared to morning figures were noted and on the basis of
statistical analysis these differences are marginally significant. During HD and HH seasons, average milk fat of Nimari cow
in morning was found 4.02 and 4.32 respectively which was found increased at afternoon with values of 4.51 and 4.67
during HD and HH seasons respectively (Table 2.5). The percentage of solid not fat (SNF) in milk sample of Nimari cow in
morning of HD and HH seasons were 7.32 and 8.32 respectively. And in afternoon of HD and HH seasons, the average
SNF% was increased 7.88 and 8.42 respectively. Similarly, the percent values of lactose and protein as well as values of pH
in mils samples of Nimari cow were found elevated in afternoon of HH and HD seasons as compared to values of
morning of HH and HD seasons. An increase in average percent values of fat, SNF, lactose, protein and pH of Nimari cow
at afternoon of HH and HD seasons as compared to morning figures were noted and on the basis of statistical analysis
these differences are marginally significant. During HD and HH seasons, average milk fat of Surti buffalo in morning was
found 6.45 and 6.89 respectively which was found increased at afternoon with values of 7.08 and 7.42 during HD and HH
seasons respectively (Table 2.6).During HD and HH seasons, average milk fat of Surti buffalo in morning was found 6.45
and 6.89 respectively which was found increased at afternoon with values of 7.08 and 7.42 during HD and HH seasons
respectively (Table 2.6). Table 2.5 Variation in milk composition of Nimari cow in hot dry (HD) and hot humid (HH) season
Parameters Time Season Mean SD P-value Av. milk fat % 7:30am HD 4.02 0.32 0.201
HH 4.32 0.39 0.087
1:30pm HD 4.51 0.41 0.198
HH 4.67 0.48 0.121 Av. Milk SNF % 7:30am HD 7.32 0.87 0.235
HH 8.32 0.74 0.542
1:30pm HD 7.88 0.67 0.356
HH 8.42 0.78 0.467 Milk lactose (%) 7:30am HD 4.85 0.43 0.342
HH 4.95 0.51 0.234
1:30pm HD 4.98 0.46 0.373
HH 5.02 0.49 0.032 Milk protein (%) 7:30am HD 3.95 0.41 0.382
HH 4.02 0.52 0.437
1:30pm HD 4.08 0.39 0.387
HH 4.11 0.43 0.225 Milk pH 7:30am HD 6.53 0.64 0.542
HH 6.59 0.58 0.652
1:30pm HD 6.62 0.84 0.456
HH 6.74 0.92 0.477 Each figure is Mean and SD of six observations Time 2.6: Variation in milk composition of Surti buffalo
in hot dry (HD) and hot humid (HH) season Parameters Time Season Mean SD P-value Av. milk fat % 7:30am HD 6.45
0.54 0.083
HH 6.89 0.67 0.005
1:30pm HD 7.08 0.87 0.198
HH 7.42 0.56 0.032 Av. Milk SNF % 7:30am HD 8.34 0.78 0.653
HH 9.57 0.74 0.783
1:30pm HD 8.98 0.88 0.213
HH 9.78 1.02 0.437 Milk lactose (%) 7:30am HD 5.09 0.43 0.305
HH 5.12 0.51 0.089
1:30pm HD 5.23 0.49 0.232
HH 5.43 0.51 0.007 Milk protein (%) 7:30am HD 4.48 0.48 0.323
HH 4.67 0.39 0.244
1:30pm HD 4.79 0.54 0.332
HH 4.89 0.87 0.322 Milk pH 7:30am HD 6.58 0.78 0.342
HH 6.62 0.98 0.423
1:30pm HD 6.68 0.58 0.643
HH 6.97 0.82 0.436 Each figure is Mean and SD of six observations The percentage of solid not fat (SNF) in milk sample of
Surti buffalo in morning of HD and HH seasons were 8.34 and 9.57 respectively. And in afternoon of HD and HH seasons,
the average SNF% was increased 8.98 and 9.78 respectively. Similarly, the percent values of lactose and protein as well as
values of pH in mils samples of Surti buffalo were found elevated in afternoon of HH and HD seasons as compared to
values of morning of HH and HD seasons. An increase in average percent values of fat, SNF, lactose, protein and pH of
Surti buffalo at afternoon of HH and HD seasons as compared to morning figures were noted and on the basis of
statistical analysis these differences are marginally significant. Singh et al (2005) did not find any significant difference in
milk composition (fat, SNF and total solids) of heat stressed and protected Nili-Ravi buffaloes. Fat and protein
percentages were comparatively higher in cows provided cooling than those were not cooled (Marai and Haeeb, 2010).
Similar findings were also reported by El-Khashab (2010) in buffaloes. Das et al (2014) recorded that heat stress reduced
butter fat by 20–40%, non-fat solids by 10–20% and total milk protein by10–20%.
Temperature-Humidity Indices (THI) as Environmental risk indicators for cattle: Over the years, two main methods of
assessing environmental risk factors and the animals’ reaction to changing environmental conditions have developed.
The first of these are a variety of different temperature-humidity indices (THIs) expressed in absolute units that define the
thermal comfort of the cows with the changing parameters of their environment. The second are algorithms express in
°F, which are intended to define the temperature as experienced by the animal. The indices have undergone numerous
modifications and feature a variety of different ranges of values defining the extent of heat stress among dairy cows.
Many indices have been proposed which are based on measurement of meteorological factors, such as THI (Thom,
1959), BGHI (Buffington et al., 1981), ETI (Baeta et al., 1987), HLI (Gaughan et al., 2008), RR (Eigenberg et al., 2005), CCI
(Mader et al., 2010), and ITSC (Da Silva et al., 2015).
Table 2.7 Overview of dairy cow heat stress indices (HSIs) Index Name of the index Authors, publication year THI
Temperature-humidity index NRC 1971 BGHI Black globe-humidity index Buffington et al. 1981 ETI Equivalent
temperature index Baeta et al. 1987 HLI Heat load index Gaughan et al, 2008 THIadj Adjusted temperature humidity
index Mader et al. 2006 CCI Comprehensive Climate Index Mader et al. 2010 ITSC Index of thermal stress for cows Da
Silva et al. 2015 (Modified from: Environmental parameters for assessing of heat stress in dairy cattle -a review) One index
widely used both with cows kept in barns and with cows kept in pastures is THI. This index takes into account the effect
of air temperature and humidity, and it is used as a general indicator of heat stress among humans (Thom, 1959), in
addition to its role in assessing the comfort of dairy cows as well as of other animals, especially livestock. Over the years,
the formula for calculating THI has been modified and corrected numerous times (Table 2.7) by various authors
(Steadman, 1979; Ravagnolo and Misztal 2000; Mader et al. 2006). An analysis of publications from the last 15 years
indicates that the formulas most often used are those developed by Kibler (1964), the National Research Council (1971),
and Yousef (1985). Presumably, their popularity results from the simplicity of their algorithm and their use of microclimate
measurement parameters. All these THI models were used in a study conducted by Dash et al. (2016) at Karnal in India.
Month wise average THI values with seven different THI models during 20 years from 1993 to 2012 were presented in
Table 2.7. The maximum THI values were observed in the month of June as 87.41, 81.90, 89.58 and 81.60 with THI model
1, 3, 5 and 6, respectively. For other THI models (2, 4 and 7), maximum THI values were found in the month of July as
82.70, 82.97 and 82.99, respectively. The minimum THI values were found in the month of January for all the THI models
(1-7) as 63.12, 52.06, 57.07, 54.82, 64.89, 56.71 and 54.80, respectively. After a thorough analysis of all the seven THI
models with pregnancy rate of Murrah buffaloes, the THI model 1 [(0.4 × (Tdb + Twb)] × 1.8 + 32 + 15) was identified as
the best THI model for studying the effects of heat stress on pregnancy rate of buffaloes (Dash et al, 2015). Bohmanova
et al. (2007) compared all the seven THI models and drawn the conclusion that there is variation in use of THIs according
to the climatic condition. The THI which put more weight on the humidity is more appropriate for humid climates,
whereas the indices with the more weight on ambient temperature work best under semiarid climates. THI plays an
important role in the reproductive functions of buffaloes and it is suggested that THI <75 has a negative effect on
reproductive performances of buffaloes in the tropical areas of Amazon basin in Brazil (Vale, 2007). In a similar manner, a
distinct relationship was observed between THI and pregnancy rate in Murrah buffaloes. The average pregnancy rate of
Murrah buffaloes was found declining from 0.41 to 0.25 with the onset of THI ≥75 (Dash et al, 2015). Table 2.8 Different
heat stress models for formulating temperature humidity indices (THIs). Authors Year Calculation formula Thom 1959 THI
1 =[0.4×(Tdb+Twb)]×1.8+32+15 Bianca 1962 THI2 =(0.35×Tdb+0.65×Twb)×1.8+32 Kiblera 1964 THI3=1.8Tdb - (1 - RH)
(Tdb - 14.3)+32 NRC 1971 THI4=(Tdb+Twb)×0.72+40.6 NRC 1971 THI5=(1.8×Tdb+32)− (0.55–0.0055×RH)×(1.8×Tdb−26)
Yousef 1985 THI 6=Tdb+(0.36×Tdp)+41.2 Mader et al. 2006 THI7=(0.8×Tdb)+[(RH/100)×(Tdb−14.4)]+46.4 Tdb dry bulb
air temperature, °C, Twb wet bulb air temperature, °C, Tdp dew point temperature, °C, RH relative air humidity, % aIn
Kibler formula, RH is fraction of the unit. NRC= National Research Council
When the monthly average pregnancy rate of Murrah buffaloes was analyzed with monthly average THI values, then the
lowest average pregnancy rate was observed as 0.25 in the month of July with corresponding THI 80.88 and the highest
average pregnancy rate was obtained as 0.58 in the month of November at average THI value 66.09 (Das et al, 2016).
The threshold THI for pregnancy rate in buffaloes was determined as 75 above which the detrimental effects of heat
stress are affecting fertility are observed in buffaloes.
Production and breeding performance:
The productive and breeding performances of dairy cattle and buffaloes varied according to the prevailing climate of
their inhabitation. The major climatic zones include tropical, subtropical and temperate.The temperate zone is the most
ideal for higher productivity in dairy animals. Therefore, this part of project work was focused on the effect of heat stress
on different fertility traits of Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo viz., service period, conception rate and
pregnancy rate in tropical/subtropical as well as temperate climate. Breeding Performance of Sangamneri goat:
Sangamneri goats attain early maturity and conceives first time at an age of 10 to 12 months. The overall age at puberty,
oestrus cycle duration, oestrus duration age at first conception, age at first kidding, service period, kidding interval and
gestation period recorded in Sangamneri goats under field conditions are as 9.94 months, 29.14 days, 47.96 hours, 10.40
months, 15.52 months, 73.55 days, 218.48 days and 148.26 days respectively (Deokar et al 2007). The litter size is mostly
single however, 15-20% goats showed twinning where as triplets are rare. Although these goats are reared mainly for
meat purpose but some animals show good milch potential. They have well developed bowl/round shape udder. The
teats are either conical, cylindrical or pear shaped (Fig. 2.1 A and B). The data recorded on farm animals indicated the
average daily milk yield of 0.860 liters, lactation yield of 77.40 liters in about 160 days of lactation (AICRP report, 2007).
Some goats produced 3.0 liters of milk per day under farm as well as field conditions (Figure 2.2 A and B). The milk is
used for feeding the kids. After weaning of kids the whole milk is used for home consumption.
Breeding in goat: Pure breed bucks are prepared at the farm of Mahatama Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri and are
distributed to the farmers for breeding purpose. The males are selected on the basis of dam’s performance. The bucks
are rotated to avoid the inbreeding and the performance of progeny of these bucks is monitored. Effect of heat stress on
service period of dairy cattle in tropical or subtropical climate: The heat stress is considered as one of the main factors
affecting reproductive performances in dairy cattle. High temperature in summer months combined with a high level of
RH has adverse effects on reproductive performance in cows. In Thailand, the lowest THI of 72 was observed in
December and highest mean THI was observed in April as 80. The cows which calved in February had the longest service
period as 299±11 days while cows that calved in the months of October or November had a significantly shorter mean
service reported as 133±7 days (Kaewlamun et al, 2011). Boonkumet al. (2011) also found the greatest service period
of154-day in Thai cross bred Holstein cows for calving in March and the lowest service period of 128-day for calving in
the month of October. In summary, calving month greatly affects the phenotypic variation in service period of Thai
Holstein crossbred cattle. The season of calving had highly significant (p>0.01) effect on service period of Sahiwal
cattle. The cows calved during summer months had longest service period of 159±3 days, whereas autumn calvers had
the shortest service period of 148±4 days (Kumar and Gandhi, 2011). Heat stress controls the mechanism of
hypothalamic-hypophyseal-ovarian axis in animals. The heat stress causes hyper-prolactinemia, reduction in luteinizing
hormone frequency, poor follicle maturation and decreased oestradiol production leading to ovarian inactivity in cattle
(Wolfenson et al, 2000).
Effect of heat stress on service period in temperate climate: The non-return rate (NR) is currently used in as a measure of
reproductive ability in cattle. When the cow does not return to further insemination in the same lactation, then the
success in conception is assumed. Ravagnolo and Misztal (2002) reported that NR45 of Holstein cattle showed a
decrease rate of 0.005 per unit increase in THI on the day of insemination at THI <68 and NR45 was significantly lower
and more susceptible to elevation in THI for first parity cows than second, third and fourth lactation cows (0.008 vs.
0.005 decrease). The seasonal trend for service period is observed in cattle. The service period in Holstein cows was the
longest (166 days) for March/April calving and shortest (130 days) for September calving (Oseni et al, 2004). The
conclusion is drawn from the above research is that the service period of cows was longest for spring and shortest for
fall calving. High temperature combined with a high level of humidity in spring and summer season results in
physiological disorders, affecting the digestive system, acid-base chemistry, blood hormones and finally resulting in
longer service period in cows. The month wise average service period of Surti buffaloes was analyzed with the monthly
average THI values. The average service period of Surti buffaloes was prolonged (180 days) in the month May with the
corresponding THI value of 80.27. On the contrary, the lowest average service period (119 days) was observed at average
THI 67.80 in the month of March.The service period of buffaloes was found increased with increase in average THI above
75. Similar results were reported by Das et al (2016). The cooler months with lower THI values caused decrease in service
period while the months with higher THI values above threshold level 75 were associated with increase in service period
in Surti buffaloes. Effect of heat stress on conception rate in tropical or subtropical climate: A significant change in
conception rate of cattle was observed in response to the major climatic variables like temperature and humidity, which
are combined to form the THI and the THI is popularly used to assess the fertility in bovines. Lactating dairy cows are
particularly sensitive to heat stress because of high metabolic heat production inside the body associated with increased
milk production. The negative effects of heat stress on conception rate of cattle are most evident when THI level crosses
a threshold level. When the THI on the day of service is more than 72, it decreases the conception rate of dairy cows in
Australia. The high heat load 3-5 weeks before service and 1 week after service was associated with reduced conception
rate in cattle (Morton et al, 2007). Effect of heat stress on conception rate of lactating cow in temperateclimate: The
conception rate of lactating cows is highly affected by heat stress. Garcia-Ispierto et al. (2007) reported that negative
effects of heat stress on conception rate of Holstein cows seem to appear when THI ≥75 on 3 days prior to artificial
insemination and the effects of heat stress are more evident in the form of declining conception rate from 30.6% to 23%
when THI was above 80 in North-Eastern Spain. The threshold THI for the influence heat stress on conception rate of
lactating dairy cows in Germany was 73 and the greatest negative impact of heat stress on conception rate was observed
21-1 day before breeding (Schuller et al, 2014). The conception rate in Holstein cows was found lowered following
services performed in hot months. Nabenishi et al (2011) observed that conception rate of lactating dairy cows during the
hot period (July to September) was significantly lower (p>0.01) with 29.5% as compared to the conception rate of
38.2% during the cool period (October to June). The reductions in conception rates in hot periods are due to the
combined effects of environmental heat, which produces an alteration in the synthesis of reproductive hormones (Hahn
et al, 2003). The heat stress during the summer season is able to change the follicular microenvironment of highly
productive dairy cows, and the detrimental effect of heat stress is associated with physiological processes of the
establishment and maintenance of pregnancy after fertilization (Wolfenson et al, 2000). Effect of heat stress on
conception rate of lactating buffalo in temperate climate: The incidence of seasonal reproductive behaviour is a more
common in buffaloes. Buffaloes are sexually activated by decreased day length and temperature (Zicarelli, 2010). The
highest breeding frequency in buffaloes is found during the winter and the lowest in the summer season. Abayawansa et
al. (2011) reported that maximum percentage of buffaloes exhibited post partumestrous during the month of September
followed by October and minimum during April and May due to high maximum air temperature. Silent estrus is the most
important limiting factor especially during hot months which leads to poor reproductive efficiency in buffaloes (Singh et
al, 2013). Detail regarding the monthly average conception rate of Surti buffaloes with monthly average THI values over a
year was studied.The highest average conception rate was observed as 78% in the month of October while the lowest
was 59% in the month of August. The threshold THI for conception rate was identified as 75 for the reason that with
increase in average THI above threshold 75, the decline in overall conception rate was observed in Murrah buffaloes
(Das, 2013). Heat stress results in a significant reduction in conception rate during the hot and humid-hot months when
the monthly average THI is higher than 75 in buffaloes. Effect of heat stress on pregnancy rate of lactating cow in tropical
or subtropical climate: Pregnancy rate is defined as the percentage of non-pregnant cows that become pregnant during
each 21-day period. Now the pregnancy rate is more preferred compared to service period as an indicator of
reproductive success because pregnancy rate can be easily defined and available soon. The pregnancy rate of animals is
declined with respect to increase in THI above a threshold level. McGown et al. (1996) reported that an increase in THI
above 72 which corresponds to temperature 25°C and RH 50% resulted in a significant decrease in the first service
pregnancy rate of Holstein cattle in Queensland, Australia. Another finding indicates that the month of insemination
significantly (p>0.05) influenced the pregnancy rate in Holstein cows. A substantial decline in pregnancy ratewas
observed from 34.1% to 15.7% with increase inmean THI from 69 in May to 74 in July in a subtropical climate of Egypt (El-
Tarabany et al, 2015). The conception and the pregnancy rate of the Holstein dairy cattle were negatively affected by
higher THI level under Egyptian subtropical conditions. The conception and the pregnancy rate of the Holstein cattle
decreased from 35.8% and 29.4%,respectively, at low THI (>THI 70) to 16.1% and12.1%, respectively, at high THI level of
80-85. The significant (p>0.05) reduction in a pregnancy rate of crossbred dairy cattle due to heat stress was also
evident in India. When the dairy cattle was in TNZ, the pregnancy rate of was estimated as 32.6%, but it was significantly
decreased to 20.5% when the animals came into HSZ (Khan et al, 2013). In summer, risks for ovulatory failure, impaired
oocyte quality or embryonic development, reduced progesterone production and increased embryo mortality may be
the possible reasons for dramatic decline in fertility in animals (Wolfenson et al, 2000). Effect of heat stress on pregnancy
rate of cow in temperate climate: Reproductive failure is one of the main reasons that dairy farmers cull dairy cattle. With
lower reproductive performance, Nimari cows have longer days open, longer lactations, reduced milk production per
day of life (Figure 2.3), and often produce less profit for their owners. Heat stress has a big effect on the cow’s
reproductive performance. While most farmers know that the effects of heat stress on milk production start at a
temperature humidity index (THI) of 68, the effects on fertility can start at even lower THI with some scientists suggesting
it may even start at a THI of 50. When heat stress occurs, conception rate can decrease by 53%.
The highest pregnancy rate of Holstein-Friesian dairy cattle was observed in September-November as 32% while the
lowest pregnancy rate of 24% in March-May in South-Eastern United States (Oseni et al, 2005). The lower pregnancy rate
is due to the delay of rebreeding cows in the summer months with a high level of heat stress. Amundson et al (2006)
observed the negative associations of THI with pregnancy rate of Bos taurus crossbred cows in all three breeding
seasons from 0 to 21 days, 0to 42 days, and 0 to 60 days, respectively. However, the change was more pronounced
during the first 21 days of the breeding season with a −2.06% change in pregnancy rate for each unit of change in THI
value. Buffalo: THIs play an important role in the reproductive functions of buffaloes and it is suggested that THI <75
has a negative effect on reproductive performances of buffaloes in the tropical areas of Amazon basin in Brazil (Vale,
2007). In a similar manner, a distinct relationship was observed between THI and pregnancy rate in Surti buffaloes (Figure
2.4). The average pregnancy rate of Surti buffaloes was found declining from 0.41 to 0.25 with the onset of THI ≥75 (Das
et al, 2015). When the monthly average pregnancy rate of Surti buffaloes was compared with monthly average THI
values, then the lowest average pregnancy rate was observed (0.25) in the month of July with corresponding THI 80.88
and the highest average pregnancy rate was obtained (0.58) in the month of November at average THI value 66.09 (Das
et al ,2016). The threshold THI for pregnancy rate in buffaloes was determined as 75 above which the detrimental effects
of heat stress are affecting fertility are observed in buffaloes.
Figure 2.4 Surti Buffalo-Female and male Impact of heat stress on oocyte and embryo quality: Heat stress has adverse
effects on reproductive performances of cattle and buffaloes. The Higher ambient temperature during the summer has
been associated with reduced fertility in dairy cattle through its deleterious impact on oocyte maturation and early
embryo development (Wolfenson, et al, 2000). There are several possible mechanisms by which heat stress can prevent
the growth of oocytes. The foremost is the reduction on the synthesis of preovulatory surge in luteinizing hormone and
estradiol. Hence, there is poor follicle maturation and this leads to ovarian inactivity in cattle (Hansen, 2007). Heat stress
also delays follicle selection and reduces the degree of dominance of the dominant follicle. Heat stress decreases blood
progesterone concentration, which is a major cause for abnormal oocyte maturation, implantation failure and finally
early embryonic death in dairy cattle (Khodaei-Motlagh et al, 2011). During heat stress, the intrauterine environment of
the cow is compromised. Hence, there is decrease in blood flow to the uterus and elevated uterine temperature. These
changes increase the chances of early embryonic loss and suppress embryonic development (De Rensis, F. and
Scaramuzzi, 2003). The exposure of females to heat stress conditions during days 0-3 of pregnancy or days 0-7 of
pregnancy reduced embryonic survival. Heat stress has a deleterious effect on the oocyte quality in buffaloes. Follicular
growth and atresia during anestrus are attributed to the inadequate secretion of gonadotropins by the hypophysis (Das
and Khan, 2010). There is decrease in the concentration of 17 β-oestradiol in summer which reduces the intensity of
estrus manifestation and results in silent heat in buffaloes (Singh et al, 2013). The mean plasma prolactin concentration
was significantly higher in summer than winter which may cause acyclicity or infertility in buffaloes (De Rensis and
Scaramuzzi, 2003). Strategies to alleviate heat stress: Factors that influence the extent of HS on calves and heifers include
genetic, reproductive, environmental and nutritional aspects. Strategies developed based on these aspects could
ameliorate HS on calves and heifers. Genetic development and reproductive measures: Breed plays an important role in
genetic influence on the HS tolerance of calves and heifers, thus there appears to be benefits from hybrid vigor under HS
conditions (Colditz and Kellaway, 1972) and crossing Holstein cows with domestic dairy breeds would potentially
enhance the HS tolerance. However, whether these cross-breeds are sufficiently productive to meet the needs of the
dairy industry remains questionable. Generally, dairy cows seem to be more sensitive to HS as milk production elevates
metabolic heat production. Therefore, breeding dairy cows selectively for milk yield would increase their susceptibility to
HS (Badinga et al, 1993). But selecting particular genes that control traits related to thermotolerance would be desirable
as the only thermal resistance would be selected for without compromising milk yield (Hansen, 1999). The slick hair
gene, which results in a short, sleek and glossy hair coat, has been introduced to improve the thermoregulatory ability
because the hair color is associated with solar radiation absorption and the hair length is related to convective and
conductive heat loss (Dikmen et al, 2003). Heat shock genes could also serve as markers in marker-assisted selection for
thermotolerance in that heat shock protein protects cells from HS by maintaining cellular machinery and cellular
apoptosis (Mishra and Palai,2014; Das et al,2016). However, it might not be practical only to select heat shock genes,
some target traits should be set together to lead the specific genetic development. Besides, embryo transfers at 7 to 8
days after estrus, which is the most thermosensitive period of survival, could bypass the effect of HS on early embryos
and increase the pregnancy rate (Putney et al, 1983; Ambrose et al, 1999). The addition of survival factors to bovine
embryos, such as antioxidants and insulin-like growth factor-1, has been reported to minimize the inhibition of
embryonic development and apoptosis induced by HS and thus improve embryo HS resistance (Jousan and Hansen,
2004 and 2007). Physical modification of the environment: Modification of the environment could reduce the heat gain
and elevate the heat dissipation to protect calves and heifers from HS. The most prevalent measures to alleviate HS are
the provision of house or shade (together with feed and water), evaporative cooling with water in the form of fog, mist,
or sprinkling with natural or forced air movement, as well as cooling ponds (Pejman and Shahryar, 2012). Water sprinkling
with ventilation could enhance evaporation, which serves as the dominant mode of heat dissipation for heifers under HS
conditions (Gebremedhin et al, 2008). Exposed to HS conditions (36°C environment), heifers sprayed with water were
reported to have a lower rectal temperature, respiratory rate and 26.1% higher weight gain compared with non-cooled
heifers (Marai et al, 1995). Similarly, due to the use of fans, the average dail gain (ADG) and feed efficiency of dairy calves
increased significantly by 23% and 21% respectively under HS conditions (around 84.2°F environment) (Hill et al, 2011).
Moreover, Moghaddam et al. (2009) reported with sprinkler and fan, the cooling of dairy heifers for a short time before
and after artificial insemination could increase the pregnancy rate during HS (96.98°F environment). In addition, shading
is regarded as one of the most easily implemented and cost-effective methods to minimize heat load from solar
radiation. Well-designed shade could reduce 30% to 50% head load from solar radiation (Bond and Kelly, 1955).
Marcillac-Embertson et al. (2009) reported that in corrals, heifers with 65.0m2 shade had significantly higher DMI and
ADG than sprinkle cooled heifers with 5 times daily from 11:00 to 19:00h and 7 min of each period. Under this housing
system and cooling ways, shade might be more effective than sprinkle systems for heifers during HS. Nutritional
management: Nutritional management could help calves and heifers to maintain homeostasis or prevent nutrient
deficiencies because of HS. The starter intake of calves might be depressed by HS (Hill et al, 2011), leaving them with less
energy available to support high energy requirements. The nutritional management of liquid feed for calves, such as
intensity and nutrient density, should be considered to support high energy requirements based on different situation.
Like mature cattle, the nutrient density of the ration should be raised to overcome the decline in dry matter intake (DMI)
of heifers (West, 2003). Given that greater heat production is associated with the metabolism of acetate compared with
propionate in rumen (Kurihara, 1996), it would be reasonable to feed heifers more concentrates at the expense of fibrous
ingredients to increase the nutrient density and decrease the heat increment (West, 1999). This method, however, should
take into consideration the need of heifers for adequate fiber to ruminate and maintain health. Besides, the addition of
dietary fat could also be advantageous to heifers, because this has improved the efficiency of the conversion of dietary
fat to body fat and lowered the heat increment compared to protein and carbohydrates (Rodney et al, 2015). The
supplementation of vitamins A, C and E and mineral, such as zinc, could relieve the oxidative damage due to HS, and the
regulation of feed electrolyte by dietary cation-anion difference (DCAD) could help maintain the blood acid-base
balance and correct the mineral deficiency of Na and K due to sweating during HS (William et al, 2011; Rabiee et al, 2012;
Erickson and Kalscheur, 2020). In relation to above citations, the detrimental effects of high temperature combined with
a high level of humidity in spring and summer seasons in Jalgaon district, the livestock owners, local farmers and
Kathiyawadi people were adviced to manage the nutritional requirenment of their precious livestock. Demographic and
Husbandry characteristics of livestock producers as smallholders: Within Jalgaon district, a total of 1427 usable
questionnaires were received, that included 83 from Sangamneri goat smallholders, 418 from Nimari cow smallholders
and 926 from Surti buffalo smallholders. Respondents who did not provide information on number of animals kept, kept
no livestock, indicated higher than 18 animals in any of the livestock categories or were otherwise not in the target
population have been excluded from the analysis. Considering only the usable responses, the percentage of response
rate was calculated for smallholders and it was 9.8%, 29.3% and 64.9% for Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo
smallholders, respectively. The location of smallholders for cattle in different tehsils of Jalgaon district in Maharashtra
participated in the survey by species was mapped and shown in Figure 3.1
Figure 3.1. The location of smallholder of Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo in Jalgaon district participated
in the survey (Modified: www.mapsofindia.com)
The main demographic and husbandry characteristics of smallholders or livestock producers in different tehsils of
Jalgaon district are mentioned in Table 3.1. Overall, most smallholders were over 40 years of age, the majority of Nimari
cow and Surti buffalo smallholders being males and Sangamneri goat producers,the majority being female.The
distribution of the number of years smallholders kept livestock was different between smallholder types (P >0.05), with
Nimari cow and Surti buffalo smallholders having kept livestock for longer than other type of smallholders.The majority
of participants kept livestock for reasons other than primary income; mainly for extra income, home consumption and as
a hobby. In relation to the second phase of the study undertaken, a total of 49 smallholder producers located in different
parts of Jalgaon district participated across three group interviews. The demographic characteristics of group interview
smallholders were similar to those of survey participants. Participants kept different livestock species, with most keeping
Nimari cow (n = 19) and approximately half keeping sheep on their property (n=13). In addition, some kept Sangamneri
goats (n=7) and poultry (n=4). Twelve participants only kept one livestock species (Surti buffalo, n=6; Nimari cow, n=6),
whilst the rest of smallholders kept more than one livestock species. Over 60% of participants were over 40 years of age
and the median years of experience raising livestock was 15 years, with a range from 2 to 60 years.Their properties
ranged from 5 to 100ha with a median size of 70 ha. Secondary income (n = 15) and family tradition (n = 14) were the
most common reasons for keeping livestock, followed by home consumption (n = 6). Animal Health Management
Practices: Participant animal health management practices, related to producers’ engagement with disease surveillance
activities, are shown in Table 3.2. Most of these practices differed depending on the livestock species kept, with those
smallholders keeping dairy Sangamneri goats having in general better practices than other smallholders. Smallholders
keeping dairy goats are more likely (P > 0.05) to monitor their animals daily, keep animal health records and have more
regular contact with veterinarians than smallholders keeping other livestock species. Furthermore, in relation to contact
with veterinarians, results from this study suggest that a proportion of Nimari cow (16.9%) and Surti buffalo (27.9%)
smallholders had never contacted a veterinarian. Despite the differences identified among smallholders and the low
veterinary contact reported by some groups of smallholders, most respondents indicated that they would contact a
private veterinarian if they saw unusual signs of illness or disease. However, the most smallholders also reported that they
would treat the animals themselves when faced with unusual signs of disease, and a quarter of smallholders keeping
Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo reported that they would do nothing in such an event. Other frequent
actions reported when faced with unusual signs of disease, smallholders were contacting government veterinary
practitioners serving in Panchayat Samiti’s of tehsils concerned.
The group interviews further investigated animal health management practices, diseases of concern, veterinary contact
and actions when faced with unusual signs of disease in their animals, among participant smallholders. A clear animal
health management theme emerging from the group interviews was the engagement of smallholders in preventative
health measures, including specific preventative treatments, such as vaccination and internal parasite control, and close
and frequent monitoring of their animals. Table.3.1 Demographic and Animal husbandry characteristics of smallholders
or livestock producers in different tehsils of Jalgaon district in 2019-20. Characteristics
Species of livestock
Goat % Cow % Buffalo % AGE 18–24 y 2 1.0 2 1.0 1 0.1 25–34 y 8 7.2 17 10.2 19 3.2 35–44 y 18 17.5 57 28.0 116 16.4 45–
54 y 22 21.6 72 36.2 204 28.3 55–64 y 36 36.1 42 21.2 225 31.8 65+ y 19 18.9 18 9.2 174 24.5 Sex Male 24 23.9b 135 68.2a
492 67.02a Female 76 76 63 31.8 242 32.97 Years Keeping Livestock Species 1–5 y 22 23.2c 96 49.2b 121 17.2a 6–15 y 32
31.1a 46 23.5a 192 27.4a 16–29 y 22 21.4a 16 8.1b 148 20.2a <30 26 25.7b 36 17.6b 282 38.2a Property Size (HA) >10
50 49.0c 32 16.1b 228 31.2a 10–29 25 24.5a 39 19.6b 231 32.4a 30–79 16 15.7b 34 17.9b 228 31.9a ≥80 13 12.9a 92 46.2b
60 8.8a Other Agricultural Activities On Property 51 50.5a 136 67.8b 335 45.7a Economics of Animal Husbandry Primary
income 10 9.5 20 5.2 36 4.2 Extra income 22 19.7b 89 23.9b 471 46.2a Family tradition 65 51.2c 92 24.2b 112 12.7a Home
consumption 21 18.8b 110 35.7a 361 35.2a Pet 14 11.5 17 5.2 98 9.8 Rare breeds – – 38 9.8 – – a,b,c For each row,
different superscripts differ P >0.05
Table 3.2 Animal health management practices of smallholder or livestock producers participating in a cross-sectional
study in Jalgaon district in 2019-2020. Practice Species Frequency of Livestock Inspection Buffalo/Cow % Goat % Daily
Buffalo 478 78.2a 128 98.8b
Cow 184 58.8a Weekly Buffalo 212 43.2a 27 12.4b
Cow 64 32.5a Fortnightly Buffalo 56 12.4 0 –
Cow 11 6.3 Monthly Buffalo 24 4.7 0 –
Cow 5 4.5 Keep Records of Animals with disease 351 51.2a 34 43.1b Animals that died or painlessly killed 21 34.1a 25
32.2b Treatment routine 421 62.2a 82 65.4a Contacted A Veterinarian In The Last 12 Months 247 43.5a 92 89.3b If no, last
time veterinarian contacted Never 109 15.2b 12 6.9b 1–2 y ago 112 12.4 18 18. 3–5 y ago 98 13.1a 21 19.7a <5 y ago 76
9.6a 3 2.6b Do nothing 164 21.2a 12 11.7b Treat myself 453 67.3a 65 89.9b Call other producer 376 53.8a 36 56.8a Call
veterinarian 257 48.9 88 87.9 Call livestock agent/sale yard 102 18.2a 4 3.8c Call Government agency 172 32.2a 12 11.8a
Seek Information on Management And Health of Livestock 356 72.4 58 55.9 Most Useful Sources of Information
Government 210 41.3a 42 39.6b Veterinarian 456 71.5a 69 68.5b Rural supplier 187 27.6a 18 17.7b Other producers 102
18.9a 52 50.4b Industry breed groups 37 9.2a 15 14.5b a,b,c For each row, different superscripts differ P > 0.05
Participants were asked to list the three diseases considered being of most importance to themselves or their livestock
operations and results indicate that producers are mainly concerned about endemic diseases, with internal parasites and
clostridial diseases including tetanus (jaw lock), lamb dysentery, black disease, blackleg and malignant edema were being
the most frequently listed diseases. Some emergency and exotic animal diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD)
and lumpy skin disease (recently noted in livestock of Maharashtra) were listed by some producers; however, these were
not considered a priority for smallholders. The thematic analysis of the open discussions identified two major reasons for
a disease being considered of concern, these being animal welfare and loss of income, with approximately a third of
smallholders identifying each of these as the main reason. Other reasons were the impact on livestock industries and the
Maharashtra’s economy, with 16.1% of smallholders identifying this as a reason, and impact on neighbors (7.7%) and
personal/family health (4.8%).
Based on the responses collected from smallholders, approximately half of group interview participants indicated that
they had contacted a veterinarian in the past year. Thematic analysis of the data identified that the two most common
reasons for using a veterinarian among participants were for pregnancy testing and animal health problems that
producers could not deal with themselves. Other less common reasons for using a veterinarian were vaccinations of
companion animals kept on farm and general animal health advice. The group interviews also identified the main barriers
or challenges for a more frequent use of veterinarians, with the cost involved with the veterinary services being the main
barrier. In agreement with the survey results, although the use of veterinarians could be improved, when participants
were asked about the action they would take if faced with unusual signs of disease, most would contact a private
veterinarian. However, about 45 % of participants indicated that first they were likely to contact a neighbor, due to the
perceived expertise and level of trust. Only some livestock producers would also contact the government veterinarian.
Another participant perceiving contacting the government veterinarian for unusual signs of disease an over reaction.
Most of the smallholders didn’t hear about the Emergency Medical Services (EMS) for Animals in Maharashtra. Under
EMS, there are 349 vulnerable areas in which 80 care centers and 10 call centers are established by Maharashtra’s animal
husbandry department. Services include treatment of zoonotic diseases which will be provided by veterinary doctor
along with his team at the spot. Animal Health Management Practices of Smallholders Keeping Nimari cow and Surti
buffalo Tables 3.1 and 3.2 present results of logistic regression analyses investigating associations between demographic
and husbandry characteristics and biosecurity knowledge (explanatory variables) and animal health management
practices of smallholders keeping Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo. Species kept (P = 0.008) and
biosecurity knowledge (P =0.006) were significantly associated with smallholder contact with veterinarians. A higher
proportion of producers keeping cow and buffalo (46.2%) had contacted a veterinarian in the last year than smallholders
keeping goat only (29.8%). Producers who had a moderate to high understanding of biosecurity were more likely to have
contacted a veterinarian (odds ratio OR, 1.72; 1.2–2.5: P = 0.006).
Keeping records of animal health practices was associated with participant gender, property size and species kept (P >
0.05; Table 3.1). In general, keeping these records was more likely among female participants and those with larger
properties, and less likely among those smallholders keeping goat only Frequency of animal monitoring and inspection
was associated with participant gender, years of experience raising cow and buffalo (Table 3.2). Female respondents and
those with more years of experience, reported to inspect their animals more frequently than male and less experienced
respondents. In addition, the bigger the property the less frequent the inspection of animals was (P > 0.001).
Regarding animal health management practices of smallholders keeping dairy cow and buffalo, the significant
associations were found during the logistic regression analyses for smallholders keeping dairy goats. In agreement with
results reported for the previous groups of smallholders, univariable analysis showed that dairy cow and buffalo
smallholders keeping cattle were less likely to have contact with veterinarians than those not keeping goat (P = 0.05);
however, when age and gender were included in the multivariable analysis as confounders, there was no association
between keeping goat and contact with veterinarians.The only practice where significant associations were identified by
the multivariable logistic regression analysis was contacting a government veterinarian in the event of unusual signs of
disease or behavior in goats. Smallholders with more years of experience raising dairy goats were more likely (P = 0.05)
to contact a government veterinarian than less experienced smallholders. Within smallholders keeping cow and buffalo,
some significant associations were observed between the reported information seeking behavior and some explanatory
variables. For smallholders keeping cow and buffalo, female and younger producers were more likely to seek information
on livestock management and health than male (P = 0.028) and older producers (P > 0.001). Regarding usefulness of
different sources of information, it is significant to consider government agencies as useful sources than producers from
other states. Results also suggest that those smallholders keeping only goat are less likely to find veterinarians a useful
source of information than other smallholders within this group (P = 0.006), with aligns with the frequency of veterinary
used previously reported.
Prevalence of cattle diseases in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra The result of 18 dairy farms in 15 tehsils of Jalgaon district
incorporated the study of prevalence of cattle diseases. The common animal diseases noted during the study are Foot
rot, Foot and Mouth disease (FMD) and recently noted lumpy skin disease. Foot rot is a subacute or acute necrotic
(decaying) infectious disease of cattle, causing swelling and lameness in one or more feet. FMD is caused by an
Aphthovirus in the family Picornaviridae. FMD virus (FMDV) is to persist in the pharyngeal region for as long as five years
with no clinical symptoms presenting as the animal then becomes a carrier of the disease. FMD is characterized by a high
morbidity (in other words, a high number of animals affected) and a low mortality (a low number of animals that actually
die from the disease), an outbreak outside a controlled area may have detrimental effects on the livestock farms,
especially the export of animals, animal products and agricultural products. And third dreadful disease is Lumpy skin
disease (LSD) is an infectious viral disease in which the virus causes the development of stiff, round, cutaneous nodules
of 2-5 cm in diameter on the skin of the animal, besides causing fever, lesions in the mouth and reduced milk
production. Figure 3.2 (A) indicates the first sign by the goat that not putting it weight on the foot that may be affected
with diseases. Whereas the physical observation confirmed that goat suffered from necrotic stage of foot rot (Figure 3.2
B)
Out of total 182 livestock including goat, cow and buffalo rared in different tehsils of Jalgaon district of Maharashtra
examined in this study, 25 livestock (8.8 %) were associated with hood problems and the rest of 157 animals were treated
in the hoofs as to avoid pathologies and did not show any sign of diseases in hoofs. Out of 182 livestock examined, 55 %
of livestock were from age group 1 (0-4 years) and 45 % of the livestock were from the group 2 (above the age of 4
years) (Table 3.3).
Table 3.3 Animal with different problems in hoof Animal with different problems in hoof % of affected animals The
number of affected animals Animals with foot rot 8.8 25 Animal with different problems in hoof 91.2 157 Percentage of
animals by age Group 1 (0-4 years) 55 100 Percentage of animals by age Group 2 ( < 4 years) 45 82 The front limbs
affected 18.9 19 (45%) The hind limbs affected 23.1 23 (55%)
FMD affects domestic livestock population of India causing heavy economic losses to the animal owners. Clinical form of
the disease is readily noticed in susceptible livestock population mainly cattle, buffalo and pigs but saliently maintained in
carrier animals. Foot-and-mouth disease control programme (FMDCP) is run in India by adopting series of measures
from clinical diagnosis of the disease in the field, to sending clinical samples for laboratory diagnosis and till selection of
vaccine candidates. Vaccines are used to cover all the susceptible livestock population. This is expected to minimise
economic losses to the livestock owners due to the disease. The Government of India carried out intensive FMDCP since
2003–2004 restricted to northern Indian states and subsequently by 2017–2018 it was covered all the districts of the
country. The FMDCP is intending to vaccinate all the susceptible livestock population of the country such as cattle,
buffalo, sheep, goats and pigs, but still there are few districts and tehsils, where vaccination is to be done. FMDCP is
having objective to make the country free of the disease till 2025–2030. Directorate on FMD is functioning untiringly in
this regard and International center on FMD has been set up to serve the South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC) region. In FMD infection, in the oral cavity, as well as on the surfaces of the tongue, in the nasal
passage appear painful red, blister (fluid-filled vesicles, which rupture in about 24 hours, leaving raw, inflamed, and
extremely painful surfaces. By this time the animal is refusing to eat solid food. Blisters also appear on the feet, causing
lameness (Figure 3.3 A and B).
LSD is fast spreading viral disease of the buffalo, cow and goat in districts of Vidarbha and Marathwada regions of
Maharashtra and it was also recored in the livestock of Jalgaon district recently during study period, creating panic
among dairy farmers. According to the state Animal Husbandry department, so far 93,252 infections of the Capripox
virus, which was first detected in the state in Gadchiroli district in April 2020, have been recorded in the Maharashtra
state.The virus strain of LSD currently active in Maharashtra is said to have about 20 per cent morbidity and about 1 per
cent mortality rate. The virus is not zoonotic and doesn’t infect humans through consumption of milk or meat. Though it
affects the cow and buffalo, however, infection in the latter has been found to be minimal. Clinical symptoms of LSD
included: 1. Initial rise in temperature, which last for 7 days. 2. Lacrimation, Nasal discharge, Salivation and lameness. Due
to continuous lacrimation cataract followed by blindness. 3. Multiple intradermal nodules appeared suddenly (Figure 3.4).
4. Nodules may appear in perineum region, Vulvar or Udder region. 5. Nodules may form in nostrils, trachea and other
visceral organ. 6. After few days hair and skin sloughing out from the nodules. 7. Abortion of pregnant buffalo was noted.
As per the state Animal Husbandry department, Chandrapur is the worst affected with 50,419 cases, followed by Nagpur
with 12,296 cases so far. Other affected districts in Vidarbha are Gondia (8,150), Vardha (3,598) and Gadchiroli (1,358). In
Marathwada, the disease has been detected in Nanded (13,136) and Parbhani (2,182) in considerable proportion with a
sporadic spread in several other districts.Of the 93,252 animals infected so far since April 2021, 67,035 have recovered
following medical intervention. A dairy farmer from Yawal tehsil in Jalgaon district, who owns a herd of about 100 cattle,
three of his cows were showing symptoms of LSD (Figure 3.5). Two have swollen feet and can’t walk. The third one has
developed nodules on the back. The milk production has considerably decreased. It was noted by owner that privately
sold vaccines were expensive and he was trying to contact government veterinarian hospitals for subsidized inoculation.
Owing to the spread of the virus to newer areas, an advisory has been issued to dairy farmers enlisting preventive
measures that they need to take while rearing the animals.Since the virus spread via insects, it’s very important that the
sheds are kept insect-free. The animals can be massaged with insect repellents. Apart from this, affected animals have to
be kept away from healthy ones and should not be taken away for grazing. Also, once an infected animal was found, it
was advised that cattle in a five-km radius must be inspected and inoculated. Since, the objective of this part of study was
to develop an understanding of the demographic and husbandry characteristics that may influence smallholder livestock
producer’s engagement with animal health management and disease reporting, key practices of the on-farm component
of a passive surveillance system. Over a thousand smallholder producers participated in the study; being one of the first
studies among this sector of livestock producers in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra, with this number of participants.
However, one of the limitations of the study was the low response rate, which could be due to the distribution methods
and the topic of the study, which are known factors influencing response rate (Dohoo et al, 2009; Hernández-Jover et
al, 2019). Another potential limitation of the study is in relation to the data analysis approach, which could be associated
with the multiple testing problem. This problem refers to the probability of false positives or Type I errors, which
increases when more tests are conducted to investigate the association of a specific explanatory variable with several
dependent variables. In this study, a total of 12 dependent variables (animal health management practices) were
investigated for each smallholder type, but associations with the explanatory variables were only found for a low number
of animal health management practices (up to six). Findings from this study, generally indicated that Sangamneri goat
ownership was a factor associated with lower levels of inspection and engagement with veterinarians, this may be due to
less number of goat rared by smallholders that belonged to lower income group. To maximize the likelihood of the early
detection of disease, it is essential to regularly observe livestock, with delays having potential economic and eradication
implications (East et al, 2016). With over 95% of participants in the current study reporting that they inspected their
livestock at a minimum weekly interval, it can be argued that smallholders are effectively engaging in passive surveillance.
The effectiveness of inspection is also dependent on the level of knowledge of clinical signs of disease and the actions
taken once such signs are observed (Hadorn and Stärk, 2008; Hadorn and Stärk,2019). It is also important that accurate
animal health records are maintained given that these can help to identify patterns of disease or deaths. Producers with a
moderate to high understanding of biosecurity were also more likely to have contacted a veterinarian, suggesting that an
understanding of biosecurity may be a positive influence on behavior and attitudes toward surveillance (Laanen et al,
2014). This supports the suggestion that producers who discuss the application of biosecurity measures with
veterinarians are more likely to engage in stronger biosecurity behavior (Toma et al, 2013). The study showed that the
foot rot in cattle most frequently was found in cows under the age of 4 years, which supports the findings of (Rodriguez
et al., 1999) that young animals that are kept on farms under non-hygienic conditions and newly purchased animals are
considered as the source of infection and are likely to develop acute ulcerative lesions of pathological heel that can
explode with lameness and loss of production. Lower milk yields, reduced reproductive performance, higher involuntary
culling rates, discarded milk, and the additional management effort required to care for lame cows accounted for the
majority of economic loss (Blowey et al., 1996). In visited dairy cows farms, cows were often kept in stalls closed and the
moisture levels exceed the normal values, without sufficient movement, which may be the main favorable factors for the
occurrence of hoof pathologies (Somers et al., 2005). Nutrition and feeding management should be reviewed whenever
a herd begins to experience a high incidence of foot problems, in particular, that associated with laminitis (Mortensen et
al., 1994). Throughout the south, a major dilemma involves feeding strategies to alleviate summer heat stress (Walker et
al., 1995). The occurrence of foot rot at 21 % of found pathologies seems to be persistent problem causing lamenness,
pain and very high economic lost due to reduction of milk production in effected animals as well as reproduction
problems in form of undetected estrus. Control and treatment of hoofs, especially in dairy cows and intensive farms
every 6 months make is very best way to reduce the occurrence of these pathologies. Improper feeding of milk cows
might cause the occurrence of hoof pathologies and has been mentioned by several groups (Flower et al., 2006), as it
can negatively impact the milk production of cows. Farmers have to closely cooperate with veterinarians and animal
specialists as to prepare a proper feeding program, proper microclimate conditions as to prevent the preconditions of
occurrence of hoof pathologies. Animals have to be observed as they go out in to the pasture as it is very important to
identify the initial hoof pathologies in very early stages, since the treatment of already affected hoofs is associated with
very high costs and directly affects the profitability of the farms. Suggestions for Livestock disease management:
Livestock disease managementis based on two key components: Prevention (biosecurity) measures in susceptible herds
and Control measures taken once infection occurs.The probability of infection from a given disease depends on existing
farm practices (prevention) as well as the prevalence rate in host populations in the relevant area.
Preventing diseases entering and spreading in livestock populations is the most efficient and cost-effective way of
managing disease (Wobeser, 2002). While many approaches to management are disease specific, improved regulation of
movements of livestock can provide broader protection. A standard disease prevention programme that can apply in all
contexts does not exist. But there are some basic principles that should always be observed. The following practices aid
in disease prevention:
Elaboration of an animal health programme requires well-known, reliable source from which to purchase animals, one
that can supply healthy stock, inherently vigorous and developed for a specific purpose. New animals should be
monitored for disease before being introduced into the main flock of the farm house. Good hygiene including clean
water and feed supplies are essential. Precise vaccination schedule for each herd or flock should be followed. Animals
should be observed frequently for signs of disease, and if a disease problem develops, livestock owners should contact
with private or governmental veterinary practitioner for diagnosis and treatment for that specific disease. Suggestions
were given to livestock owners for disposing dead aninmals by burning, deep burying, or disposal pit. Guidance provided
to them to keep good record relative to flock or herd health, vaccination history, disease problems and medication.
Surveillance and Control Measures: Disease surveillance allows the identification of infections and changes to existing
ones. This involves disease reporting and specimen submission by livestock owners, village veterinary staff, district and
provincial veterinary officers. The method used to combat a disease outbreak depends on the severity of the outbreak. In
the event of a disease outbreak the precise location of all livestock is essential for effective measures to control and
eradicate contagious viruses. Restrictions on animal movements may be required as well as quarantine and, in extreme
cases, slaughter.
Climate change has major impact on livestock diseases which are vector-borne. Increasing temperatures have supported
the expansion of vector populations. Jalgaon district in north Maharashtra is well known for high temperature days
during summer season, this condition is favourable for insect vectors thereby the chances of infections to livestock are
increased. Similarly, changes in rainfall pattern can also influence an expansion of vectors during wetter years and can
lead to large outbreaks. Climate changes could also influence disease distribution indirectly through changes in the
distribution of livestock. Improving livestock disease control is therefore an effective technology for climate change
adaptation. Advantages of the technology: Benefits of livestock disease prevention and control include: higher
production (as morbidity is lowered and mortality or early culling is reduced), and avoided future control costs. When
farmers mitigate disease through prevention or control, they benefit not just themselves but any others at risk of adverse
outcomes from the presence of disease on that operation at risk populations include residents, visitors and consumers.
The beneficiaries might also include at-risk wildlife populations surrounding the farm that may have direct or indirect
contact with livestock or livestock-related material. Disadvantages of the technology: Management options may interact,
so the use of one option may diminish the effectiveness of another. Another critical issue is the long-term sustainability
of currently used strategies for livestock disease management. Chemical intervention strategies such as use of antibiotics
or vaccines for disease control are not biologically sustainable. Animals develop resistance to drugs used to control
certain viruses and with each new generation of vaccine a new and more virulent strain of the virus can arise (FAO, 2003).
Small-scale producers may be negatively affected by livestock disease management if the full cost of the disease
management programme is directly passed onto them with no subsidy from the government (FAO, 2003b).
Financial requirements and costs of livestock dieseas management: The cost of livestock disease management includes
testing and screening, veterinary services, vaccines, training of livestock keepers and veterinary staff, and perhaps
changes to practices and facilities to reflect movement restrictions and quarantines when animals are added to the herd.
Prevention and control costs are generally evaluated against expected financial losses resulting from a disease outbreak
in a cost-benefit analysis. The assumption is that increased prevention and control costs of livestock diseases lower the
expected losses by minimizing the expected scale of an infection. McInerney et al (1992) present the problem graphically
as a cost minimisation formula: min C = L + E Where C is total annual disease cost, L is the value of output losses, and E
is the control expenditures (which themselves are a function of inputs purchased for control). In short, it is in accordance
with the statement that prevention is better than cure.
Institutional and organisational requirements: Countries should cooperate in programmes against trans-boundary
disease either through formally formed organisations or networks. Neighbouring countries often have similar production
systems and disease risk profiles and will be more likely to be affected by similar climate change impacts in livestock
disease. There will be mutual benefits and cost savings through joint preparedness planning. Public policies range from
bounties/indemnities for infected livestock to required herd depopulation and farm decontamination, to decentralisation
programmes for provision of veterinary services and drug supplies. Livestock and animal health policy should be oriented
to both the commercial and pastoral sectors and include pro-poor interventions to support the most vulnerable
populations. Government investments in infrastructure (including early warning systems, roads, abattoirs, holding pens,
processing plants, air freight/ports and so on), systematic vaccination, and in research and development can all
contribute to providing an enabling environment for effective livestock disease management. Removing or introducing
subsidies for improved management, insurance systems and supporting income diversification practices could benefit
adaptation efforts (IFAD, 2002). In order for producers to make decisions regarding disease management, they must
understand the options that they have. These options depend on disease biology, prevention techniques, tests for
infection and their costs, treatments available, market reactions, as well as industry and government programmes and
policies. Disease biology includes transmission modes and rates, disease evolution (for example, length of time to
infectious period), production losses associated with the disease, and mortality rate (where applicable).
Organization of practical training workshops for livestock onwers: Since Jalgaon district in Maharashtra has good
number of farm houses, smallhouse holders and Kathiyawadi people settled, it essential to organize practical workshop
for them so that there can be percolation of knowledge about: Basic principles of anatomy and physiology of the
livestock animals. Principles of nutrition and pasture ecology. Animal diseases of local importance: clinical and post
mortem signs, epidemiology, prevention, treatment. Applying first aid, the use of basic veterinary medicines (wound
treatments, dips, anthelmintics, antibiotics, trypanocides, babesiacides, vaccines, care and storage of medicines and
vaccines, and the use and care of syringes). The basic principles of sero-surveillance campaigns ─ how to draw blood
and store sera. Modelling disease outbreaks and spread can provide valuable information for the development of
management strategies. Modelling involves studying disease distribution and patterns of spread to determine the scale of
a problem. This information is used to develop a model that can predict the spread of disease. Disease modelling
requires prior knowledge of animal population distributions and ecology, diseases present and methods of disease
transmission. Modelling can be used to assess potential disease impacts and develop contingency plans so that there can
be better understanding among the owners of livestock. Role of Geographic Information System (GIS) in livestock
management system: GIS software can play a key role in livestock disease management. The main advantage of GIS
software is not just that the user can see how a disease is distributed geographically, but also that an animal disease can
be viewed against other information. For example, maps that show possible impacts of climate change on rainfall
patterns, crop yields and flooding. The disease presence can then be related to these factors and more easily appreciated
visually. This is important in relation to managing and responding to the changes in distribution of diseases due to
changing climate (FAO, 1999). Barriers in the path of livestock management system: A lack of strong institutions and
political will to monitor disease status effectively can produce a considerable barrier to livestock disease management.
Difficulties in eradication of disease may also be exacerbated by many small-scale and backyard producers, infected
wildlife, smuggling, and cockfighting (FAO, 2003). If there is no compensation for stamping out disease through
slaughter, then producers, particularly small-scale producers, may be reluctant to participate. If they do participate it may
mean that they no longer can afford to produce (FAO, 2003).
Opportunities for implementation: Where the disease organism has built up resistance against vaccines or the animal has
built resistance against the disease there is an opportunity for incorporating simple, high-tech genetic approaches such
as selective breeding. National planning for livestock disease management also presents an opportunity to improve
agricultural support services in rural areas and to incorporate indigenous knowledge into formal prevention and control
plans, thereby unlocking the potential of low-cost interventions and disseminating information on traditional lessons and
experiences to a wider audience. Trans-border collaboration can provide an opportunity to strengthen veterinary
services and can improve the effectiveness of disease management programmes through harmonisation of prevention
and control measures, such as disease reporting and surveillance.
The changing incidence of pathogens and patterns of diseases over time requires the scientific community to review,
develop and use different sets of skills. For example, climate change and the increasing spread of vector-borne diseases
has driven a need for more entomologists and vector biologists and the re-emergence of viral, bacterial and parasitic
infections globally will, as Robinson & Dalton (2009) note in this issue, increase the need for basic laboratory research on
zoonotic helminths. As the diseases change, so will the professional skills set required.
Literacy and its impact in the epidemiology of FMD in India: Illiteracy is also one of the impeding factors for personnel in
livestock sector to be informed about the various activities undertaken by the central and state agencies and act upon in
the event of the outbreak of the disease (Audarya, 2020). As per the population census in 2011, the literacy rate of India is
74.0% (females: 65.5% and males: 82.1%). Though gap in literacy rate is heading downwards from 21.6% in 2001 to 16.6%
in 2011, there are larger variations in literacy rates in males and females among various states Though, India is
implementing various educational schemes (Education to all), it is hoped that the next census will reflect improvement in
literacy rates. Most of the livestock owners specifically the Kathiyawadi people settled in different tehsils of Jalgaon
district are illiterate and this fact was reflected in the lacunae for their livestock disase disease managemwnt. Oveall, this
study provides an insight into the animal health management practices of smallholder livestock producers not only in
Jalgaon district but it may also reflect its role in overall Indian subcontinent. It identifies some influencing characteristics
that should be considered when developing strategies for improving their engagement with the surveillance system in
our country. Species kept, the level of experience, the location as well as the local networks used by the smallholders are
important factors to consider. Finally, literacy will help the country in respect to spreading awareness about the disease
and formulation of better prevention and control strategies.
In Table 4.1 the farm and farmers’ characteristics were described for all respondents and for ruminants including cows,
buffaloes, and goat farming only. The farmers were on average 40 years old and predominantly male.
Table 4.1 Animal Farm and farmers’ characteristics non-respondents and all livestock respondents and of respondents to
ruminant farming in Jalgaon district. Variable Non-respondents (livestock) All respondents (livestock) Respondents to
ruminant farming Number (n) 986 1589 674 Age (Mean ± SD) 40 ± 4 40 ± 7 41 Total agricultural area (ha) (Mean ± SD)
18± 2 22 ± 4 21± 3 Livestock units total (Mean ± SD) 24± 3 32 ± 3 35± 4 Gender : Male (0) 972 1545 642 Female (1) 14 44
32 Production system: Conventional (0) 879 1385 589 Organic (1) 107 204 85 Working time Part-time (0) 69 176 58 Full-
time (1) 917 1413 616 Zone: River valley 489 978 387 Hill 35 176 158 Mountain 462 435 129 Main farm types: Specialist
field crops 12 22 8 Specialist permanent crops 4 8 5 Specialist ruminant livestock 668 1174 547 Mixed cropping 14 17 10
Mixed livestock 176 237 48 Mixed crops-livestock 112 131 56 Enterprise: Dairy Cows 302 481 192 Dairy Buffaloes 485 898
380 Dairy Goats 199 210 102 Husbandry system* Loose housing - - 559 Tie stall - - 78 Both - - 37 Mean values ± SD are
shown for numeric variables and total numbers are shown for categorical variables. *Information from questionnaires. All
respondents had an average agricultural area of 20 ha and on average 32 livestock units per farm but with high
deviations from the mean values. The majority of all respondents managed the farm conventionally and full-time. About
half of the farms were located in the villages belonging to tehsil viz, Chopda, Yawal, Raver, Muktainagar of Jalgaon district
along the footsteps of mountains and hills of Satpuda ranges at the border of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. The
characteristics of farmers with ruminants differed only slightly from those of all farmers: most of the ruminant farms were
located in the mountains, followed by river valley and hills. Whereas, 559 cattle farmers kept their animals in loose
housing systems, 78 kept them in tie stall barns and 37 had both husbandry systems. As a result of survey of dairy farm
houses offline and online, it was noted that some of the technologies (Figure 4.1 to 4.4) are already in practice in
Maharashtra and rest of the India, albeit the adoption is still quite low while many others are yet to penetrate the industry.
Nevertheless, there is no doubt that technology is playing a key role in modernising the Indian dairy industry. In this part
of research work, new-age dairy technologies adopted by local farmers, farm house oweners, smallholders and
Kathiwadi people rared livestock in different tehsils of Jalgaon district in Maharashtra was surveyed and analyzed. Health
Tracking Devices for Cattle: Health disorders reduce the productivity, longevity and reproductivity of cattle. Every year,
farmers have to spend huge amounts of money on their cattle’s health and wellness. However, wearable animal gadgets,
which are akin to human fitness trackers, farmers can track, monitor, manage cattle’s health, nutrition, behaviour,
pregnancy, milking frequency, milk production anomaly and activity level in real-time. These smart animal trackers can
be implanted in the cattle’s ears, tail, legs, neck or any part of the body. During 2019-20, Maharashtra government had
implanted GPS-enabled digital chips in the ears of 56 lakh animals in different districts of southern and western
Maharashtra to track their health and early diagnosis of medical condition. Some of the companies that have developed
smart cattle health tracking devices are SmaXtec, Cowlar, Moocall, Smartbow, Stellapps, etc.
Figure 4.1 Cowlar, a wearable that can be attached to cows on a collar and used to better manage a herd of dairy
bovines. Instead of helping to improve a cow’s health via exercise, the Cowlar tracks metrics such as eating, sleeping,
mating and even its temperature. All of these aspects are important to farmers hoping to increase how much milk each
cow produces, how long it will live and it’s mating patterns. The Cowlar sends this information to solar-powered base
station up to four kilometres away where it rely message to the farmer in a number of ways. Farm owners receive a SMS
or automated phone call. Robotic Milking Machines: Traditionally, cows have always been milked manually by hands. This
is not only a time-consuming activity but also has labour cost associated with, thereby increasing the price of milk.
Robotic milking machines are enabling farmers to eliminate the pressure on physical labour, maintain a hygienic milking
process, milk the cows anytime of the day instead of following a fixed schedule and improve the milk production. The
robotic milking machines have arms or cups with sensors that can be attached individually to cows’ teats. The sensors
can detect whether the cow or which of its teat is ready for milking or not. Once the milking starts, the machines can
also identify impurities, colour and quality of milk. If the milk is not fit for human consumption, it is diverted to a separate
container. The machines can also automatically clean and sanitize the teats once the task is over.
Figure 4.2 Automation in Diary cows in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra
Raghava Gowda from India has developed a low-cost, non-electric milking machine for cows. Some other startups
which have introduced automated milking systems are miRobot, GEA, DeLaval, Fullwood Packo and Lely among many
others.
Figure 4.3 The miRobot used as milking machine in diary cattle farming in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra
The miRobot is developing the next-generation automatic robotic milking system for cost-effective, high-performance
milking in medium and large dairy farms (150 to <1,000 cows). Designed as an add-on to conventional milking parlor
equipment, miRobot’s system comprises fully automatic robotic arms installed in each milking stall. The robotic arms
perform cleaning, stimulating, attaching the milking cluster, and post-milking routines to enable a milking procedure that
is very high quality and uniform.
The miRobot multi-stall system will allow farmers to – Establish big data infrastructure in the milking parlor Milk dozens
of cows simultaneously with only one supervisor, compared to current operations, which requires three to six operators
Cattle Monitoring Drones: Farmers are required to keep a manual vigilance whenever the livestock moves out of the farm
for grazing. There are high chances of the cattle getting lost, stolen or being attacked by other animals. The cattle
monitoring drones can keep track of the cattle and herd them back from fields to barns. Some drones are equipped with
thermal sensing technology, which helps to track the cattle from the heat of their bodies. Drones can also capture the
pictures of pasture areas and relay information as to whether these are suitable for cattle grazing. A number of
companies such as TRITHI Robotics, Dronitech, Sagar Defence Engineering, DJI Enterprise and Sunbirds have made
headway in building commercial drones for various purposes, including for agriculture and livestock management.
Figure 4.4 Use of GPS and cattle monitoring system in Dairy farms of Jalgaon district of Maharashtra The farmhouse
owners, raring livestock in rural areas of Jalgaon having fertile soil in Tapi river basin and grazing land, adopted
technology based on use of commercial drones to track their cattle. Product Traceability for Customers through
Blockchain: These days, customers like to know the journey of their dairy products from farm to table. This calls for end-
to-end supply chain transparency to enhance the trust of customers. An increasing number of dairy manufacturers,
suppliers and other stakeholders are leveraging blockchain technology to give real-time data about their products to
customers. This is done by putting a QR code on the packaging which customers can scan on their mobile devices to
get information on the origin of the milk – how and where it was collected and packed, how old it is, what kind of
transportation and cold milk chain facilities were used, etc. The Maharashtra and Kerala government in India is leveraging
blockchain technology to streamline purchase and distribution of milk, fish and vegetable in the state. It was noted that
in Jalgaon District Dudh Utpadak Sangh (JDDUS) is the largest milk collection, purification, pasturization and distribution
center follow this technology. On large scale, the international food giant Nestle has tied-up with Australian startup
OpenSC to deploy blockchain technology in to improve its dairy supply chain. French supermarket Carrefour sells its
micro-filtered full-fat milk in bottles with a QR code. Some of the startups operating in food biotech are StaTwig, Ripe,
AgriLedger, TE-Food and Foodcoin. Milk Freshness: Milk is a highly perishable product. In spite of treating it with
pasteurization, freezing and preservation processes, it has a tendency to go stale. Millions of tons of milk turns stale
before timely consumption and goes waste. Efforts are also being consistently made to increase the shelf life of milk
without adding additives or preservatives. Technology is now making it possible to detect the freshness of milk and store
it for a longer period of time. Australia-based food technology company Naturo has developed a technology that can
keep natural milk fresh in the refrigerator for at least 60 days without using any additives or preservatives. US scientists
have pioneered a new pasteurization technique which increases shelf life of fresh milk from 13 days to 40 days without
changing its taste or nutritional value. Back home in India, IIT Guwahati scientists have developed a smartphone-app
aided paper sensor kit that can test the freshness of milk and inform how well it has been pasteurized. This kit can come
quite handy in large kitchens, milk collection centres and milk bars. Apart from rural Jalgaon area, Chalisgaon is another
tehsil in Jalgaon district which have livestock onwers who adopted technologies essential to keep milk fresh.
Automated Cattle Traffic Management : It can be an extremely tedious task to manage and move cattle to milking stalls
and back to barns. There is also a risk of injuries to the cattle. Automated cattle traffic management system has
computer-controlled gates which opens and closes electronically. These gates can sort the livestock on the basis of their
readiness to milk. The livestock ready to be milked is moved to the milking area while the others are either put in the
waiting area or returned to the barns. Companies like Delmer, Bump Gates, Fullwood Packo and Lely are known for their
automatic cattle traffic systems. So far out of 15 tehsils in Jalgaon district, farmhouses in Jalgaon, Chalisgaon and
Muktailnagar adopted this technology for livestock management. Feed Management: The feed requirement of cattle
depends on their health and weather. For example, a sick or pregnant cow may need more nutrition. Hot and humid
weather means that cattle need more glucose in their feed. There are a number of feed technologies that produce
formulated feed additives, supplements, premixes and base mixes to maintain optimal milk production throughout the
year. For example, the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) has developed bypass protein technology to produce
specially treated protein supplements that can be fed to cattle to increase milk yield and quality. Then, there are also
digital feed monitoring solutions which can help farmers detect the quality of feed, manage feed inventory and
understand cattle’s feeding pattern. In fact, feed monitoring solution can help design customized diet for each cow
based on the assessment of their body weight, milk quality and yield, and thereby improve fertility and productivity per
cow. Some of the companies providing feed management solutions are Godrej Agrovat, DeLaval, Dairy Margin Tracker,
etc. In Jalgaon district, most of farmhouse onwers and smallholders use feed management system as per the guidelines
of NDDB. E-commerce Market places: Several online market places such as AgroStar and Gold Farm have been launched
in India to make modern equipment and advisory services available at the doorstep to farmers and dairy manufacturers
on their smartphones. Many B2C (Bussiness to consumer) platforms such as FreshVnF, WayCool and FarmLink have also
emerged at a rapid pace – they pick fresh produce from farms and deliver them at the doorstep of retail customers,
hotels, restaurants and cafes. In Jalgaon district, every tehsil has offline market places for milk collection and distribution
centers. Jalgaon District Dudh Utpadak Sangh (JDDUS) is the only non-governmental agency at district level who
engaged in creating e-commerce market place. Supply Chain Technology: The Indian dairy industry supply chain is quite
complex owing to its dependency on a number of factors such as storage temperature, cold chains availability, weather,
perishability/shelf life, first and last-mile distance, packaging, etc. The fact that the Indian dairy industry is unorganized
and fragmented also adds to the supply chain woes. However, a number of technological innovations are taking place in
the dairy supply chain in India. Take, for example, India-based supply chain startups such as Stellapps, MilkManApps and
Trinetra Wireless. Under supply chain, cold chain technology is expected to progress by leaps and bounds. The coming
years will witness the rise of energy-efficient and cost-effective cold chain warehouses, cold boxes, Phase Changing
Material (PCM) pads, temperature-controlled cold chain packing, refrigerated vehicles, cold chain pallet shippers, and
other advanced cooling technologies. Tessol and Warehouse-India startups are making their mark in cold chain
infrastructure in India. In Jalgaon district, JDDUS, Chalisgaon dairy industry and Bapu dairy in Chopda tehsil adopted well
established supply chain technology. Farm Management Technology: From accounting, finance and labour management
to livestock and supply chain management, a dairy farm has to ensure that all its operations run seamlessly. Farm
management software can help automate and digitize end-to-end production and operations activities. It can give a
holistic view of all farm activities, manage records, generate reports and detect inefficiencies. Stellapps, Milc Group, My
Dairy Dashboard and Nedap are some of the smart farm management solutions that exist currently. Frequencies of
digital technology adoption in ruminant farming Dairy farms located in various tehsils of Jalgaon district were surveyed
through personal visits and based on the information gathered, Table 4.2 shows the three questions concerning the
adoption of technologies related to: (1) Electronic sensors measuring devices namely Pasture growing measurement,
Roughage intake, Animal tracking systems, Rumination sensors, Activity sensors, Electronic ear tags, Electronic weighing
system, Camera monitoring ,Milk conductivity sensor,Concentrate feed intake, Milk temperature sensor, Transponder
collar, Milk flow sensor and Digital milk meter used in dairy farming (2) Electronic controls like Automatic feeding system,
Selection gates, Automatic calf feeder and Concentrate feeding station used in animal farming and (3) Electronic data-
processing options like Body condition scoring with camera system, Pasture management, Disease detection, Feed
ration planning, Oestrous detection, Data transfer into herd management systems, Concentrate feed allocation
depending on milk yield are adopted. Compared with farmers in all other cattle farm houses, farmers with dairy buffalo
used digital technologies the most, which is illustrated by the answer option ‘none’ being ticked by 35.7%, 31.3% and
47.3% for electronic sensor measuring devices, electronic controls and electronic data-processing options used
respectively. Dairy cattle farmers most commonly applied easy-to-use digital technologies related to the milking
process. For example, digital milk meter was the most frequently used technology in dairy buffalo, with 47%, followed by
18% in dairy cow farms. Likewise, transponder collar, milk flow sensor and concentrate feed intake were ticked by more
than 18% of the dairy cattle farmers. Digital milk meters were also the most frequently used sensors for dairy cow and
buffalo but most of the dairy goat farms are without the same technology. Table 4.2 Frequencies (%) of adoption of
electronic sensors and measuring devices, electronic controls and data-processing options in cattle farms of Jalgaon
district in Maharashtra Electronic sensors and measuring devices used Dairy Cow Dairy Buffalo Dairy Goat Percentage
total
(n = 347) (n = 553) (n = 210) None 112 159 98 35.7 Others 4 8 3 2.9 Pasture growing measurement 1 2 0 2 Roughage
intake 2 4 1 3 Animal tracking systems 2 7 1 4 Rumination sensors 1 2 0 2 Activity sensors 3 5 0 4 Electronic ear tags 2 6 2
5 Electronic weighing system 4 6 1 5 Camera monitoring 15 54 4 24 Milk conductivity sensor 4 12 NA 7 Concentrate feed
intake 6 18 1 8 Milk temperature sensor 2 8 NA 5 Transponder collar 8 24 2 11 Milk flow sensor 12 42 0 18 Digital milk
meter 18 47 NA 22 Electronic controls Used Dairy Cow Dairy Buffalo Dairy Goat Percentage total
(n = 325) (n = 527) (n = 198) None 102 128 78 31.3 Others 4 7 5 5 Automatic feeding system 2 6 1 3 Selection gates 2 8 1
5 Automatic calf feeder 8 14 NA 7 Concentrate feeding station 12 24 1 12 Electronic data-processing options adopted
Dairy Cow Dairy Buffalo Dairy Goat Percentage total
(n = 296) (n = 489) (n = 178) None 156 178 97 47.3 Others 3 0 2 2 Body condition scoring with camera system 2 2 NA 3
Pasture management 1 3 NA 1 Disease detection 1 5 NA 2 Feed ration planning 3 6 0 3 Oestrous detection 10 15 1 8 Data
transfer into herd management systems 5 12 0 5 Concentrate feed allocation depending on milk yield 2 8 NA 3 NA = not
applicable.
The survellience by digital cameras were the most likely adopted electronic system by dairy gaot with 4% followed by
dairy cow with 15% and its highest percentage (54%) was found in dairy buffalo. Electronic controls in the form of
Automatic feeding system, Selection gates, Automatic calf feeder and Concentrate feeding station were adopted by
Dairy cow and buffalo farms with significant percentage. Expet autoamatic feeding system, dairy goat farms also had
Selection gates, Automatic calf feeder and Concentrate feeding station. In relation to electronic data processing system,
dairy cow and buffalo farms located in various tehsils of Jalgaon district adopted statistically significant Body condition
scoring with camera system, Pasture management, Disease detection, Feed ration planning, Oestrous detection, Data
transfer into herd management systems, Concentrate feed allocation depending on milk yield. Farm and farmers’
characteristics associated with digital technology adoption in cow, buffalo and goat farming in Jalgaon district of
Maharshtra were assessed using regression analyses. The effects for the implemented and new technologies in farm
houses in Jalgaon district slightly differed. The regression analyses showed that the type of production (organic or
conventional), the working time (full-or part-time business) and the agricultural area were not related to the adoption of
digital technologies in ruminant farming in study area. However, farmers with larger numbers of livestock units were
more likely to adopt both types of technologies than farmers keeping fewer livestock. On the other hand, age was
negatively and significantly correlated to the adoption of new digital technologies: farmers were less likely to adopt this
type of technology with increasing age. Further more, the results indicated that female farmers were less likely to adopt
any type of digital technology compared with male farmers. The zone, the main farm type, the region, the enterprise and
the barn system mattered for adoption. More specifically, compared with the base category river valley, a small negative
effect on the adoption of implemented digital technologies could be found for hill and mountain zones and a strong
negative effect on the adoption of new technologies for the mountain zone. Farmers with animals in tie stall barns and
farmers who had a combination of loose housing and tie stall systems were less likely to have implemented technologies
compared with the base category loose housing.
In the past few years, the Indian dairy industry has received a tremendous boost through technology-driven products,
services and solutions, the credit for which deservingly goes to agricultural and dairy startups. The differences in
adoption pattern between the animal species show that there are areas and production branches in which the use of
digital technologies is already commer cially implemented. This is mainly the case in the dairy sector. Compared with
other livestock sectors, the dairy cattle sector has by far more digital technologies available (Stachowicz and Umstätter,
2020). The milking process is time-consuming and related to a high physical workload, so that the expected advantage
of using digital technologies quickly becomes apparent. User-friendly technologies that are integrated for example, in
the milking parlour have higher adoption rates in practice than technologies that collect additional data on the animal or
in the barn, for example, for disease detection and that may be bought separately. An exception is the electronic data
processing options data transfer into herd management systems, which was ticked by more than 10% of the farmers in
each of the groups. However, the usage has a direct benefit because many animal-related parameters have to be
recorded in general for quality assurance and documentation purposes and are therefore essential for economically
viable production. It can be therefore concluded that political incentives can also lead to increased adoption. Results of
the present study confirmed the results from other countries for which the use of digital technologies in dairy production
has been investigated. A study from New Zealand showed that technologies related to the milking process itself are used
more than information collection technologies for example, for disease detection or heat detection (Edwards et al.,
2015). Gargiulo et al. (2018) evaluated different adoption patterns according to herd sizes among Australian farmers and
found that larger farms adopt more precision dairy technologies than smaller ones. In our study, the number of livestock
units was also positively correlated to the adoption of digital technologies. However, results moted in the present study
also show that there are still dairy farms that are managed almost without or with sporadic use of digital technologies.
This is especially the case for agricultural enterprises that have a low production value per se or where the workload per
livestock unit is comparatively low. But even in the dairy sector a considerable share of farmers did not use digital
technologies at all. With regard to the high workload for milking, this is a surprising result for a country where dairy
farming is very widespread. On the other hand, it is also possible that farmers stated using none of the surveyed
technologies but that certain technologies are automatically integrated, for example, into the milking parlour, so that it is
not always an active decision to have them and use them.
Barkema et al. (2015) investigated the worldwide commercial implementation of milking robots in a comparative study.
Their results showed that the use of milking robots varies between 5% in Canada and over 20% in Sweden and Denmark.
Almost 4% of the surveyed farmers used a milking robot in present study, thus Jalgaon district is in the lower
international range here. Nevertheless, milking robots are not stand-alone units because they contain a large number of
sensors and measuring systems that automatically record and connect data, even if the farmer may not use all available
information (Ordolff, 2001). However, the share of farmers using robots on their farms is still very small and mainly
limited to dairy farming. None of the participating farmers in our study indicated using pasture growth measurements,
and only 1% stated using data-processing options for pasture management. Also, Gargiulo et al. (2018) found low
adoption rates for automated pasture measurement in Australia, possibly because it is very time-consuming and difficult
to apply. An international survey regarding the use of precision livestock farming technologies in dairying showed that
mastitis, nutrition and reproduction were high-priority research topics, whereas goat farming and grassland management
ranked as lower priority (Palczynski, 2016). Animal diseases generate a wide range of biophysical and socio-economic
impacts that may be both direct and indirect, and may vary from localized to global. The economic impacts of diseases
are increasingly difficult to quantify, largely because of the complexity of the effects that they may have, but they may be
enormous: the total costs of foot-and-mouth disease in the UK may have amounted to $18–25 billion between 1999
and 2002 (Bio-Era, 2008). In the developing world, there have been relatively few changes in the distribution, prevalence
and impact of many epidemic and endemic diseases of livestock over the last two decades, particularly in Africa, with a
few exceptions such as the global eradication of rinderpest. Over this time, there has also been a general decline in the
quality of veterinary services. A difficulty in assessing the changing disease status in much of the developing world is the
lack of data, a critical area where progress needs to be made if disease diagnostics, monitoring and impact assessment
are to be made effective and sustainable. Globally, the direct impacts of livestock diseases are decreasing, but the total
impacts may actually be increasing, because in a globalized and highly interconnected world, the effects of disease
extend far beyond animal sickness and mortality (Perry and Sones, 2009).
Ryan and Wilson (1991) reported that, the ‘National Disease Control Information System’ (NDCIS) of New Zealand,
consists of a set of independent computers database on animal diseases such as tuberculosis and brucellosis, which is a
good example of possible applications of digital technologises in improving the animal health. Jalvingh et al. (1995) and
Sanson et al. (1999) reported that, because of their economic importance, contagious animal disease outbreaks require
rapid identification and elimination of all virus sources. For managing the vast amount of data and for help in setting the
correct priorities, the use of computerized decision support systems (DSS) seems to be promising and it has lot of scope
for its implimentaion in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra.
However, worldwide comparison or ranking of adoption rates for digital technologies is difficult because there is no
uniform survey method and almost no representative study. For example, several studies used voluntary online surveys
with the selection bias that participants may be relatively technically inclined farmers who use computers and the
Internet in general (Gargiulo et al., 2018). Furthermore, the sampling procedure should be representative and cover as far
as possible all size classes of farms in order not to over esti mate or under estimate the adoption rate. As an example, in a
multidisciplinary study by Gargiulo et al. (2018), an online questionnaire was distributed using a snowball method among
industry contacts and their network. Although 301 questionnaires were received, there were no selection criteria for the
survey sample. In our study, we considered almost all Swiss farms for random sampling and stratified the sample for each
farm type to ensure that farms of different size classes were addressed. This approach makes this study more significant
and representative than most available studies. Overall, our findings show that production-intensive livestock farming
enterprises such as dairy cattle, use digital technologies, even if it is not possible to deduce the entire adoption. However,
although few example technologies were surveyed for goat, cow and buffalo, other trends can still be identified.
Considerably more farmers can used electronic ear tags for breeding cattle on large scale.
Farm and farmers’characteristics in Jalgaon district: In the present study, an increase in age was associated with a
decrease in the likelihood to adopt new technologies, whereas no correlation could be found for technologies already
implemented. The number of livestock units as proxy for farm size was positively correlated with both types of
technologies even though the effect was stronger for implemented than for new technologies. The agricultural area did
not matter for adoption. These findings confirm the inconsistent results from the literature for age and farm size. For
example, age and farm size were not associated to the adoption of electronic identification tools for gaot, whereas the
likelihood of adoption of nutrient abatement technologies increased with increasing farm sizes and decreased for older
farmers (Lima et al., 2018; Konrad et al., 2019). Furthermore, a recent study investigated the adoption of digital
technologies among crop, dairy and livestock producers in the USA with the results that size (expressed as hectares and
numbers of animals) was positively correlated with Internet access and level of usage and gender (women), farm income
and education level (Drewry et al., 2019). In our study, however, female farmers were less likely than male farmers to
adopt digital technologies, but the sample included only very few female farmers. Interestingly, our results further
showed that farmers using tie stall barns adopted less technology, both implemented and new, compared to farmers
using loose housing systems, likely because many technologies do not bring an added value in tie stall barns, where
cows cannot express their behavior freely. The finding that the zone correlated with technology adoption was to be
expected and confirms the results of a recent study on the adoption of precision agricultural technologies on Swiss crop
farms (Groher et al., 2020). Mountain farms in particular often generate less income (FSO, 2019b) and have to cope with
difficult production conditions, which may explain the strong negative correlation on new technology adoption.
However, small and inexpensive technologies can also support these farms. For example, activity sensors, electronic
identification tools or animal tracking can be used to remotely monitor animal behaviour or location. Moreover, precise
pasture management could help to use existing resources more efficiently. Apart from the many opportunities that the
use of digital technologies offers, some studies have explored the barriers in the adoption of digital technologies in
agriculture (Wathes et al., 2008; Drewry et al., 2019). For instance, a major challenge is the interpretation of the recorded
data because the time-varying and individual behaviour of each animal makes an interpretation difficult (Palczynski,
2016).
An additional barrier in the adoption of technologies can be the insufficient robustness of sensors (Wathes et al., 2008).
Additionally, systems of different manufacturers may be incompatible and a combination of data received from different
sensors must be transformed into usable information (Van Hertem et al., 2017). Certainly, the financial advantage is one
of the major determinants in the adoption decision (Reichardt and Jürgens, 2009; Pathak et al., 2019). The farmers’ from
Jalgaon district were having views that the use of modern technologies and smart farming is very expensive and only
profitable for larger farms, may be due to the perception of high costs and the complexity. However, there are other
technologies that are inexpensive, easy to use and do not entail enormous costs (Schrijver et al., 2016). Interestingly,
Lima et al. (2018) found that users of digital technologies are more likely to see the technologies as useful and practical
than non-adopters showing that farmers’ perceptions and beliefs are also important determinants in technology
adoption.
In Role of Biotechnology in cattle dairy farming: Biotechnology is a relatively emerging field in the dairy industry.
However, it is being touted as one of the most disrupting dairy technology of the future. The potential of dairy
biotechnology lies in the areas such as cross-breeding technology, increasing disease resistance in livestock, scientific
feeding of cows, embryo transmit technology, artificial insemination, development of new molecules and vaccines for
prevention and disease management of animals, dairy enzymes/proteins/probiotics, food-grade bio-preservatives, etc.
Breeds in animal husbandry has changed a lot with the use of breeding and gene technology. Till 1980s livestock
products demands have been met by breed substitution, cross-breeding, and within-breed selection. But these demand
in future is to be met using new techniques such as such as artificial insemination and more specific selection
techniques. Genomic selection provides more possibilities for the higher rate of genetic gain in the livestock sector. After
all genomic breeding values will be calculated from the genetic marker, rather than from pedigree and phenotypic
information in near future. The genome maps for poultry and cattle is completed and these developments provide new
opportunities for animal breeding and animal models (Lewin, 2009). Leakey (2009) reported that DNA-based tests for
genes or markers affecting traits that are difficult to measure currently, such as meat quality and disease resistance, will
be particularly useful. But genetic resources still important for helping livestock adapt to changing the climate (Thornton,
2010). Native breeds are to genetic insurance against future challenges. In combination with modem reproductive
technologies, there is potential to use frozen and stored germplasm (genetic resource banks) to support conservation
measures for the maintenance of genetic diversity in threatened species. Besides the direct application of technologically
advanced reproductive procedures, modern approaches to non-invasive endocrine monitoring play an important role in
optimizing the success of natural breeding programs (Holt and Pickard, 1999). A separate progeny-test category may be
developed for farms that collect all data electronically and have those data monitored closely. Automated data collection
along with parentage verification offers substantial opportunities for genetic improvement of overall economic merit.
Nowadays biological samples are sent laboratory for genetic analysis to identify the relevant genes responsible for
productive parameters. Also, selective breeding can reduce the need for alternative methods. Some of other examples of
dairy biotechnology products that have made headlines are animal-free ice cream by Perfect Day, livestock disease
diagnostic tools by Advanced Animal Diagnostics, bovine genetics breeding by Genus ABS India, etc. The above
mentioned list of technologies is inclusive but not exhaustive. Currently, most dairy technologies face adoption barriers
in India in general and Maharashtra in special because a large percentage of the dairy industry still comprises of small-
scale and unorganised players who lack financial means, accessibility and expertise to deploy the technology. The good
news is that dairy technological revolution has already begun in India, and it’s only a matter of time that these
technologies become common in Maharashtra also.
Factors affecting technology adoption specifically in Maharashtra and in India as whole: Lack of good indigenous
software: Absence of commercially available software with technical support, local terminology and availability in
regional languages is the single foremost factor which has prevented the large-scale usage of herd management
software in Maharashtra and India. Lack of management awareness: In most dairy farms in Maharashtra, the only
parameter in which the livestock owner is interested is the total milk yield produced by the herd every day; individual
management records are rarely maintained. Motivation to the farmers to take up computerized farm recording is a major
challenge. Lack of computer awareness: With the computer becoming omnipresent from primary schools to financial
institutions, this factor is not such an insurmountable one, especially given the fact that most modern dairy farms are
located in peri-urban areas. Cost factor: A dust-free room and stable power with adequate backup are essential that are
not affordable for every farm owner, smallholder, farmers and Kathiyawadi people raring livestock settled in Jalgaon
district in Maharashtra
Limitations and benefits of automation in dairy farms : The main focus of this study was to assess the state of automation
and mechanisation in diary farms of Jalgaon district of Maharashtra. Therefore, questions related to digitalisation in
agriculture were only one of many parts of the survey with limited scope. The selection of technologies were based on a
literature research, always with regard to technologies that were known to be relevant for India. Although attempts were
made thoroughly to chose technologies based on these criteria, it is of course possible that some technologies were
missed on the list. Furthermore, personal motives to investigate the farmers’ perceptions and possible barriers to
adoption of technology were not surveyed and are therefore a possible subject of future research, to further understand
the adoption process. The presented results are mainly in line with the existing literature and low adoption rates are as
expected, which we now evidenced by research data. The present study extends the adoption literature by deriving
knowledge from survey data combining a representative random sampling procedure with a considerably large response
rate, which provides us a representative picture of the overall farming population in Maharashtra and India. Technology
adoption, especially of digital technologies, is evolving over time. Therefore, it is beneficial to study the overall adoption
rate in different states of India or regions to get an up-to-date view on current developments that can be used to derive
knowledge on determinants for technology uptake.
SUMMARY The dairy sector assumes a great deal of significance on account of multiple reasons–for one, it has to do
with the socio-cultural affinity towards cattle and dairy products in large parts of the country, and as an industry, it
employs more than 70 million farmers. Based on estimates by the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) of India,
the demand for milk is likely to reach 180 million tonnes by 2022. Maharashtra is one of the main industrialized and
urbanized states in India with 45 percent population residing in urban areas. According to food Science, the regular
consumption of milk should be 280 grams/day. It is vastly dissimilar in the consumption of milk in Maharashtra. As per
20th Livestock Census-2019 in India, Total Bovine population (Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun and Yak) is 302.79 Million in 2019
which shows an increase of 1.0% over the previous census. The total number of cattle in the country is 192.49 million in
2019 showing an increase of 0.8 % over previous Census. The Female Cattle (Cows population) is 145.12 million,
increased by 18.0% over the previous census (2012). The total buffaloes in the country is 109.85 Million showing an
increase of about 1.0% over previous Census. The Goat population in the country in 2019 is 148.88 Million showing an
increase of 10.1% over the previous census.
Jalgaon district in Maharashtra
is known for its advances in horticulture well suited for production of cotton and banana, especially by resorting to drip
irrigation, has created a role model for cultivators in other parts of India.
There are local farmers, Kathiyawadi people and Animal Farm Houses in Jalgaon district are having cattle raised for milk
and meat.
Jalgaon district is also known for its high environmental temperature and hot humid atmosphere during summer season.
There is scarcity of research comparative study on Composition of milk, effect of heat on breeding performance,
prevalence of disases and status of new technologies in livestock management in Maharashtra in general and Jalgaon
district in special. Pertaining to available literature, there is scarcity of research work related to effect of heat on
composition, breeding performance of Sangamneri Goat, Nimari Cow and Surti Buffalo as well as disease management
and role of science and technologies involved in management. The research work was divided in following four chapters
for better understanding and to have statistically proved scientific insight on the research work under taken.
The first chapter involves
the comparative study on nutritive properties and composition of milk of
livestock selected for the study. The physico-chemical parameters of milk samples collected from different species like
buffalo, cow, and goat rared by farmenrs, farmhouse owners, and Kathiyawadi people. The second chapter is
experimentally design to evaluate the effect of heat stress (sultriness) on physiology, production and breeding
performance of livestock. The relation of production and fertility of animals are greatly influenced by management of
environment or climate. The third chapter deals with study of livestock disease management with special reference to
Sangamneri Goat, Nimari Cow and Surti Buffalo raised in different tehsils of Jalgaon district of Maharashtra. Livestock
systems in developing countries like India are characterized by rapid change, driven by factors such as population
growth, increases in the demand for livestock products as incomes rise, and urbanization. Livestock diseases contribute
to an important set of problems within livestock production systems. The fourth chapter deals with studies on new
technologies that play significant role in raising the livestock. Innovations are becoming faster, more efficient and more
accessible than before. Technology also becoming connected, we are seeing technology & biology merge together.
New technologies are shifting society that raise the livestock. Economics, values, identities and possibilities for future
generations will be influenced by technology
Milk is considered as nearly complete food for human and it is considered as the first an ideal food for the newly born
offspring due to its
high nutritive value. It supplies body building proteins, bone forming minerals and furnishes energy giving lactose and
milk fat. Besides supplying certain essential fatty acids, it contains the above nutrients in an easily digestible and
assimilable form.
It is worth to undertake the research work through first chapter that was related to analysis of components
of milk samples isolated from Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow and Surti buffalo
raised by
local farmers, Kathiyawadi people and Animal Farm houses in Jalgaon district
of Maharashtra. Using standard methods described by NDDB, analysis of milk components were carried out.
Milk samples of Surti Buffalo had higher pH, titratable acidity, total solids, solid not-fat (SNF), ash, fat, protein, lactose,
total Nitrogen and some selected minerals viz., Calcium, Phosphorous and Chloride content than Nimari cow and
Sangamneri goat. Whereas, Sangamneri goat milk samples were having higher water and magnesium content than that
of milk samples collected from Nimari cow and Surti buffalo. The results of the present part of investigation help to
conclude that milk of Surti buffalo was rich source of macro nutrients (fat, protein, lactose and selected minerals than
that of Nimari cow milk. Surti buffalo milk was more energetic, than that of milk of Nimari cow and Sangamneri goat.
Increasing human population and global warming are burning issues on the planet Earth, which affected every living
organism directly or indirectly. The largest single threat to the ecology and biodiversity of the planet in the decades to
come will be global climate disruption due to build up of human-generated greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The
greenhouse gas emission from agriculture sector is the most important factor for global warming, and livestock sector
share 18% of total greenhouse gas emissions. The productive and reproductive performances of cattle and buffaloes are
likely to be aggravated due to climate change and global warming.
India is agriculture-based country and about 70% people are depending on it for their livelihood. Human population
growth, rapid urbanization, and growing incomes in India
will lead to substantial increases in the demand for livestock products in the coming decades. Meeting this increased
demand may put substantial pressure on a wide range of natural resources such as land and water.
The cattle and buffaloes are known for their milk production and they contribute approximately 96% to total milk
production in India. As reported by BAHS (2014) the milk production in India has been reached to 132.4 million tonnes in
2012-13 with a growth rate of 3.5%, and it increased in 2018 in up to 187.7 million tonnes at a growth rate of 4% but there
is high demand of milk and it is projected that by 2030, India will be able to produce 200 million tonnes of milk (NDRI
Vision 2030). This target will be achieved if there is the optimum balance between productivity and fertility. Fertility is a
very broad term which is influenced by various factors including genetic, nutritional, hormonal, physiopathology,
management and environment or climate.
Second chapter dealts with impact of main natural physical environmental factors on livestock system including air
temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, atmospheric pressure and wind speed. All these environmental factors are
pooled to produce heat stress on animals, which is defined as any combination of environmental variables producing
conditions that are higher than the temperature range of the animal’s thermoneutral zone (TNZ). Since there was a
scarcity of research work related to study of effect of heat stress (sultriness) on physiological responses, production and
breeding performance of cattle and buffaloes, an attempt was made to find out the effect of heat stress alleviation on
physiological response, milk production and its composition, production and breeding performance of selected cattle
namely, Sangamneri Goat, Nimari Cow and Surti Buffalo of Jalgaon district in Maharashtra. The physiological responses
in the form of rectal temperature (°F), pulse rate (beats/ min) and respiratory rate (beats/ min)of Sangamneri goat, Nimari
cow and Surti Buffalo at both times (7:30 am and 1:30 pm) under hot dry (HD) and hot humid (HH) seasons.
The mean value of rectal temperature in Sangamneri goat during HD season was 98.87°F at 7:30 am and at HH it was
99.05°F. At 1:30 pm, The mean value of rectal temperature in Sangamneri goat during HD season was 100.02°F and
during HH it was 101.32°F. The mean value of pulse rate in Sangamneri goat during HD season was 50.32 beats/min at
7:30 am and at HH it was 52.69 beats/min. At 1:30 pm, the mean value of pulse rate in Sangamneri goat during HD
season was 61.28 beats/min and during HH it was 64.57 beats/min. The mean value of respiratory rate in Sangamneri
goat during HD season was 24.08 times/min at 7:30 am and at HH it was 26.78 times/min. At 1:30 pm. The mean value of
respiratory rate in Sangamneri goat during HD season was 28.75 times/min and during HH it was 34.24 times/min.
The mean value of rectal temperature in Nimari cow during HD season was 99.07°F at 7:30 am and at HH it was 99.76°F.
At 1:30 pm. The mean value of rectal temperature in Nimari cow during HD season was 100.78°F and during HH it was
101.97°F. The mean value of pulse rate in Nimari cow during HD season was 54.12 beats/min at 7:30 am and at HH it was
56.78 beats/min. At 1:30 pm, the mean value of pulse rate in Nimari cow during HD season was 64.03 beats/min and
during HH it was 65.33 beats/min. The mean value of respiratory rate in Nimari cow during HD season was 23.21
times/min at 7:30 am and at HH it was 25.65 times/min. At 1:30 pm. The mean value of respiratory rate in Nimari cow
during HD season was 26.12 times/min and during HH it was 33.27 times/min.
The mean value of rectal temperature in Surti buffalo during HD season was 99.89°F at 7:30 am and at HH it was
100.78°F. At 1:30 pm. The mean value of rectal temperature in Surti buffalo during HD season was 101.23°F and during
HH it was 101.98°F. The mean value of pulse rate in Surti buffalo during HD season was 49.59 beats/min at 7:30 am and
at HH it was 51.44 beats/min. At 1:30 pm. The mean value of pulse rate in Surti buffalo during HD season was 60.35
beats/min and during HH it was 62.87 beats/min. The mean value of respiratory rate in Surti buffalo during HD season
was 23.22times/min at 7:30 am and at HH it was 24.35 times/min. At 1:30 pm, the mean value of respiratory rate in Surti
buffalo during HD season was 27.56 times/min and during HH it was 32.23 times/min.
Overall, Surti buffalo showed higher average rectal temperatures at 7:30 am and 1:30 pm during HD and HH seasons
than that of Sangamneri goat and Nimari cow. The average values of pulse rate and respiration rate of Surti buffalo at
7:30 am and 1:30 pm during HD and HH seasons remained lower than the average values pulse rate and respiration rate
of Sangamneri goat and Nimari cow. The fluctuations in physiological responses shown by Sangamneri goat, Nimari cow
and Surti buffalo during HD and HH seasons might be due to the cumulative effect of difference in microclimatic
conditions. Thus, internal heat production as well as external heat load were reduced favouring improved physiological
parameters.
In the present study, two main methods of assessing environmental risk factors and the animals’ reaction to changing
environmental conditions were used. The first of these are a variety of different temperature-humidity indices (THIs)
expressed in absolute units that define the thermal comfort of the cows with the changing parameters of their
environment. The second are algorithms express in °C, which are intended to define the temperature as experienced by
the animal. The overall age at puberty, oestrus cycle duration, oestrus duration age at first conception, age at first
kidding, service period, kidding interval and gestation period recorded in Sangamneri goats under field conditions are as
9.94 months, 29.14 days, 47.96 hours, 10.40 months, 15.52 months, 73.55 days, 218.48 days and 148.26 days respectively
High temperature combined with a high level of humidity in spring and summer season results in physiological disorders,
affecting the digestive system, acid-base chemistry, blood hormones and finally resulting in longer service period in
cows. The cooler months with lower THI values caused decrease in service period while the months with higher THI
values above threshold level 75 were associated with increase in service period in buffaloes.
Since, it is indispensable to maintain good health of the livestock to maintain the balance of demand and supply, third
chapter was designed to study livestock disease management with special reference to
Sangamneri Goat, Nimari Cow and Surti Buffalo raised in Jalgaon district
of Maharashtra. Control of livestock pathogens will continue to be a highly important component of efficient food
production and become associated more overtly with the food security agenda. There are genetic factors and age that
are responsible for spread of disease in addition to poorly fed and unvaccinated animals easily get infected with
pathogens as well as hot and humid climate and unhygienic farm practices propagate the pathogens at a faster rate.
Animal diseases pose a big threat to the health of livestock and human beings. They cause economic loss to the farmers
by: (a) causing death of productive animals, (b) reducing production of milk, eggs or wool and (c) decreasing fertility and
reproductive capability in animals.
A questionnaire was developed to acquire information on livestock management routines that were hypothesised to be
related to biosecurity and animal disease in dairy cattle herds and smallholder livestock producers in Jalgaon district of
Maharashtra. Information on demographics and general husbandry, biosecurity, animal health management was
collected ans statistically analysed. Awareness about livestock diseases with suggestions incorporated where appropriate
were suggested at the end. Group interviews were also undertaken to gain a broader and deeper level of understanding
of the attitudes, behaviours and communication networks of smallholders in relation to biosecurity and the management
of animal health. This activity provided a follow up to the questionnaire, focussing on areas livestock diseases and
management practices. Animal health management practices included in the analysis were: (1) the frequency of livestock
inspection; (2) keeping records of animal health events; (3) contact with veterinarians; (4) actions in response to
recognizing unusual signs of disease; and (5) sources of animal health information.
The results related to the main demographic and husbandry characteristics of smallholders or livestock producers in
different tehsils of Jalgaon indicated that the most smallholders were over 40 years of age, the majority of Nimari cow
and Surti buffalo smallholders being males and Sangamneri goat producers, the majority being female. The distribution
of the number of years smallholders kept livestock was different between smallholder types (P >0.05), with Nimari
cow and Surti buffalo smallholders having kept livestock for longer than other type of smallholders. The majority of
participants kept livestock for reasons other than primary income; mainly for extra income and home consumption. In
relation to the second phase of this study, a total of 49 smallholder producers located in different parts of Jalgaon district
participated across three group interviews. The demographic characteristics of group interview smallholders were similar
to those of survey participants. Participants kept different livestock species, with most keeping Nimari cow (n = 19) and
approximately half keeping sheep on their property (n=13). In addition, some kept Sangamneri goats (n=7) and poultry
(n=4). Twelve participants only kept one livestock species (Surti buffalo, n=6; Nimari cow, n=6), whilst the rest of
smallholders kept more than one livestock species. Over 60% of participants were over 40 years of age and the median
years of experience raising livestock was 15 years, with a range from 2 to 60 years. Their properties ranged from 5 to 100
ha with a median size of 70 ha. Secondary income (n = 15) and family tradition (n = 14) were the most common reasons
for keeping livestock, followed by home consumption (n = 6). Smallholders keeping dairy Sangamneri goats having in
general better practices than other smallholders. Smallholders keeping dairy goats are more likely (P > 0.05) to
monitor their animals daily, keep animal health records and have more regular contact with veterinarians than
smallholders keeping other livestock species. Furthermore, in relation to contact with veterinarians, results from this
study suggest that a proportion of Nimari cow (16.9%) and Surti buffalo (27.9%) smallholders had never contacted a
veterinarian. Most smallholders (n = 22) didn’t hear about the Emergency Medical Services (EMS) for Animals in
Maharashtra.
Regarding the prevalence of cattle diseases in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra, the result of 18 dairy farms in 13 tehsils of
Jalgaon district incorporated the study indicated that the most common animal diseases noted during the study are Foot
rot, Foot and Mouth disease (FMD) and recently noted lumpy skin disease (LSD). FMD cause by Aphthovirus that affects
domestic livestock population of India causing heavy economic losses to the animal owners. LSD is fast spreading viral
disease of the buffalo and cow in districts of Vidarbha and Marathwada region of Maharashtra and it was recorded in the
livestock of Jalgaon district recently during study period, creating panic among dairy farmers. Livestock disease
management is based on two key components: Prevention (biosecurity) measures in susceptible herds and control
measures taken once infection occurs. Both key components were discussed in the chapter and suggested role of
surveillance, role of advanced technology and literacy in the prevention of disease.
The increased world population is demanding more reliable quality livestock products the number of farms is decreasing
but the number of animals for per farm and animal production is increasing. In addition to this trend in livestock
production, problems related to same are also increasing. The solution of these problems comes from application of
new technologies in livestock management. Hence, the aim of fourth chapter was to study incorporation of digital
technologies in raising livestock. According to Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fishery (DAHDF), the milk
productivity per lactation is only 987 kg in India as against world average of 2,038 kg. Thus, the poor productivity as well
as the quality of production and products remains a cause of concern in Indian livestock sector. Digital technology
adoption on livestock farms in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra was assessed through questionnaires related to dairy cattle
specifically buffaloes, cows and goats and data collected from respondents was statistically analysed. All respondents
had an average agricultural area of 20 ha and on average 32 livestock units per farm but with high deviations from the
mean values. The majority of all respondents managed the farm conventionally and full-time. About half of the farms
were located in the villages belonging to tehsil viz, Chopda, Yawal, Raver, Muktainagar of Jalgaon district along the
footsteps of mountains and hills of Satpuda ranges at the border of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. The
characteristics of farmers with ruminants differed only slightly from those of all farmers: most of the ruminant farms were
located in the mountains, followed by Tapi river valley and hills. It was noted that, 559 cattle farmers kept their animals in
loose housing systems, 78 kept them in tie stall barns and 37 had both husbandry systems.
Being the part of digital technologies, use of i) Cowlar that tracks metrics such as eating, sleeping, mating and even its
temperature, ii) Robotic milking machines that are enabling farmers to eliminate the pressure on physical labour,
maintain a hygienic milking process, milk the cows anytime of the day instead of following a fixed schedule and improve
the milk production, iii) cattle monitoring drones that keep track of the cattle and herd them back from fields to barns, iv)
technology that helps in detection of the freshness of milk and to store it for a longer period of time, v) Automated cattle
traffic management system has computer-controlled gates which opens and closes electronically. These gates can sort
the livestock on the basis of their readiness to milk. The livestock ready to be milked is moved to the milking area while
the others are either put in the waiting area or returned to the barns, vi) digital feed monitoring solutions which helps
farmers detect the quality of feed, manage feed inventory and understand cattle’s feeding pattern. Farm and farmers’
characteristics associated with digital technology adoption in cow, buffalo and goat farming in Jalgaon district of
Maharashtra were assessed using regression analyses. The effects for the implemented and new technologies in farm
houses in Jalgaon district slightly differed. The regression analyses showed that the type of production (organic or
conventional), the working time (full- or part-time business) and the agricultural area were not related to the adoption of
digital technologies in ruminant farming in study area. However, farmers with larger numbers of livestock units were
more likely to adopt both types of technologies than farmers keeping fewer livestock. On the other hand, age was
negatively and significantly correlated to the adoption of new digital technologies: farmers were less likely to adopt this
type of technology with increasing age. The zone, the main farm type, the region, the enterprise and the barn system
mattered for adoption. More specifically, compared with the base category Tapi river valley, a small negative effect on the
adoption of implemented digital technologies could be found for hill and mountain zones and a strong negative effect
on the adoption of new technologies for the mountain zone. Farmers with animals in tie stall barns and farmers who had
a combination of loose housing and tie stall systems were less likely to have implemented technologies compared with
the base category loose housing. Dairy biotechnology related to cross-breeding technology, increasing disease
resistance in livestock, scientific feeding of cows, embryo transmit technology, artificial insemination, development of
new molecules and vaccines for prevention and disease management of animals, dairy enzymes/proteins/probiotics,
food-grade bio-preservatives, etc. have perspective role livestock management in Jalgaon district and Maharashtra in
special and India in general. Lack of good indigenous software, lack of management awareness, lack of computer
awareness and cost of the digital technology are the factors that affected process of incorporation of technology in
livestock rearing and management.
CONCLUSION
Milk samples of Surti Buffalo had higher pH, titratable acidity, total solids, solid not-fat (SNF), ash, fat, protein, lactose,
total Nitrogen and some selected minerals viz., Calcium, Phosphorous and Chloride content than Nimari cow and
Sangamneri goat. Whereas Sangamneri goat milk samples were having higher water and magnesium content than that
of milk samples collected from Nimari cow and Surti buffalo. The results of the present part of investigation help to
conclude that milk of Surti buffalo was rich source of macro nutrients (fat, protein, lactose and selected minerals than
that of Nimari cow milk. Surti buffalo milk was more energetic, than that of milk of Nimari cow and Sangamneri goat.
The adoption of digital technologies in livestock farming in Maharshtra in general and Jalgaon district in special varies
strongly between different agricultural groups and is most common on large specialist ruminant livestock farms. The
industrial revolution has made a radical change in the production method and systems throughout the world. The net
result has been the more comfortable animal, higher production, and decreased labor. The rapid penetration of these
new age technologies will provide a further layer of sophistication of farm work and new strategies in animal production.
Future disease trends are likely to be heavily modified by disease surveillance and control technologies. In general, easy-
to-use sensors and measuring devices, for example, integrated in the milking automated system is more widespread than
data-processing technologies. Animal husbandry system also determines the use of digital technologies, with the result
that farmers with tie stall barns are less likely to use digital technologies than farmers with loose housing systems. Studies
of farmers’ personal determinants of adoption and prospects of implementation can help identify further barriers to the
adoption of digital technologies. Since most of the dairy farms are located in peri-urban areas, the economical status is
main constrains for most of livestock of farm owners.
REFERECES
1.
A.P.H.A. Standard Methods for the Examinations of Dairy Products, 12t h Ed. American Public Health Association. Inc.1967.
N.Y., USA.
2.
Abayawansa, W.D., Prabhakar, S., Singh, A.K. and Brar, P.S. Effect of climatic changes on reproductive performance of
Murrah buffaloes in Punjab: A retrospective analysis. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 2011.81(4): 334-339.
3.
Abdelgawad, A.R., B. Guamis & M. Castillo. Using a fiber optic sensor for cutting time prediction in cheese manufacture
from a mixture of cow, sheep and goat milk. J of Food Eng 2014.125: 157-158 (2014).
4. Ahmad, I.S. Gaucher, F. Rousseau, E. Beaucher, M. Piot, J.F. Grongnet & F. Gaucheronl. Effects of acidification on
physico-chemical characteristics of buffalo milk: a comparison with cow’s milk. Food
Chem.2008.106: 11-17.
5. AICRP (All India Coordinated Research Project) report 2007: Genetic studies on performance of important indigenous
breeds (Hariana and Ongole) and their improvement through selection.
6. Alexander, D. J. An overview of the epidemiology of avian influenza. Vaccine 2007.25, 5637–44.
7. Alexander, D. J. A review of avian influenza in different bird species. Vet. Microbiol. 2000.74, 3–13.
8. Ambrose J, Drost M, Monson R, Rutledge J, Leibfried-Rutledge M, Thatcher M-J, et al. Efficacy of timed embryo
transfer with fresh and frozen in vitro produced embryos to increase pregnancy rates in heat-stressed dairy cattle. J Dairy
Sci. 1999; 82(11):2369–76.
9. Amundson, J.L., Mader, T.L., Rasby, R.J. and Hu, Q.S. Environmental effects on pregnancy rate in beef cattle. J. Anim.
Sci., 2006.84: 3415-3420
10.
AOAC, Official Methods of Analysis International, 17th Ed. 2000..AOAC, Washington, DC
11. Arora R., N. Bhojak and R. Joshi. Comparative Aspects of Goat and Cow Milk. 2013.Vol. 2 Issue 1,p.07-10
12. Asif Mahmood and Sumaira Usman. A comparative study on physicochemical parameters of milk samples collected
form buffalo, cow, goat and sheep of Gujrat, Pakistan. P.J.of Nutrition.2010.9 (12) 1192-1197.
13.
Aslin H, Mazur N. Biosecurity Awareness and Peri-urban Landholders—A Case Study Approach. Canberra: Bureau of Rural
Sciences, Common wealth of Australia (2005).
14. Audarya S.D. Foot-and-Mouth Disease in India: Past, Present and Future Outlook - A Review 2020. DOI:
10.5772/intechopen.93348
15.
Aware A.M. and U.A. Kshirsagar (Belorkar) Design of Milkotester for Fat and CLR Measurement using Arduino
Microcontroller. 2017 .Vol. 4, Issue 5.1-5.
16. Babayan, V.K. Medium chain length fatty acid esters and their medical and nutritional application. J. Am. Oil Chem.
Soc., 1981. 59: 49-51
17.
Badinga L, Thatcher W, Diaz T, Drost M, Wolfenson D. Effect of environmental heat stress on follicular development and
steroidogenesis in lactating Holstein cows. Theriogenology. 1993; 39(4):797–810.
18. Baeta F.C., Meador N.F., Shanklin M.D., Johnson H.D. Equivalent temperature index at temperatures above the
thermoneutral for lactating dairy cows. ASAE Paper No. 874015. Amer Soc Agric Engr (ASAE), 1987. St. Joseph
19.
BAHS, Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics. Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India.2014. 20.
BAHS, Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics. Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of
Agriculture, Govt of India. 2014 21.
Barkema HW, von Keyserlingk M, Kastelic J, Lam T, Luby C, Roy J-P, LeBlanc S, Keefe G and Kelton D. Invited review:
changes in the dairy industry affect- ing dairy cattle health and welfare. J of Dairy Sci 2015.98, 7426–45.
22. Beale R, Fairbrother J, Inglis A, Trebeck D. One Biosecurity: A Working Partnership. 2008. Quarantine and Biosecurity
Review Panel, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry).
23. Ben Salem H, Smith T. Feeding strategies to increase small ruminant production in dry environments. Small Rumin
Res. 2008.77:174–194.
24. Bhat P N and Das N. Report of the working group on Animal Husbandry and Dairying for the Tenth five-year plan
(2002– 2007), Government of India (GoI), Planning Commission, January 2002, New Delhi.
25.
Bhatia, A; Bhojak, N. and Gakkhar, N. Comparative Study on Physicochemical Properties of Various Milk Samples. Intern’l
J.of Recent Sci. Res. 2015. (6) pp: 4436-4439
26. Bhosale S.S., P.A.Kahate, K.Kamble, V.M.Thakare and S.G.Gubbawar. Effect of lactation on physico-chemical properties
of local goat milk. Vet.World, 2009. 2:17-19.
27.
Bianca W.Relative importance of dry- and wet-bulb temperatures in causing heat stress in cattle Nature, 1962.195, pp.
251-252
28. Bio-Era (Bio Economic Research Associates). 2008 Economic impact of selected infectious diseases. See
http://www. bio-era.net /reports /biosecurity /bsec_econ_impact.html.
29. Birthal Pratap S and Jha A K. 2005. Economic losses due to various constraints in dairy production in India. Indian J of
Ani.Sci. 75: 1470–75.
30. Blowey, RW. 1996: Laminitis (Coriosis) - Major risk factors. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary
Conference, January 1996, p. 613-14
31. Bohmanova, J., Misztal, I., and Cole, J. B. Temperature-humidity indices as indicators of milk production losses due to
heat stress. J of dairy sci., 2007. 90(4), 1947-1956.
32. Bond T, Kelly C. The globe thermometer in agricultural research. Agric Eng. 1955; 36(4):251–5.
33. Boonkum, W., Misztal, I., Duangjinda, M., Pattarajinda, V.,Tumwasorn, S. and Buaban, S. Genetic effects of heat stress
on days open for Thai Holstein crossbreds. J.Dairy Sci., 2011.94: 1592-1596.
34.
Boros, V., Herian, K. and Krcal, Z. Variations in mineral content of goat milk during lactation. Prum. Potravin 1989. 40:
312-314. 35. Buffington D.E, Collazo-Arochu A, Canton H.H, Pritt D, Thatcher W.W, Collier R.J. Black globe-humidity
index (BGHI) as comfort equation for cows. Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. 1981, 34:711.
36.
Buffington, D.E., Collazo-Arochu, A., Canton, H.H., Pritt, D., Thatcher, W.W.
and
Collier, R.J. Black globe-humidity index (BGHI) as comfort equation for cows. Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. 1981.34: 711-
714.
37. Chand R. and S.S. Raju. Livestock Sector Composition and Factors Affecting its Growt. Ind. Jn. of Agri. Econ.2008. Vol.
63,198-210
38. Chander Mahesh, Triveni Dutt, R K Ravikumar and B Subrahmanyeswari. Livestock technology transfer service in
India: A review. Indian J of Animal Sci. 2010 Vol 80 (11): 1115–25.
39.
Cohen J.E. How Many People Can The Earth Support? New York: Norton; 1995. This is a highly readable, critical
assessment of the widely varying estimates of Earth’s carrying capacity.
40. Colditz PJ, Kellaway RC. The effect of diet and heat stress on feed intake, growth, and nitrogen metabolism in
Friesian, F1 Brahman × Friesian, and Brahman heifers. Aust J Agric Res. 1972; 23(4):717–25.
41. Cornou C. Automation systems for farm animals: Potential impacts on the human-animal relationship and on animal
welfare. Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary J of Interactions of Peop & Ani. 2009. 22:213-220. DOI:
10.2752/175303709X457568
42.
Costa, A., Lopez-Villalobos, N., Sneddon, N.W., Shalloo, L., Franzoi, M., De Marchi, M., & Penasa M. Invited review: Milk
lactose – Current status and future challenges in dairy cattle.
J of Dairy Sci, 2019 102, 5883-5898.
43. Da Silva RG, Maia AS, de Macedo Costa LL.Index of thermal stress for cows (ITSC) under high solar radiation in
tropical environments. Int J Biometeorol. 2015.59(5):551–559
44.
Dadasaheb Navale, Shelley Gupta Comparative Study of Buffalo Milk and Cow Milk Samples Containing Reducing Sugar
and Solid Not Fat 2016. Intern’l J of Latest Tech in Eng, Manag’t & App Sci. 2016 Volume V, Issue V, Page 36
45.
DAHDF. AHS-12,
Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture,
2010.Government of India.
46.
Das K S, J K Singh, G Singh, R C Upadhyay, R Malik and P S Oberoi. Heat stress alleviation in lactating buffaloes: Effect on
physiological response, metabolic hormone, milk production and composition Indian J. of Ani. Sci..2014.84 (3): 275–280.
47. Das K S, Singh G, Paul S S, Mailk R, Oberoi and Deb S M. Physiological responses and performance of Nili-Ravibuffalo
calves under different washing frequency during hot summer months in tropics. Tropical Animal Health and Production
2011.43(1):35–39
48. Das R, Sailo L, Verma N, Bharti P, Saikia J. Impact of heat stress on health and performance of dairy animals: a review.
Vet World. 2016; 9(3):260.
49. Das, G.K. and Khan, F.A. Summer anoestrus in buffalo - A review. Reprod. Domest. Anim., 2010.45: e483-e494.
50.
Dash S, Chakravarty A.K, Sah V, Jamuna V, Behera R, Kashyap N, Deshmukh B. Influence of temperature and humidity on
pregnancy rate of Murrah buffaloes. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 2015; 28(7):943–950.
51. Dash S,
Chakravarty A.K, Singh A, Sah V, Shivahre P.R, Panmei A. Identification of best temperature humidity index model for
pregnancy rate of Murrah buffaloes in a subtropical climate. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 2015; 68(1):45–49.
52.
Dash S, Chakravarty AK, Singh A, Upadhyay A, Singh M, Yousuf S. Effect of heat stress on reproductive performances of
dairy cattle and buffaloes: A review, Vet. World, 2016.9(3): 235-244. 53.
Dash S. Genetic evaluation of fertility traits in relation to heat stress in Murrah buffaloes. Karnal, Haryana, India: M.V.Sc.
Thesis, ICAR-NDRI (Deemed University); 2013.
54. Dash S., A. K. Chakravarty, A.Singh, A.Upadhyay, M. Singh and S. Yousuf. Effect of heat stress on reproductive
performances of dairy cattle and buffaloes: A review. 2016 Vet. World, EISSN: 2231-0916 Vol.9. P.234-244.
55.
David Silverman. Interpreting Qualitative Data. 2019. Sage Publications, London.
56.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 1/55

Davies, D.T. and White, J.C.D. The determination ofcalcium and magnesium in milk and milk diffusate. J. Dairy Res.,
1962.29: 285-296. 57.

De Rensis, F. and Scaramuzzi, R.J. Heat stress and seasonal effects on reproduction in the dairy cow: A review.
Theriogenology, 2003.60: 1139-1151.
58. Delgado C, Rosegrant M, Steinfeld H, ehui, S and Courbois, C. Livestock to 2020–The next food revolution. Food,
agriculture and the environment discussion paper 28.1999.IFPRI/ FAO/ILRI. 59.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 2/55

Delgado C. Rising demand for meat and milk in developing countries: implications for grasslands-based livestock
production. In Grassland: a global resource (ed. McGilloway D. A.), 2005. pp. 29–39 The Netherlands: Wageningen
Academic Publishers. 60.

Deokar D.K., Lawar V.S. Pawar B.K., and Andhale R.R. Breed characteristics of Sangamneri goats. Indian J.of Small Rumi.
2007.13: 213- 215.
61.
Desjeux, T.F. Nutritional value of goat’s milk. Lait, 1993.73(5): 573-580.
62.
Dikmen S, Alava E, Pontes E, Fear J, Dikmen B, Olson T, et al. Differences in thermoregulatory ability between slick-haired
and wild-type lactating Holstein cows in response to acute heat stress. J Dairy Sci. 2008; 91(9):3395–402.
63. Dohoo IR, Martin SW, Stryhn H. Veterinary Epidemiological Research. 2nd ed. 2009, VER Inc.: Charlottetown
64. Drewry JL, Shutske JM, Trechter D, Luck BD and Pitman L. Assessment of digital technology adoption and access
barriers among crop, dairy and livestock producers in Wisconsin. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 2019.165,
104960
65. Duraisamy P. Effects of Education and Extension contacts on Agricultural production. Indian J of Agri Eco 1992.47:
205–14.
66. East I, Martin P, Langstaff I, Iglesias R, Sergeant E, Garner M. Assessing the delay to detection and the size of the
outbreak at the time of detection of incursions of foot and mouth disease in Australia. Prevent Vet Med. 2016. 123:1–11.
doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2015.12.005 67. Edwards J.P, Rue BTD and Jago J.G. Evaluating rates of technology adoption
and milking practices on New Zealand dairy farms. Ani. Prod. Sci. 2015.55, 702–09.
68. Eigenberg RA, Brown-Brandl TM, Nienaber JA, Hahn G.L. Dynamic response indicators of heat stress in shaded and
non-shaded feedlot cattle, part 2: predictive relationships. Biosyst Eng, 2005. 91(1):111–118
69. El-Khashab Mona A. Physiological and productive responses to amelioration of heat stress in lactating buffaloes
under hot summer conditions in Egypt. 2010. Available at: http: //www.spsa-egy.org/?p=835.
70. El-Tarabany, M.S. and El-Bayoumi, K.M. Reproductive performance of backcross Holstein x Brown Swiss and their
Holstein contemporaries under subtropical environmental conditions. Theriogenology, 2015.83: 444-448.
71.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 3/55

Emanuelson Ulf, Karin Sjöström and Nils Fall.Biosecurity and animal disease management in organic and conventional
Swedish dairy herds: a questionnaire study. Acta Vet Scand.2018. 60:23. 72.

Erickson, P. S., & Kalscheur, K. F. Nutrition and feeding of dairy cattle. Animal Agriculture, 2020.157–180.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817052-6.00009-4
73.
FAO 2010: Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations statistical databases.
74.
FAO Project on Livestock Industrialisation, Trade and Social-Health-Environment Impacts in Developing Countries; FAO,
2003b Rome.
75. FAO Trade Reforms and Food Security: Conceptualizing the Linkages, Commodities and Trade Division, FAO, 2003a
Rome.
76. FAO: Manual on Livestock Disease Surveillance and Information Systems, 1999.FAO, Rome
77.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 4/55

Fassio, F., Facioni, M.S., & Guagnini, F. Lactose maldigestion, malabsorption, and intolerance: A comprehensive review
with a focus on current management and future perspectives. Nutrients, 2018.10, 1599-1610. 78.

Fernihough A. mfx: marginal effects, odds ratios and incidence rate ratios for GLMs. The Comprehensive R Archive
Network, 2019, Belfast, United Kingdom.
79. Fishbein M, Ajzen I. Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research. 1975 Reading,
MA: Addison-Wesley.
80.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 5/55

Fiske, C.H. and Subbarow, Y. The colorimetric determination of phosphorous. J. Biol. Chem., 1925. 66(2): 375-400. 81.
Flower, F. C. and Weary, D. M. Effect of hoof pathologies on subjective assessments of dairy cow gait. J. Dairy,
2006.volume 153, pp 197- 202. 82. FSO (Federal Statistical Office) 2019b. Landwirtschaft und Ernährung: Taschenstatistik
(Agriculture and food: pocket statistics). Retrieved on 07 January 2019 from
https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/aktuell/neue- veroeffentlichungen.gnpdetail.2019-0344.html
83. Ganaie A H, Shanker G, Bumla N A, hasura R S, Mir N A, Wani S A and Dudhatra G B. Biochemical and physiological
changes during thermal stress in bovines. J of Vet Sci and Tech. 2013.4:126. 84.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 6/55

Garcia-Ispierto I, Lopez-Gatius F, Bech-Sabat G, Santolaria P, Yaniz J.L, Nogareda C, De Rensis F, Lopez-Bejar M.

Climate factors affecting conception rate of high producing dairy cows in northeastern Spain. Theriogenology.
2007;67:1 379–1385. 85.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 7/55

Garcia-Ispierto, I., Lopez-Gatius, F., Bech-Sabat, G., Santolaria, P., Yaniz, J.L., Nogareda, C., De Rensis, F.

and

100% MATCHING BLOCK 8/55

Lopez-Bejar, M. Climate factors affecting conception rate of high producing dairy cows in northeastern Spain.
Theriogenology, 2007.67: 1379-1385. 86.

Gargiulo JI, Eastwood CR, Garcia SC and Lyons N.A. Dairy farmers with larger herd sizes adopt more precision dairy
technologies. J of Dairy Sci. 2018.101, 5466–5473. 87.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 9/55

Garry AW, Chritine M, Bruhn JM Reported adoption of dietary fat and finer recommendations among consumers. J
Ame Dietetic Assoc. 2000.100: 52-8. 88. Gaughan J.B, Mader T.L, Holt S.M, Lisle A. A new heat load index for feedlot
cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 2008; 86:226–234. 89.

Gaughan JB, Mader TL, Holt SM,

Lisle A. A new heat load index for feedlot cattle. J Anim Sci 2008.86:226–234
90.
Gebremedhin KG, Hillman PE, Lee CN, Collier RJ, Willard ST, Arthington JD, et al. Sweating rates of dairy cows and beef
heifers in hot conditions. Trans ASABE. 2008; 51(6):2167–78.
91.

86% MATCHING BLOCK 10/55

Getaneh G, Mebrat A, Wubie A and Kendie H Review on Goat Milk Composition and its Nutritive Value. J. of Nutri. and
Health Sci. 2016.Vol.3 (4), p.1-10. 92. Ghada Z. A. Soliman Comparison of Chemical and Mineral Content Of Milk from
Human, Cow, Buffalo, Camel and Goat in Egypt. 2005. Vol., 21: 116 – 130. 93. Gudev D, Popova-Ralcheva S, Moneva P,
Aleksiev Y, Peeva T,Ilieva

and Penchev

96% MATCHING BLOCK 11/55

P. Effect of heat stress on some physiological and biochemical parameters in buffaloes. Italian

J of Ani.Sci. 2007.6 (suppl. 2):1325–28.

94.
 100% MATCHING BLOCK 12/55

Gudev D, S. Popova-Ralcheva, P. Moneva, Y. Aleksiev, T. Peeva, Y. Ilieva, P. Penchev. Effect of heat-stress on some
physiological and biochemical parameters in buffaloes.2007. Italian

J of Ani. Sci., 6:sup2, 1325-1328.

95. Guest G, MacQueen K M, Namey E E. Applied Thematic Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: 2012.Sage Publications. 96.
Gulzar Wangde, #Dairy products startup in #Konkan (Maharashtra) Return to the Roots.2019
97.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 13/55

Guzeler, N., Say, D. and Kaçar, A. Compositionalchanges of Saanen X Kilis goats’ milk during lactation. 2010. GIDA,
35(5): 325-330. 98. Habeeb, A. A. M., A. E. Gad, A. A. EL-Tarabany and M. A. A. Atta. Negative Effects of Heat Stress on
Growth and Milk Production of Farm Animals.Journal of Animal Husbandry and Dairy Science 2018. Vol.2, Issue 1, PP 1-
12. 99.

Hadorn D C and Stärk KD. Evaluation and optimization of surveillance systems for rare and emerging infectious diseases.
Vet Res. 2008. 39:1.doi: 10.1051/vetres:2008033
100.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 14/55

Haenlein, G.F. Producing quality goat milk. Int. J. Anim. Sci., 1993.8: 79-84. 101. Hahn G.L, Mader T.L, Eigenberg R.A.
Perspectives on development of thermal indices for animal studies and management. Proceeding Symposium.
Interactions between Climate and Animal Production. EAAP Technical Series No. 7. 2003:31–44. 102. Hahn, G.L.,
Mader, T.L. and Eigenberg, R.A. Perspectives on development of thermal indices for animal studies and management.
In: Proceeding Symposium. Interactions between Climate and Animal Production. EAAP Technical Series 2003.No. 7;
p31-44. 103. Hammer, B.W. and Bailey, D.E. A rapid volumetric method for approximate estimation of chloride in milk.
Research Bulletin No. 41. 1917. Agricultural Experiment Station Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts.
104.

Hansen P, Areéchiga C. Strategies for managing reproduction in the heat-stressed dairy cow. J Anim Sci. 1999; 77
(suppl_2):36–50.
105. Hansen, P.J. Exploitation of genetic and physiological determinants of embryonic resistance to elevated temperature
to improve embryonic survival in dairy cattle during heat stress. Theriogenology, 2007.68(1): S242-S249
106.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 15/55

Harris B. and K.C. Bachman Nutritional and Management Factors Affecting Solids-Not-Fat, Acidity and Freezing Point of
Milk. Original publication. University of Florida.1988. Reviewed June 2003.DS25, 1-5. 107.

Hatfield JL.The effects of Climate Change on Livestock Production. Production Management Feature Articles. USDA
2009. Online: http://www.thepigsite.com/articles/2296/the-effects-of-climate-change-on-livestock production.
108. Hayes L, Woodgate R, Rast L, Toribio J-ALML, Hernández-Jover M.Understanding animal health communication
networks among smallholder livestock producers in Australia using stakeholder analysis. Prevent Vet Med.2017.144:89–
101.
109. Hernández-Jover M, Hayes L, Woodgate R, Rast L and Toribio J-ALML.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 16/55

Animal Health Management Practices among Smallholder Livestock Producers in Australia and Their Contribution to
the Surveillance System. Front. Vet. Sci. 2019. 6:191. 110.

Hernández-Jover M, Hayes L, Woodgate R, Rast L and Toribio J-ALML

Animal Health Management Practices Among Smallholder Livestock Producers in Australia and Their Contribution to the
Surveillance System. Front. Vet. Sci. 2019.6:191.
111.
Hill T, Bateman H II, Aldrich J, Schlotterbeck R. Comparisons of housing, bedding, and cooling options for dairy calves. J
Dairy Sci. 2011; 94(4):2138–46.
112. Hollier C, Reid M. Small Farms—Valued Contributors to Healthy Rural Communities. 2007. Canberra: Rural Industries
Research and Development Corporation.
113. Holt WV, Pickard AR. Role of reproductive technologies and genetic resource banks in animal conservation. Reviews
of Repro. 1999. 4(3):143-150.
114. Hooda O K and Singh G. Effect of thermal stress on feed intake, plasma enzymes and blood biochemicals in buffalo
heifers. Indian J of Ani. Nutri. 2010.27: 122–27.
115. IFAD (The International Fund for Agricultural Development) ‘The RuralPoor’ in World Poverty Report, 2002.IFAD,
Rome
116.

97% MATCHING BLOCK 17/55

Imran M., Khan H.,Hassan S.S. and R.Khan. Physiochemcial characteristis of various milk samples available in Pakistan.
2008. J.Zhejiang Uni.Sci.B, 9:546-551. 117. Indu S.and Pareek A. A Review: Growth and Physiological Adaptability of
Sheep to Heat Stress under Semi –Arid Environment. 2015 Intern’ J of Emerg. Trends in Sci and Tech.Vol 2 (9)p.3188-
3196 118.

International Fund for Agricultural Development IFDA) Livestock and climate change.Livestock thermatic papers. 2009.
Available online at www.ifad.org/irkm/index.tm.
119. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) Report, IPCC Working Group 1 Report on the Physical Science
Basis of the Sixth Assessment. 2021 https://www.un.org/sg/en/content
120. IPCC, (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). Climate Change: Synthesis Report; Summary for Policymakers.
2014. Available from: https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/ syr/ AR5_ SYR_ FINAL_ SPM. .
121. Ipema AH, Holster HC, Hogewerf PH, Bleumer EJB. Towards an Open Development Environment for Recording and
Analysis of Dairy Farm Data.2012
122. Jalvingh, A. W.; Nielen, M.; Dijkhuizen, A. A. and Morris, R. S. A computerized decision support system for contagious
animal disease control. Pig News Information 1995. 16 (1): 9–12.
123.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 18/55

James, C.S. Determination of fat content of dairy products by the Gerber method. Analytical chemistry of food. Blacki
Academic and Professionals, an imprint of Champan and Hall, Glasgow, UK. 1995. Pp: 93-95. 124. Javaid SB, Gadahi JA,
Khaskeli M, Bhutto MB, Kumbher S, Panhwar AH. Physical and chemical quality of market milk sold at
healthline.Tandojam, Pakistan. 2009 Vet. J. 29(1): 27-31. 125.

Joshi B C and Tripathi K C. Heat stress effect on weight gain and related physiological responses of buffalo calves. J. of
Vet.Physio. and Allied Sci. 1991.9: 33– 43.
126. Joshi B C, Joshi H B, Guha S and Ahmad M S.Physiological responses of Murrah buffalo heifers to hot arid and hot
humid microenvironment. J of Vet. Physio. & Allied Sci. 1982.1:34–40.
127. Jousan F, Hansen P. Insulin-like growth factor-I as a survival factor for the bovine preimplantation embryo exposed
to heat shock. Biol Reprod. 2004; 71(5):1665–70.
128. Jousan FD, Hansen PJ. Insulin-like growth factor-I promotes resistance of bovine preimplantation embryos to heat
shock through actions independent of its anti-apoptotic actions requiring PI3K signaling. Mol Reprod Dev. 2007;
74(2):189–96.
129. Kaewlamun, W., Chayaratanasin, R., Virakul, P., Andrew, A.P., Humblot, P., Suadsong, S., Tummaruk, P. and
Techakumphu, M. Differences of periods of calving on days open of dairy cows in different regions and months of
Thailand. Thai J.
 98% MATCHING BLOCK 19/55

Vet. Med., 2011.41(3): 315-320. 130. Kanwal Rashida, Toqeer Ahmed, Bushra Mirza. Comparative Analysis of Quality of
Milk Collected from Buffalo, Cow, Goat and Sheep of Rawalpindi/Islamabad Region in Pakistan. 2004. Asian

95% MATCHING BLOCK 20/55

of Plant Sci ISSN : 1812-5697 131. Kanwal, R, T. Ahmad and B. Mirza. Comparative analysis of quality of milk collected
from buffalo, cow, goat and sheep of Rawalpindi/Islamabad region in Pakistan. Asian J. Plant Sci. 2004.3(3):300-305.
132. Kapadiya D. B. Darshna B. P., Amit K. Jain, Bhavbhuti M. M. Comparison of Surti goat milk with cow and buffalo
milk for gross composition, nitrogen distribution, and selected minerals content. 2016. Vet World, EISSN: 2231-0916
Vol.9.p.710-716. 133.

Kearney AT. Technology and Innovation for the Future of Production: Accelerating Value Creation.
Future_of_Production_2017.pdf 134.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 21/55

Khan F.A, Prasad S, Gupta H.P. Effect of heat stress on pregnancy rates of crossbred dairy cattle in Terai region of
Uttarakhand, India. Asian Pac. J. Reprod. 2013; 2(4):277–279. 135.

Khan, F.A., Prasad, S. and

100% MATCHING BLOCK 22/55

Gupta, H.P. Effect of heat stress on pregnancy rates of crossbred dairy cattle in Terai region of Uttarakhand, India. Asian
Pac. J. Reprod., 2013.2(4):277-279. 136.

Khodaei-Motlagh, M., Shahneh, A.Z., Masoumi, R. and Derensis, F. Alterations in reproductive hormones during heat
stress in dairy cattle. Afr. J. Biotechnol., 2011.10(29): 5552-5558. 48.
137. Kibler H.H.Environmental physiology and shelter engineering with special reference to domestic animals. LXVII. 1964
.Thermal effects of various temperature-humidity combinations on Holstein cattle as measured by eight physiological
responses.
138. Kolhapure R.M., R P Deolankar, C D Tupe, C G Raut, A Basu, B M Dama, S D Pawar, M V Joshi, V S Padbidri, M K
Goverdhan, K BanerjeeInvestigation of buffalopox outbreaks in Maharashtra State during 1992-1996. Indian J Med Res.
1997.10:23-29. 139. Konrad MT, Nielsen HØ, Pedersen AB and Elofsson K. Drivers of farmers’ investments in nutrient
abatement technologies in five Baltic Sea countries. Ecol. Econo. 2019.159, 91–100. 140.

92% MATCHING BLOCK 23/55

Kris H.K. The history of domestication of goats. J Archaeolo Sci 2008.28: 61-79. 141. Kumar A. and Ambika Sharma
Nutritional and Medicinal Superiority of Goat Milk over Cow Milk in Infants. Inter’l J of Pediatric Nursing 2016 .Vol 2
Number 1, 47-50 142. Kumar R., Sangwan, R.and Mann,B. ALaboratory Manual on Chemical Analysis of Milk Protein.
National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.2012.p27-29. 143.

Kumar, A. and Gandhi, R.S. Evaluation of pooled lactation production and reproduction traits in Sahiwal cattle. Indian J.
Anim. Sci., 2011.81(6): 600-604.
144. Kurihara M. Energy requirements and feed of dairy cows under high temperature conditions. Jpn Agric Res Q. 1996;
30:107–12.
145. Laanen M, Maes D, Hendriksen C, Gelaude P, De Vliegher S, Rosseel Y, et al. Pig, cattle and poultry farmers with a
known interest in research have comparable perspectives on disease prevention and on-farm biosecurity.Prevent Vet
Med. 2014. 115:1–9
146. Leakey R. Impacts of AKST (agricultural knowledge science and technology) on developmentand sustainability goals.
In: BD MI, Herren HR, Wakhungu J, Watson RT, editors. Agriculture at a crossroads. Washington, DC: Island Press. 2009.
pp. 145-253
147. Lewin HA. It's a bull's market. Science. 2009; 323:478-479. DOI: 10.1126/science.1173880
148.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 24/55

Liesel Laubscher and Louwrens Hoffman An Overview of Disease-Free Buffalo Breeding Projects with Reference to the
Different Systems Used in South Africa. Sustainability, 2012.4, 3124-3140 149.

Lima E, Hopkins T, Gurney E, Shortall O, Lovatt F, Davies P, Williamson G and Kaler J. Drivers for precision livestock
technology adoption: a study of factors associated with adoption of electronic identification technology by commercial
sheep farmers in England and Wales. 2018. PLoS ONE 13, e0190489.
150.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 25/55

Lopez, A., Collins, W.F. and Williams, H.L. Essential elements, cadmium and lead in raw and pasteurized cow and goat
milk. J. Dairy Sci., 1985.68(8): 1878-1886. 151. Maddison The world economy: historical statistics. 2003 Paris, France.
152.

Mader T.L, Frank K.L, Arrington Jr. J.A, Hahn G.L, Nienaber J.A. Potential climate effects on warm season livestock
production in the Greats plains. Climate change. 2009.97:529 – 541.
153. Mader T.L, Johnson L.J, Gaughan J.B. A comprehensive index for assessing environmental stress in animals. J Anim
Sci .2010.88:2153–2165
154. Mader TL, Davis MS, Brown-Brandl T Environmental factors influencing heat stress in feedlot cattle. J Dairy Sci.
2006.84(3):712–719
155.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 26/55

Mahboba I.A.A. and I.E.M. El Zubeir. The compositional quality of raw milk produced by some dairy cow’s farms in
Khartoum state, Sudan.2007.Res.J.Agri.Bio.Sci. 3, 902-906. 156. Mahmood, A. and Usman, S. A comparative study on
the physicochemical parameters of milk samples collected from buffalo, cow, goat and sheep of Gujarat, Pakistan. Pak.
J. Nutr., 2010. 9(12): 1192-1197. 157.

Malthus TR. An Essay on the Principle of Population as It Affects the Future Improvement of Society. London: Johnson;
1798.
158. Marai I, Habeeb A, Daader A, Yousef H. Effects of Egyptian subtropical summer conditions and the heat-stress
alleviation technique of water spray and a diaphoretic on the growth and physiological functions of Friesian calves. J Arid
Environ. 1995; 30 (2):219–25.
159. MaraiIFFandHaeebAAM.2010.Buffalo’sbiologicalfunctions as affected by heat stress- A review. Livestock Sci.127: 89–
109.
160. Marcillac-Embertson N, Robinson P, Fadel J, Mitloehner FM. Effects of shade and sprinklers on performance,
behavior, physiology, and the environment of heifers. J Dairy Sci. 2009. 92(2):506–17.
161.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 27/55

Marta Hernández-Jover, Lynne Hayes, Robert Woodgate, Luzia Rast and Jenny-Ann L. M. L. Toribio Animal health
management practices among smallholder livestock producers in Australia and their contribution to the surveillance
system. Front. Vet. Sci., 2019. Vol 6 Article 191.p.1-14. 162.

Maurya VP, Naqvi SMK, Joshi A, Mittal JP. 2007. Effect of high temperature stress on physiological responses of Malpura
sheep. Indian J Anim Sci. 77:1244–1247.
163.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 28/55

McCarthy O.J. Physical and Physico-Chemical Properties of Milk, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
2002 Elsevier Ltd. 164. McGowan M.R, Mayer D.G, Tranter W, Shaw M, Smith C, Davison T.M. Relationship between
temperature humidity index and conception efficiency of dairy cattle in Queensland. Proc. Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod. 1996;
21:454. 165.

McGowan, M.R., Mayer, D.G., Tranter, W., Shaw, M., Smith, C.

and

100% MATCHING BLOCK 29/55

Davison, T.M. Relationship between temperature humidity index and conception efficiency of dairy cattle in
Queensland. Proc. Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1996. 21: 454. 166.

McInerney, J. P., K.S. Howe and J.A. Schepers. A framework for theeconomic analysis of disease in farm livestock.” Prev
Vet Medi. 1992.12:137-154.
167. McManus C, Paluda GR, Louvandini H, Gugel R, Sasaki LCB, Paiva S.R. Heat tolerance in Brazilian sheep:
physiological and blood parameters. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2009.41:95–101.doi:10.1007/s11250-008-9162-1.
168.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 30/55

Merin, U., Rosenthal, I. and Maltz, E. The composition of goat milk as affected by nutritional parameters.
Milchwissenschaft, 1988.43(6): 363-365. 169.

Mishra S.R. and Palai T.K. Importance of heat shock protein 70 in livestock at cellular level. J Mol Pathophysiol. 2014.
3(2):30–2.
170. Moghaddam A, Karimi I, Pooyanmehr M. Effects of short-term cooling on pregnancy rate of dairy heifers under
summer heat stress. Vet Res Commun. 2009; 33(6):567–75.
171. Mortensen, K. 1994: Bovine laminitis (diffuse aseptic pododermatitis) clinical and pathological findings. Proceedings
of the International Conference on Bovine Lameness, Banff, Canada, 1994, p. 210-226.
172. Morton J and Matthewman R. 1996. Improving Livestock Production through Extension; Information needs,
Institutions and opportunities. Network paper 12, London, ODI 173.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 31/55

Morton J.M, Tranter W.P, Mayer D.G, Jonsson N.N. Effect of environmental heat on conception rates in lactating dairy
cows: Critical periods of exposure. J. Dairy Sci. 2007; 90:2271–2278. 174.

Morton, J.M., Tranter, W.P., Mayer, D.G. and

Jonsson, N.N. Effect of environmental heat on conception rates inlactating dairy cows: Critical periods of exposure. J.
Dairy Sci., 2007.90: 2271-2278.
175.
MSPI. Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (2018-2019). Available at
http://statisticstimes.com/economy/sectorwise-gdp-contribution-of-india.php accessed on 31st May, 2019.
176.

72% MATCHING BLOCK 32/55

Muhammad Salman, Muhammad Khaskheli, Israr-Ul-Haq, Aisha Rahman Talpur. Comparative studies on nutritive
quality of buffalo and cow milk. Intern’l Jl of Res in App, Natural and Social Sci Vol. 2, Issue 12, 2014, 69-78 177.

Murphy, S. P. and Allen, L. H. Nutritional importance of animal source foods. J. Nutr. 2003.133, 3932S–3935S.
178. Nabenishi, H., Ohta, H., Nishimoto, T., Morita, T.,Ashizawa, K. and Tsuzuki, Y. Effect of the temperature humidity index
on body temperature and conception rate of lactating dairy cows in southwestern Japan. J.Reprod. Dev., 2011.57: 450-
456.
179. National Research Council. A guide to environmental research on animals. Nat. Academy of Sci, 1971.Washington.
180. NDDB. (2019). National dairy development board. Available at
https://www.nddb.coop/information/stats/milkprodindia accessed on 10th June, 2019. 181. NDRI Vision 2030. Karnal,
Haryana, India: National Dairy Research Institute;
182. NDRI Vision 2030. National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, India. 183. Ordolff D. Introduction of
electronics into milking technology. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 2001. 30, 125–149.
184. Oseni, S., Mistzal, I., Tsuruta, S. and Rekaya, R. Genetic components of days open under heat stress. J.Dairy Sci.,
2004.87: 3022-3028.
185. Oseni, S., Misztal, I. and Tsuruta, S. Genetic parameters for pregnancy rate in Holstein cattle under seasonal heat
stress. Nig. J. Genet., 2005.19: 43-57. 186. Palczynski L. Third annual report for researchers on research priorities on the
use of sensor technologies to improve productivity and sustainability on dairy farms. 2016. Retrieved on 13 May 2019
from https://4d4f.eu/content/report- researchers
187.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 33/55

Pandya, A.J. and K.M. Ghodke. Goat and sheep milk products other than cheeses and yoghurt. Small Ruminant

Res. 2007. 68: 193-206.

188.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 34/55

Park, Y.W., M. Juarez, M. Ramosc & G.F.W. Haenlein. Physico-chemical characteristics of goat and sheep milk. Small
Ruminant

Res. 2007. 68: 88-113. 189. Pathak HS, Brown P and Best T. A systematic literature review of the factors affecting the
precision agriculture adoption process. Precision Agriculture 2019.20, 1292–1316.
190. Paul A. Murtaugh a, Michael G. Schlax b. Reproduction and the carbon legacies of individuals. Global Environmental
Change 19. 2009. 14–20.
191. Pejman A, Shahryar A. Heat stress in dairy cows (a review). Res Zool. 2012. 2 (4):31–7.
192.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 35/55

Perry B. and Grace D. The impacts of livestock diseases and their control on growth and development processes that
are pro-poor. Phil. Trans. R. Soc..B 2009. 364, 2643–2655. 193.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 36/55

Perry, B. and Grace, D. The impacts of livestock diseases and their control on growth and development processes that
are pro-poor. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 2009.364, 2643–2655. 194.

Perry, B. and Sones, K. Global livestock disease dynamics over the last quarter century: drivers, impacts and implications.
2009. Rome, Italy.
195. Petersen W. Readings in Population. New York: Macmillan; 1972.
196.
 100% MATCHING BLOCK 37/55

Philip K. Thornton. Livestock production: recent trends, future prospects. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 2010. 365, 2853–2867
197. Purohit P.B., J. P. Gupta, J. D. Chaudhari, T. M. Bhatt, M. M. Pawar. Effect of Heat Stress on Production and
Reproduction Potential of Dairy Animals Vis-À-Vis Buffaloes

Intern’l J of Livestock Res. 2020. Vol 10(3) p.1-23.

198. Purohit, P. B., Gupta, J. P., Chaudhri, J. D., Bhatt, T. M., Pawar, M., Srivastava, A., & Patel,

87% MATCHING BLOCK 38/55

M. P. Effect of Heat Stress on Production and Reproduction Potential of Dairy Animals vis-à-vis Buffaloes. International
Journal of Livestock Research, 2020. 10(3), 1-23.

doi: 10.5455/ijlr.20191231122709.
199. Putney D, Drost M, Thatcher W. Influence of summer heat stress on pregnancy rates of lactating dairy cattle
following embryo transfer or artificial insemination. Theriogenology. 1989;31 (4):765–78.
200. Rabiee A.R., K. Breinhild, W. Scott, H.M. Golder, E. Block, I.J. Lean, Effect of fat additions to diets of dairy cattle on
milk production and components: A meta-analysis and meta-regression, J of Dairy Sci. Vol. 95 (6), 2012,Pp 3225-47,
201. Radadia N S, Sastry N S R, Pal R N and Juneja I J. 1980. Studies on the effect of certain summer managemental
practices on lactating Murrah buffaloes. 3. Physiological reactions and some attributes of blood. Haryana Agri. Uni. J. of
Res. 10: 442–47.
202.

88% MATCHING BLOCK 39/55

Rasheed S., I. M. Qazi, I. Ahmed , Yasser D. and Z. Azmat Comparative Study of Cottage Cheese Prepared from Various
Sources of Milk. Proceedings of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences: Pakistan Academy of Sci. B. Life and Env Sci.2016.
53 (4): 269–282. 203. Ravagnolo O, Misztal

I, Hoogenboom G. Genetic Component of Heat Stress in Dairy Cattle, Development of Heat Index Function. J Dairy Sci.
2000 Sep; 83(9):2120-5. 204.
Ravagnolo O, Misztal I. Effect of heat stress on non return rate in Holsteins: Fixed-model analyses. J. Dairy Sci. 2002;
85:3101–3106.
205.
Ravagnolo, O. and

100% MATCHING BLOCK 40/55

Misztal, I. Effect of heat stress on non return rate in Holsteins: Fixed-model analyses. J. Dairy Sci., 2002. 85: 3101-3106.
206. Ravindra Kumar, Sushil Prasad and Pravin Kumar. Role of information technology in livestock development in India
– an overview.

Prog Res. 7 (Special).2012: 9-13. 207. Reichardt M and Jürgens C. Adoption and future perspective of precision farming in
Germany: results of several surveys among different agricultural tar- get groups. Precision Agriculture. 2009.10, 73–94.
208.

94% MATCHING BLOCK 41/55

Rincon, F., Moreno, R., Zurera, G. and Amaro, M. Mineral composition as a characteristic for the identification of animal
origin of raw milk. J. Dairy Res., 1994.61(1):151-154. 209. Rivington M,

Matthews KB, Buchan K, Miller D, Russell G. Investigating climate change impacts and adaptation options using
integrated assessment methods. Aspects Appl Biol. 2009.93:85–92.
210. Robinson, M. W. and Dalton, J. P. Zoonotic helminth infections with particular emphasis on fasciolosis and other
trematodiases. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 2009. 2763–2776.
211. Rodney R.M., P. Celi, W. Scott, K. Breinhild, I.J. Lean, Effects of dietary fat on fertility of dairy cattle: A meta-analysis
and meta-regression, J of Dairy Sci,Vol 98, Issue 8, 2015,Pp 5601-20.
212. Rodriguez-Lainz, A., P. Mellendez-Retamal, D.W. Hird, D.H. Read and R.L. Walker. 1999: Farm- and host-level risk
factors for papillomatous digital dermatitis in Chilean dairy cattle. Prev. Vet. Med. 1999.42:87-97.
213.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 42/55

Rosegrant M. W. Looking into the future for agriculture and AKST (Agricultural Knowledge Science and Technology). In
Agriculture at a crossroads (eds McIntyre B. D., Herren H. R., Wakhungu J., Watson R. T.), 2009.pp. 307–376
Washington, DC 214.

Ryan, T.J. and Wilson, D.A. Future development of the national disease control database. Symposium on Tuberculosis,
1991.pp. 245–50. Palmerston North Massey University, New Zealand.
215.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 43/55

Sahin A., A. Yildirim and Z. Ulutas¸Some Physicochemical Characteristics of Raw Milk of Anatolian Buffaloes. Italian. J.
Food Sci., 2014.vol. 26 –p.398-404. 216. Saini, A.L. and Gill, R.S. Goat milk: An attractive alternate. Indian Dairyman,
1991.42: 562-564. 217.

Salem I A. Seasonal variations in some body reactions and blood constituents in lactating buffaloes and Friesian cows
with reference to acclimatization. J. of the Egyptian Vet Med Asso 1980. 40: 63–72.
218.

70% MATCHING BLOCK 44/55

Salman M, M.Khaskheli, Israr-Ul-Haq, A. R. Talpur,A. P. Khuhro, M. Rauf, H. Hamid and Atif A. Comparative Studies On
Nutritive Quality Of Buffalo And Cow Milk. Intern’l J of Res. in App., Natural and Social Sci. 2014. Vol. 2, Issue 12, 69-78.
219.

Sanson, R.L.; Morris. R.S. and Stern, M.W. (1999). EpiMAN-FMD: A decision support system for managing epidemics of
vesicular disease. Revue-Scientifique-et-Technique-Office-Internationald es-Epizooties 1999.18 (3): 593–605.
220.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 45/55

Schillings Juliette, Richard Bennett and David Christian Rose. Exploring the Potential of Precision Livestock Farming
Technologies to Help Address Farm Animal Welfare. Front. Anim. Sci., 2021.Vol 2.Article 639678 p. 1-17 221.

Schrijver R, Poppe K and Daheim C. Precision agriculture and the future of farming in Europe: scientific foresight study.
European Parliament Research Service, 2016. Brussels, Belgium.
222.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 46/55

Schuller L.K, Burfeind O, Heuwieser W. Impact of heat stress on conception rate of dairy cows in the moderate climate
considering different temperature humidity index thresholds, periods relative to breeding, and heat load indices.
Theriogenology. 2014; 81:1050–1057. 223.

Schuller, L.K., Burfeind, O. and

 100% MATCHING BLOCK 47/55

Heuwieser, W. Impact of heat stress on conception rate of dairy cows in the moderate climate considering different
temperature humidity index thresholds, periods relative to breeding, and heat load indices. Theriogenology, 2014.81:
1050-57. 224. Serap Göncü and Cahit Güngör. The Innovative Techniques in Animal Husbandry, Animal Husbandry and
Nutrition. 2018. IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72501. 225. Silanikove, N., Leitner, G., & Merin, U. The
interrelationships between lactose intolerance and the modern dairy industry: Global perspectives in evolutional and
historical backgrounds. Nutrients, 2015. 7, 7312-7331. 226.

Singh B.R .and R.Somvanshi Diseases of Animals: Diagnosis and Management. 2013. Centre for Animal Disease Research
and Diagnosis Indian Veterinary Research Institute,UP India.
227. Singh G, Kamboj M L and Patil N V. Effect of thermal protective measures during hot humid season on productive
and reproductive performance of Nili-Ravi buffaloes. Indian Buffalo J 2005.3:101–04.
228. Singh S P, Hooda O K and Kumar P. Ffect of yeast supplementation on feed intake and thermal stress mitigation in
buffaloes. Indian J of Ani Sci 2011. 81(9): 961– 64.
229. Singh, G., Totey, S.M. and Talwar, G.P. In vitro fertilization of buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) oocytes matured in vitro.
Theriogenology, 1989.31(1): 255.
230. Singh, M., Chaudhari, B.K., Singh, J.K., Singh, A.K. and Maurya, P.K. Effects of thermal load on buffalo reproductive
performance during summer season. J. Biol. Sci., 2013.1(1): 1-8.
231. Somers, J.G., Frankena, K. and E.N. Nordhuizen-Stassen. Risk factors for digital dermatitis in dairy cows kept in
cubicle houses in the Netherlands. Prev. Vet. Med. 2005. 71(12):11-21.
232.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 48/55

Sreedhar S., Suresh Babu D. Milk Constituents and Microbial Analysis of Mixed Milk Samples in Rural Areas. Ind J of Vet
Research.2009; 18(2):31-36. 233.

Stachowicz J and Umstätter C. Übersicht über kommerziell verfügbare digitale Systeme in der Nutztierhaltung.
Agroscope Transfer..2020.294, 1–28.
234. Steadman, R.G. The Assessment of Sultriness. Part II: Effects of Wind, Extra Radiation and Barometric Pressure on
Apparent Temperature.

88% MATCHING BLOCK 49/55

J of App Meteorology, 1979.18, 874-885 235. Steinfeld H., Gerber P., Wassenaar T., Castel V., Rosales M., de Haan
C.2006 Livestock's long shadow: environmental issues and options. Rome, Italy 236.

Taylor, L. H., Latham, S.M. &Woolhouse, M. E. Risk factors for human disease emergence. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 2001.B
356, 983–989.
237.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 50/55

The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 –Accessed from www.drugscontrol.org/ on 19 May, 2012 238.
Thiruvenkadan A.K, Panneerselvam S, Rajendran R, Murali N. Analysis on the productive and reproductive traits of
Murrah buffalo cows maintained in the coastal region of India. Appl. Anim. Husb. Rural Dev. 2010; 3:1–5. 239.

Thiruvenkadan, A.K., Panneerselvam, S., Rajendran, R. and

100% MATCHING BLOCK 51/55

Murali, N. Analysis on the productive and reproductive traits of Murrah buffalo cows maintained in the coastal region of
India. Appl. Anim. Husb. Rural Dev., 2010.3: 1-5. 240. Thom E.C. The discomfort index. Weatherwise 1959.12:57–59 241.

Thom E.C. The discomfort index. Weatherwise. 1959; 12:57–59.

242. Thornton PK. Livestock production: Recent trends, future prospects. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society,
B: Biol. Sci. 2010; 365 (1554):2853-2867.
243. Thornton PK. Livestock production: Recent trends, future prospects. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society,
B: Biol. Sci.. 2010. 365 (1554):2853-67. DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0134
244.
Thornton, Philip; Herrero, Mario. The Inter-Linkages between Rapid Growth in Livestock Production, Climate Change,
and the Impacts on Water Resources, Land Use, and Deforestation. Washington, DC: World Bank. © World Bank. 2010.
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/9223 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO. 245.
Tobias O.N., K. Wilson, Christina J. D., and N. Mukherjee. The use of focus group discussion methodology: Insights from
two decades of application in conservation. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 2018, 9:20–32.
246. Toma L, Stott AW, Heffernan C, Ringrose S, Gunn GJ. Determinants of biosecurity behaviour of British cattle and
sheep farmers—a behavioural economics analysis. Prevent Vet Med. 2013. 108:321–33.
247. U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) report. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the
United States: A Scientific Assessment. United Nations. 2016. World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision Highlights.
New York: UN; 2007.
248.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 52/55

UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund) 2008 The State of World Population 2007: unleashing the potential of urban
growth. United Nations Population Fund. 249. UNPD (United Nations Population Division) 2008. The 2006 revision and
world urbanization prospects: the 2005 Revision. Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs
of the United Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects. 250.

Upadhyay, R.C., Rita Rani, A., Singh, S.V., Mohanty, T.K. and Gohain, M. Impact of climate change on reproductive
functions of Murrah buffaloes. J. Anim. Plant Sci., 2012. 22(3): 234-236.
251. Vale W.G. Effects of environment on buffalo reproduction. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 2007; 6(2):130–142. 252. Van Hertem T,
Rooijakkers L, Berckmans D, Fernández AP, Norton T and Vranken E. Appropriate data visualisation is key to precision
livestock farming acceptance. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 2017.138, 1–10.
253.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 53/55

Van Vuuren D. P. Outlook on agricultural change and its drivers. In Agriculture at a crossroads (eds McIntyre B. D.,
Herren H. R., Wakhungu J., Watson R. T.), 2009.pp. 255–305 Washington, DC 254.

VanRaden, P. M., Sanders, A. H., Tooker, M. E., Miller, R. H., Norman, H. D., Kuhn, M. T., & Wiggans, G. R.. Development of a
national genetic evaluation for cow fertility. J of dairy sci, 2004.87(7), 2285-92.
255. Velkers, F. C., Bouma, A., Matthijs, M. G., Koch, G.,Westendorp, S. T. & Stegeman, J. A. Outbreak of avian influenza
H7N3 on a turkey farm in the Netherlands. Vet. Rec. 2006.159, 403–405.
256. Verma N.K., R.A.K. Aggarwal, P.S. Dangi, S.P. Dixit and B.K. Joshi: Sangamneri: An important goat breed of
Maharashtra State. Goat Genetic Resource of India 2016.
257. Vijoykumar P. Effect of thermal stress management on nutritional, physiological and behavioural responses of
buffalo heifers.’ Ph.D. Thesis, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, 2005.Izatnagar, India.
258.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 54/55

Vishweshwar, S.K and N. Krishnaiah. Food and nutritive value of milk. Quality control of milk and processing, State
Institute of Vocational Education Director of Intermediate Education Govt. of Andhra pradesh, India, 2005. p. 10. 259.

Walker, R.L. Footwarts in dairy cattle: Current understanding of a complex disease. Proceedings of the 2nd Western Large
Herd Dairy Management Conference, April 6-8, 1995, p. 33-40. 260. Wathes CM, Kristensen HH, Aerts J-M and
Berckmans D. Is precision livestock farming an engineer’s daydream or nightmare, an animal’s friend or foe, and a
farmer’s panacea or pitfall? Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 2008. 64, 2–10.
261. West J.W. Effects of heat-stress on production in dairy cattle. J Dairy Sci. 2003.86:2131–2144.
doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302 (03)73803-X.
262. West JW. Nutritional strategies for managing the heat-stressed dairy cow. J Anim Sci. 1999; 77 Suppl 2(1):21–35.
263. William Thatcher, José E.P. Santos, Charles R. Staples, Dietary manipulations to improve embryonic survival in cattle,
Theriogenology, Vol. 76 (9), 2011, Pages 1619-31.
264. Wobeser, G. Scientific and Technical Review of the Office Internationaldes Epizooties. 2002.21(1), 159-178.
265. Wolfenson, D., Roth, Z. and Meidan, R. Impaired reproduction in heat-stressed cattle: Basic and applied aspects.
Anim. Reprod. Sci., 2000. 60-61: 535-547.
266.

100% MATCHING BLOCK 55/55

World Bank. Minding the stock: bringing public policy to bear on livestock sector development. Washington, DC: 2009.
Report no. 44010-GLB. 267.

Yamamoto S. and Ogura Y. Variations in heart rate and relationship between heart rate and heat production of breeding
Japanese Black Cattle. Japanese J.Livestock Manag. 1985.3: 109–18.
268. Yousef M.K. Stress physiology in livestock. Vol I. basic principles. CRC Press, 1985.Boca Raton
269.
Zicarelli, L. Buffalo milk: its properties, dairy yield and mozzarella production.
Vet. Res. Com.2004. 28:127-135. 34.
270. Zicarelli, L. Enhancing reproductive performance in domestic dairy water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Soc. Reprod.
Fertil. Suppl., 2010.67: 443-455.

Hit and source - focused comparison, Side by Side

Submitted text As student entered the text in the submitted document.
Matching text As the text appears in the source.

1/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 27 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 27 WORDS

Davies, D.T. and White, J.C.D. The determination Davies, D.T. and White, J.C.D. The determination
ofcalcium and magnesium in milk and milk diffusate. J. ofcalcium and magnesium in milk and milk diffusate. J.
Dairy Res., 1962.29: 285-296. 57. Dairy Res., 1962.29: 285-296.

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

2/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 40 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 40 WORDS

Delgado C. Rising demand for meat and milk in
developing countries: implications for grasslands-based
livestock production. In Grassland: a global resource (ed.
McGilloway D. A.), 2005. pp. 29–39 The Netherlands:
Wageningen Academic Publishers. 60.
Delgado C. Rising demand for meat and milk in
developing countries: implications for grasslands-based
livestock production. In Grassland: a global resource (ed.
McGilloway D. A.), 2005. pp. 29–39 The Netherlands:
Wageningen Academic Publishers. [23].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf
 3/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 32 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 32 WORDS

Emanuelson Ulf, Karin Sjöström and Nils Fall.Biosecurity Emanuelson Ulf, Karin Sjöström and Nils Fall.Biosecurity
and animal disease management in organic and and animal disease management in organic and
conventional Swedish dairy herds: a questionnaire study. conventional Swedish dairy herds: a questionnaire study.
Acta Vet Scand.2018. 60:23. 72. Acta Vet Scand.2018. 60:23. [25].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

4/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 35 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 35 WORDS

Fassio, F., Facioni, M.S., & Guagnini, F. Lactose
maldigestion, malabsorption, and intolerance: A
comprehensive review with a focus on current
management and future perspectives. Nutrients, 2018.10,
1599-1610. 78.
Fassio, F., Facioni, M.S., & Guagnini, F. Lactose
maldigestion, malabsorption, and intolerance: A
comprehensive review with a focus on current
management and future perspectives. Nutrients, 2018.10,
1599-1610. [27].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

5/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 23 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 23 WORDS

Fiske, C.H. and Subbarow, Y. The colorimetric Fiske, C.H. and Subbarow, Y. The colorimetric
determination of phosphorous. J. Biol. Chem., 1925. determination of phosphorous. J. Biol. Chem., 1925.
66(2): 375-400. 81. 66(2): 375-400. [28].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

6/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 41 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 41 WORDS

Garcia-Ispierto I, Lopez-Gatius F, Bech-Sabat G, Garcia-Ispierto I, Lopez-Gatius F, Bech-Sabat G,

Santolaria P, Yaniz J.L, Nogareda C, De Rensis F, Lopez- Santolaria P, Yaniz J.L, Nogareda C, De Rensis F, Lopez-
Bejar M. Climate factors affecting conception rate of high Bejar M. Climate factors affecting conception rate of high
producing dairy cows in northeastern Spain. producing dairy cows in northeastern Spain.
Theriogenology. 2007;67:1 379–1385. 85. Theriogenology. 2007;67:1379–1385. [29].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

7/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 16 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 16 WORDS

Garcia-Ispierto, I., Lopez-Gatius, F., Bech-Sabat, G., Garcia-Ispierto I, Lopez-Gatius F, Bech-Sabat G,

Santolaria, P., Yaniz, J.L., Nogareda, C., De Rensis, F. Santolaria P, Yaniz J.L, Nogareda C, De Rensis F,

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

8/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 20 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 20 WORDS

Lopez-Bejar, M. Climate factors affecting conception rate Lopez-Bejar M. Climate factors affecting conception rate
of high producing dairy cows in northeastern Spain. of high producing dairy cows in northeastern Spain.
Theriogenology, 2007.67: 1379-1385. 86. Theriogenology. 2007;67:1379–1385. [29].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf
 9/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 53 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 53 WORDS

Garry AW, Chritine M, Bruhn JM Reported adoption of
dietary fat and finer recommendations among
consumers. J Ame Dietetic Assoc. 2000.100: 52-8. 88.
Gaughan J.B, Mader T.L, Holt S.M, Lisle A. A new heat load
index for feedlot cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 2008; 86:226–234.
89.
Garry AW, Chritine M, Bruhn JM Reported adoption of
dietary fat and finer recommendations among
consumers. J Ame Dietetic Assoc. 2000.100: 52-8. [30].
Gaughan J.B, Mader T.L, Holt S.M, Lisle A. A new heat load
index for feedlot cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 2008; 86:226–234.
[31].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

10/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 77 WORDS 86% MATCHING TEXT 77 WORDS

Getaneh G, Mebrat A, Wubie A and Kendie H Review on
Goat Milk Composition and its Nutritive Value. J. of Nutri.
and Health Sci. 2016.Vol.3 (4), p.1-10. 92. Ghada Z. A.
Soliman Comparison of Chemical and Mineral Content
Of Milk from Human, Cow, Buffalo, Camel and Goat in
Egypt. 2005. Vol., 21: 116 – 130. 93. Gudev D, Popova-
Ralcheva S, Moneva P, Aleksiev Y, Peeva T,Ilieva
Getaneh G, Mebrat A, Wubie A and Kendie H Review on
Goat Milk Composition and its Nutritive Value.J. of
Nutrition and Health Sci. 2016.Vol.3 (4), p.1-10. [32].
Ghada Z. A. Soliman Comparison of Chemical and
Mineral Content Of Milk from Human, Cow, Buffalo,
Camel and Goat in Egypt. 2005. Vol., 21: 116 – 130. [33].
Gudev D, S. Popova-Ralcheva, P. Moneva, Y. Aleksiev, T.
Peeva, Y. Ilieva,

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

11/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 15 WORDS 96% MATCHING TEXT 15 WORDS

P. Effect of heat stress on some physiological and P. Penchev. Effect of heat-stress on some physiological
biochemical parameters in buffaloes. Italian and biochemical parameters in buffaloes.2007. Italian

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

12/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 27 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 27 WORDS

Gudev D, S. Popova-Ralcheva, P. Moneva, Y. Aleksiev, T. Gudev D, S. Popova-Ralcheva, P. Moneva, Y. Aleksiev, T.

Peeva, Y. Ilieva, P. Penchev. Effect of heat-stress on some Peeva, Y. Ilieva, P. Penchev. Effect of heat-stress on some
physiological and biochemical parameters in physiological and biochemical parameters in
buffaloes.2007. Italian buffaloes.2007. Italian

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

13/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 73 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 73 WORDS

Guzeler, N., Say, D. and Kaçar, A. Compositionalchanges
of Saanen X Kilis goats’ milk during lactation. 2010. GIDA,
35(5): 325-330. 98. Habeeb, A. A. M., A. E. Gad, A. A. EL-
Tarabany and M. A. A. Atta. Negative Effects of Heat Stress
on Growth and Milk Production of Farm Animals.Journal
of Animal Husbandry and Dairy Science 2018. Vol.2, Issue
1, PP 1-12. 99.
Guzeler, N., Say, D. and Kaçar, A. Compositionalchanges
of Saanen X Kilis goats’ milk during lactation. 2010. GIDA,
35(5): 325- 330. [35]. Habeeb, A. A. M., A. E. Gad, A. A. EL-
Tarabany and M. A. A. Atta. Negative Effects of Heat Stress
on Growth and Milk Production of Farm Animals.Journal
of Animal Husbandry and Dairy Science 2018. Vol.2, Issue
1, PP 1-12. [36].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf
 14/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 130 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 130 WORDS

Haenlein, G.F. Producing quality goat milk. Int. J. Anim.
Sci., 1993.8: 79-84. 101. Hahn G.L, Mader T.L, Eigenberg
R.A. Perspectives on development of thermal indices for
animal studies and management. Proceeding
Symposium. Interactions between Climate and Animal
Production. EAAP Technical Series No. 7. 2003:31–44.
102. Hahn, G.L., Mader, T.L. and Eigenberg, R.A.
Perspectives on development of thermal indices for
animal studies and management. In: Proceeding
Symposium. Interactions between Climate and Animal
Production. EAAP Technical Series 2003.No. 7; p31-44.
103. Hammer, B.W. and Bailey, D.E. A rapid volumetric
method for approximate estimation of chloride in milk.
Research Bulletin No. 41. 1917. Agricultural Experiment
Station Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic
Arts. 104.
Haenlein, G.F. Producing quality goat milk. Int. J. Anim.
Sci., 1993.8: 79-84. [37]. Hahn G.L, Mader T.L, Eigenberg
R.A. Perspectives on development of thermal indices for
animal studies and management. Proceeding
Symposium. Interactions between Climate and Animal
Production. EAAP Technical Series No. 7. 2003:31–44.
[38]. Hahn, G.L., Mader, T.L. and Eigenberg, R.A.
Perspectives on development of thermal indices for
animal studies and management. In: Proceeding
Symposium. Interactions between Climate and Animal
Production. EAAP Technical Series No. 7; 2003.p31-44.
[39]. Hammer, B.W. and Bailey, D.E. A rapid volumetric
method for approximate estimation of chloride in milk.
Research Bulletin No. 41. 1917. Agricultural Experiment
Station Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic
Arts. [40].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

15/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 33 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 33 WORDS

Harris B. and K.C. Bachman Nutritional and Management Harris B. and K.C. Bachman Nutritional and Management
Factors Affecting Solids-Not-Fat, Acidity and Freezing Factors Affecting Solids-Not-Fat, Acidity and Freezing
Point of Milk. Original publication. University of Point of Milk. Original publication. University of
Florida.1988. Reviewed June 2003.DS25, 1-5. 107. Florida.1988. Reviewed June 2003.DS25, 1-5. [41].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

16/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 29 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 29 WORDS

Animal Health Management Practices among Smallholder Animal health management practices among smallholder
Livestock Producers in Australia and Their Contribution to livestock producers in Australia and their contribution to
the Surveillance System. Front. Vet. Sci. 2019. 6:191. 110. the surveillance system. Front. Vet. Sci., 2019.

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf
 17/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 59 WORDS 97% MATCHING TEXT 59 WORDS

Imran M., Khan H.,Hassan S.S. and R.Khan.
Physiochemcial characteristis of various milk samples
available in Pakistan. 2008. J.Zhejiang Uni.Sci.B, 9:546-
551. 117. Indu S.and Pareek A. A Review: Growth and
Physiological Adaptability of Sheep to Heat Stress under
Semi –Arid Environment. 2015 Intern’ J of Emerg. Trends
in Sci and Tech.Vol 2 (9)p.3188-3196 118.
Imran M., Khan H.,Hassan S.S. and R.Khan.
Physiochemcial characteristis of various milk samples
available in Pakistan. 2008. J.Zhejiang Uni.Sci.B, 9:546-
551. [42]. Indu S.and Pareek A. A Review: Growth and
Physiological Adaptability of Sheep to Heat Stress under
Semi –Arid Environment. 2015 Intern’ J of Emerging
Trends in Sci and Tech.Vol 2 (9)p.3188-3196 [43].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

18/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 73 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 73 WORDS

James, C.S. Determination of fat content of dairy
products by the Gerber method. Analytical chemistry of
food. Blacki Academic and Professionals, an imprint of
Champan and Hall, Glasgow, UK. 1995. Pp: 93-95. 124.
Javaid SB, Gadahi JA, Khaskeli M, Bhutto MB, Kumbher S,
Panhwar AH. Physical and chemical quality of market milk
sold at healthline.Tandojam, Pakistan. 2009 Vet. J. 29(1):
27-31. 125.
James, C.S. Determination of fat content of dairy
products by the Gerber method. Analytical chemistry of
food. Blacki Academic and Professionals, an imprint of
Champan and Hall, Glasgow, UK. 1995.Pp: 93-95. [44].
Javaid SB, Gadahi JA, Khaskeli M, Bhutto MB, Kumbher S,
Panhwar AH. Physical and chemical quality of market milk
sold at healthline .Tandojam, Pakistan. 2009 J. 29(1): 27-
31. [45].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

19/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 37 WORDS 98% MATCHING TEXT 37 WORDS

Vet. Med., 2011.41(3): 315-320. 130. Kanwal Rashida,
Toqeer Ahmed, Bushra Mirza. Comparative Analysis of
Quality of Milk Collected from Buffalo, Cow, Goat and
Sheep of Rawalpindi/Islamabad Region in Pakistan. 2004.
Asian
Vet. J. 29(1): 27-31. [45]. Kanwal Rashida, Toqeer Ahmed,
Bushra Mirza. Comparative Analysis of Quality of Milk
Collected from Buffalo, Cow, Goat and Sheep of
Rawalpindi/Islamabad Region in Pakistan. 2004. Asian

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf
 20/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 92 WORDS 95% MATCHING TEXT 92 WORDS

of Plant Sci ISSN : 1812-5697 131. Kanwal, R, T. Ahmad
and B. Mirza. Comparative analysis of quality of milk
collected from buffalo, cow, goat and sheep of
Rawalpindi/Islamabad region in Pakistan. Asian J. Plant
Sci. 2004.3(3):300-305. 132. Kapadiya D. B. Darshna B. P.,
Amit K. Jain, Bhavbhuti M. M. Comparison of Surti goat
milk with cow and buffalo milk for gross composition,
nitrogen distribution, and selected minerals content.
2016. Vet World, EISSN: 2231-0916 Vol.9.p.710-716. 133.
of Plant Sciences ISSN : 1812-5697 [46]. Kanwal, R, T.
Ahmad and B. Mirza. Comparative analysis of quality of
milk collected from buffalo, cow, goat and sheep of
Rawalpindi/Islamabad region in Pakistan. Asian J. Plant
Sci. 2004.3(3):300-305. [47]. Kapadiya D. B. Darshna B. P.,
Amit K. Jain, Bhavbhuti M. M. Comparison of Surti goat
milk with cow and buffalo milk for gross composition,
nitrogen distribution, and selected minerals content.
2016. Veterinary World, EISSN: 2231-0916 Vol.9.p.710-
716. [48].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

21/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 37 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 37 WORDS

Khan F.A, Prasad S, Gupta H.P. Effect of heat stress on Khan F.A, Prasad S, Gupta H.P. Effect of heat stress on
pregnancy rates of crossbred dairy cattle in Terai region pregnancy rates of crossbred dairy cattle in Terai region
of Uttarakhand, India. Asian Pac. J. Reprod. 2013; of Uttarakhand, India. Asian Pac. J. Reprod. 2013;
2(4):277–279. 135. 2(4):277–279. [49].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

22/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 31 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 31 WORDS

Gupta, H.P. Effect of heat stress on pregnancy rates of Gupta H.P. Effect of heat stress on pregnancy rates of
crossbred dairy cattle in Terai region of Uttarakhand, crossbred dairy cattle in Terai region of Uttarakhand,
India. Asian Pac. J. Reprod., 2013.2(4):277-279. 136. India. Asian Pac. J. Reprod. 2013; 2(4):277–279. [49].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

23/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 81 WORDS 92% MATCHING TEXT 81 WORDS

Kris H.K. The history of domestication of goats. J
Archaeolo Sci 2008.28: 61-79. 141. Kumar A. and Ambika
Sharma Nutritional and Medicinal Superiority of Goat Milk
over Cow Milk in Infants. Inter’l J of Pediatric Nursing
2016 .Vol 2 Number 1, 47-50 142. Kumar R., Sangwan,
R.and Mann,B. ALaboratory Manual on Chemical Analysis
of Milk Protein. National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal,
India.2012.p27-29. 143.
Kris H.K. The history of domestication of goats. J
Archaeolo Sci 2008.28: 61-79. [50]. Kumar A. and Ambika
Sharma Nutritional and Medicinal Superiority of Goat Milk
over Cow Milk in Infants. International Journal of
Pediatric Nursing 2016 .Vol 2 Number 1, 47-50 [51].
Kumar R., Sangwan, R.and Mann,B. ALaboratory Manual
on Chemical Analysis of Milk Protein. National Dairy
Research Institute, Karnal, India.2012.p27-29. [52].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf
 24/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 27 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 27 WORDS

Liesel Laubscher and Louwrens Hoffman An Overview of Liesel Laubscher and Louwrens Hoffman An Overview of
Disease-Free Buffalo Breeding Projects with Reference to Disease-Free Buffalo Breeding Projects with Reference to
the Different Systems Used in South Africa. Sustainability, the Different Systems Used in South Africa. Sustainability,
2012.4, 3124-3140 149. 2012.4, 3124-3140 [53].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

25/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 48 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 48 WORDS

Lopez, A., Collins, W.F. and Williams, H.L. Essential
elements, cadmium and lead in raw and pasteurized cow
and goat milk. J. Dairy Sci., 1985.68(8): 1878-1886. 151.
Maddison The world economy: historical statistics. 2003
Paris, France. 152.
Lopez, A., Collins, W.F. and Williams, H.L. Essential
elements, cadmium and lead in raw and pasteurized cow
and goat milk. J. Dairy Sci., 1985.68(8): 1878-1886. [54].
Maddison The world economy: historical statistics. 2003
Paris, France. [55].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

26/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 68 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 68 WORDS

Mahboba I.A.A. and I.E.M. El Zubeir. The compositional
quality of raw milk produced by some dairy cow’s farms
in Khartoum state, Sudan.2007.Res.J.Agri.Bio.Sci. 3, 902-
906. 156. Mahmood, A. and Usman, S. A comparative
study on the physicochemical parameters of milk
samples collected from buffalo, cow, goat and sheep of
Gujarat, Pakistan. Pak. J. Nutr., 2010. 9(12): 1192-1197. 157.
Mahboba I.A.A. and I.E.M. El Zubeir. The compositional
quality of raw milk produced by some dairy cow’s farms
in Khartoum state, Sudan.2007.Res.J.Agri.Bio.Sci. 3, 902-
906. [56]. Mahmood, A. and Usman, S. A comparative
study on the physicochemical parameters of milk
samples collected from buffalo, cow, goat and sheep of
Gujarat, Pakistan. Pak. J. Nutr., 2010. 9(12): 1192-1197.
[57].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

27/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 46 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 46 WORDS

Marta Hernández-Jover, Lynne Hayes, Robert Woodgate,
Luzia Rast and Jenny-Ann L. M. L. Toribio Animal health
management practices among smallholder livestock
producers in Australia and their contribution to the
surveillance system. Front. Vet. Sci., 2019. Vol 6 Article
191.p.1-14. 162.
Marta Hernández-Jover, Lynne Hayes, Robert Woodgate,
Luzia Rast and Jenny-Ann L. M. L. Toribio Animal health
management practices among smallholder livestock
producers in Australia and their contribution to the
surveillance system. Front. Vet. Sci., 2019. Vol 6 p.1-14.
[58].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf
 28/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 59 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 59 WORDS

McCarthy O.J. Physical and Physico-Chemical Properties
of Milk, Massey University, Palmerston North, New
Zealand 2002 Elsevier Ltd. 164. McGowan M.R, Mayer
D.G, Tranter W, Shaw M, Smith C, Davison T.M.
Relationship between temperature humidity index and
conception efficiency of dairy cattle in Queensland. Proc.
Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod. 1996; 21:454. 165.
McCarthy O.J. Physical and Physico-Chemical Properties
of Milk, Massey University, Palmerston North, New
Zealand 2002 Elsevier Ltd. [59]. McGowan M.R, Mayer
D.G, Tranter W, Shaw M, Smith C, Davison T.M.
Relationship between temperature humidity index and
conception efficiency of dairy cattle in Queensland. Proc.
Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod. 1996;21:454. [60].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

29/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 25 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 25 WORDS

Davison, T.M. Relationship between temperature humidity Davison T.M. Relationship between temperature humidity
index and conception efficiency of dairy cattle in index and conception efficiency of dairy cattle in
Queensland. Proc. Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1996. 21: 454. Queensland. Proc. Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod. 1996;21:454.
166. [60].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

30/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 27 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 27 WORDS

Merin, U., Rosenthal, I. and Maltz, E. The composition of Merin, U., Rosenthal, I. and Maltz, E. The composition of
goat milk as affected by nutritional parameters. goat milk as affected by nutritional parameters.
Milchwissenschaft, 1988.43(6): 363-365. 169. Milchwissenschaft, 1988.43(6): 363-365. [61].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

31/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 36 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 36 WORDS

Morton J.M, Tranter W.P, Mayer D.G, Jonsson N.N. Effect Morton J.M, Tranter W.P, Mayer D.G, Jonsson N.N. Effect
of environmental heat on conception rates in lactating of environmental heat on conception rates in lactating
dairy cows: Critical periods of exposure. J. Dairy Sci. dairy cows: Critical periods of exposure. J. Dairy Sci.
2007; 90:2271–2278. 174. 2007; 90:2271–2278.

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

32/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 43 WORDS 72% MATCHING TEXT 43 WORDS

Muhammad Salman, Muhammad Khaskheli, Israr-Ul-Haq,
Aisha Rahman Talpur. Comparative studies on nutritive
quality of buffalo and cow milk. Intern’l Jl of Res in App,
Natural and Social Sci Vol. 2, Issue 12, 2014, 69-78 177.
Muhammad Salman, Muhammad Khaskheli, Israr-Ul-Haq,
Aisha Rahman Talpur. Comparative studies on nutritive
quality of buffalo and cow milk. International Journal of
Research in Applied, Natural and Social Sciences Vol. 2,
Issue 12,

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf
 33/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 18 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 18 WORDS

Pandya, A.J. and K.M. Ghodke. Goat and sheep milk Pandya, A.J. and K.M. Ghodke. Goat and sheep milk
products other than cheeses and yoghurt. Small products other than cheeses and yoghurt. Small
Ruminant Ruminant

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

34/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 19 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 19 WORDS

Park, Y.W., M. Juarez, M. Ramosc & G.F.W. Haenlein. Park, Y.W., M. Juarez, M. Ramosc & G.F.W. Haenlein.
Physico-chemical characteristics of goat and sheep milk. Physico-chemical characteristics of goat and sheep milk.
Small Ruminant Small Ruminant

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

35/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 35 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 35 WORDS

Perry B. and Grace D. The impacts of livestock diseases Perry B. and Grace D. The impacts of livestock diseases
and their control on growth and development processes and their control on growth and development processes
that are pro-poor. Phil. Trans. R. Soc..B 2009. 364, 2643– that are pro-poor. Phil. Trans. R. Soc..B 2009. 364, 2643–
2655. 193. 2655. [67].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

36/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 35 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 35 WORDS

Perry, B. and Grace, D. The impacts of livestock diseases Perry B. and Grace D. The impacts of livestock diseases
and their control on growth and development processes and their control on growth and development processes
that are pro-poor. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 2009.364, 2643– that are pro-poor. Phil. Trans. R. Soc..B 2009. 364, 2643–
2655. 194. 2655. [67].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

37/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 52 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 52 WORDS

Philip K. Thornton. Livestock production: recent trends,
future prospects. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 2010. 365, 2853–
2867 197. Purohit P.B., J. P. Gupta, J. D. Chaudhari, T. M.
Bhatt, M. M. Pawar. Effect of Heat Stress on Production
and Reproduction Potential of Dairy Animals Vis-À-Vis
Buffaloes
Philip K. Thornton. Livestock production: recent trends,
future prospects. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 2010. 365, 2853–
2867 [68]. Purohit P.B., J. P. Gupta, J. D. Chaudhari, T. M.
Bhatt, M. M. Pawar. Effect of Heat Stress on Production
and Reproduction Potential of Dairy Animals Vis-À-Vis
Buffaloes

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf
 38/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 26 WORDS 87% MATCHING TEXT 26 WORDS

M. P. Effect of Heat Stress on Production and M. Pawar. Effect of Heat Stress on Production and
Reproduction Potential of Dairy Animals vis-à-vis Reproduction Potential of Dairy Animals Vis-À-Vis
Buffaloes. International Journal of Livestock Research, Buffaloes International Journal of Livestock Research.
2020. 10(3), 1-23. 2020.

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

39/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 53 WORDS 88% MATCHING TEXT 53 WORDS

Rasheed S., I. M. Qazi, I. Ahmed , Yasser D. and Z. Azmat
Comparative Study of Cottage Cheese Prepared from
Various Sources of Milk. Proceedings of the Pakistan
Academy of Sciences: Pakistan Academy of Sci. B. Life
and Env Sci.2016. 53 (4): 269–282. 203. Ravagnolo O,
Misztal
Rasheed S., I. M. Qazi, I.Ahmed , Yasser D. and Z. Azmat
Comparative Study of Cottage Cheese Prepared from
Various Sources of Milk. Proceedings of the Pakistan
Academy of Sciences: Pakistan Academy of Sciences B.
Life and Environmental Sciences.2016. 53 (4): 269–282.
[70]. O, Misztal

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

40/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 45 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 45 WORDS

Misztal, I. Effect of heat stress on non return rate in
Holsteins: Fixed-model analyses. J. Dairy Sci., 2002. 85:
3101-3106. 206. Ravindra Kumar, Sushil Prasad and Pravin
Kumar. Role of information technology in livestock
development in India – an overview.
Misztal I. Effect of heat stress on non return rate in
Holsteins: Fixed-model analyses. J. Dairy Sci. 2002;
85:3101– 3106. [71]. Ravindra Kumar, Sushil Prasad and
Pravin Kumar. Role of information technology in livestock
development in India – an overview.

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

41/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 36 WORDS 94% MATCHING TEXT 36 WORDS

Rincon, F., Moreno, R., Zurera, G. and Amaro, M. Mineral Rincon, F., Moreno, R., Zurera, G. and Amaro, M. Mineral
composition as a characteristic for the identification of composition as a characteristic for the identification of
animal origin of raw milk. J. Dairy Res., 1994.61(1):151- animal origin of raw milk. J. Dairy Res., 1994.61(1):151-
154. 209. Rivington M, 154. [73]. Rosegrant M.

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf
 42/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 44 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 44 WORDS

Rosegrant M. W. Looking into the future for agriculture
and AKST (Agricultural Knowledge Science and
Technology). In Agriculture at a crossroads (eds McIntyre
B. D., Herren H. R., Wakhungu J., Watson R. T.), 2009.pp.
307–376 Washington, DC 214.
Rosegrant M. W. Looking into the future for agriculture
and AKST (Agricultural Knowledge Science and
Technology). In Agriculture at a crossroads (eds McIntyre
B. D., Herren H. R., Wakhungu J., Watson R. T.), 2009.pp.
307–376 Washington, DC [74].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

43/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 49 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 49 WORDS

Sahin A., A. Yildirim and Z. Ulutas¸Some Physicochemical
Characteristics of Raw Milk of Anatolian Buffaloes. Italian.
J. Food Sci., 2014.vol. 26 –p.398-404. 216. Saini, A.L. and
Gill, R.S. Goat milk: An attractive alternate. Indian
Dairyman, 1991.42: 562-564. 217.
Sahin A., A. Yildirim and Z. Ulutas¸Some Physicochemical
Characteristics of Raw Milk of Anatolian Buffaloes. Italian.
J. Food Sci., 2014.vol. 26 –p.398-404. [75]. Saini, A.L. and
Gill, R.S. Goat milk: An attractive alternate. Indian
Dairyman, 1991.42: 562-564. [76].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

44/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 50 WORDS 70% MATCHING TEXT 50 WORDS

Salman M, M.Khaskheli, Israr-Ul-Haq, A. R. Talpur,A. P. Salman M, M.Khaskheli, Israr-Ul-Haq, A. R. Talpur,A. P.

Khuhro, M. Rauf, H. Hamid and Atif A. Comparative Khuhro, M. Rauf, H. Hamid and Atif A. Comparative
Studies On Nutritive Quality Of Buffalo And Cow Milk. Studies On Nutritive Quality Of Buffalo And Cow Milk.
Intern’l J of Res. in App., Natural and Social Sci. 2014. Vol. International Journal of Research in Applied, Natural and
2, Issue 12, 69-78. 219. Social Sciences. 2014. Vol. 2, Issue 12, 69-78. [77].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

45/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 34 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 34 WORDS

Schillings Juliette, Richard Bennett and David Christian
Rose. Exploring the Potential of Precision Livestock
Farming Technologies to Help Address Farm Animal
Welfare. Front. Anim. Sci., 2021.Vol 2.Article 639678 p. 1-
17 221.
Schillings Juliette, Richard Bennett and David Christian
Rose. Exploring the Potential of Precision Livestock
Farming Technologies to Help Address Farm Animal
Welfare. Front. Anim. Sci., 2021.Vol 2.Article 639678 p. 1-
17 [78].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf
 46/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 45 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 45 WORDS

Schuller L.K, Burfeind O, Heuwieser W. Impact of heat
stress on conception rate of dairy cows in the moderate
climate considering different temperature humidity index
thresholds, periods relative to breeding, and heat load
indices. Theriogenology. 2014; 81:1050–1057. 223.
Schuller L.K, Burfeind O, Heuwieser W. Impact of heat
stress on conception rate of dairy cows in the moderate
climate considering different temperature humidity index
thresholds, periods relative to breeding, and heat load
indices. Theriogenology. 2014; 81:1050–1057. [79].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

47/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 99 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 99 WORDS

Heuwieser, W. Impact of heat stress on conception rate
of dairy cows in the moderate climate considering
different temperature humidity index thresholds, periods
relative to breeding, and heat load indices.
Theriogenology, 2014.81: 1050-57. 224. Serap Göncü and
Cahit Güngör. The Innovative Techniques in Animal
Husbandry, Animal Husbandry and Nutrition. 2018.
IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72501. 225.
Silanikove, N., Leitner, G., & Merin, U. The
interrelationships between lactose intolerance and the
modern dairy industry: Global perspectives in evolutional
and historical backgrounds. Nutrients, 2015. 7, 7312-7331.
226.
Heuwieser W. Impact of heat stress on conception rate of
dairy cows in the moderate climate considering different
temperature humidity index thresholds, periods relative to
breeding, and heat load indices. Theriogenology. 2014;
81:1050–1057. [79]. Serap Göncü and Cahit Güngör. The
Innovative Techniques in Animal Husbandry, Animal
Husbandry and Nutrition. 2018. IntechOpen, DOI:
10.5772/intechopen.72501. [80]. Silanikove, N., Leitner, G.,
& Merin, U. The interrelationships between lactose
intolerance and the modern dairy industry: Global
perspectives in evolutional and historical backgrounds.
Nutrients, 2015. 7, 7312-7331. [81].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

48/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 25 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 25 WORDS

Sreedhar S., Suresh Babu D. Milk Constituents and Sreedhar S., Suresh Babu D. Milk Constituents and
Microbial Analysis of Mixed Milk Samples in Rural Areas. Microbial Analysis of Mixed Milk Samples in Rural Areas.
Ind J of Vet Research.2009; 18(2):31-36. 233. Ind J of Vet Research.2009; 18(2):31-36. [82].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

49/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 42 WORDS 88% MATCHING TEXT 42 WORDS

J of App Meteorology, 1979.18, 874-885 235. Steinfeld H., J of Research.2009; 18(2):31-36. [82]. Steinfeld H., Gerber
Gerber P., Wassenaar T., Castel V., Rosales M., de Haan P., Wassenaar T., Castel V., Rosales M., de Haan C.2006
C.2006 Livestock's long shadow: environmental issues Livestock's long shadow: environmental issues and
and options. Rome, Italy 236. options. Rome, Italy [83].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf
 50/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 56 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 56 WORDS

The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 –Accessed
from www.drugscontrol.org/ on 19 May, 2012 238.
Thiruvenkadan A.K, Panneerselvam S, Rajendran R, Murali
N. Analysis on the productive and reproductive traits of
Murrah buffalo cows maintained in the coastal region of
India. Appl. Anim. Husb. Rural Dev. 2010; 3:1–5. 239.
The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 –Accessed
from www.drugscontrol.org/ on 19 May, 2012 [84].
Thiruvenkadan A.K, Panneerselvam S, Rajendran R, Murali
N. Analysis on the productive and reproductive traits of
Murrah buffalo cows maintained in the coastal region of
India. Appl. Anim. Husb. Rural Dev. 2010; 3:1–5. [85].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

51/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 42 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 42 WORDS

Murali, N. Analysis on the productive and reproductive
traits of Murrah buffalo cows maintained in the coastal
region of India. Appl. Anim. Husb. Rural Dev., 2010.3: 1-5.
240. Thom E.C. The discomfort index. Weatherwise
1959.12:57–59 241.
Murali N. Analysis on the productive and reproductive
traits of Murrah buffalo cows maintained in the coastal
region of India. Appl. Anim. Husb. Rural Dev. 2010; 3:1–5.
[85]. Thom E.C. The discomfort index. Weatherwise. 1959;
12:57–59. [86].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

52/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 71 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 71 WORDS

UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund) 2008 The State
of World Population 2007: unleashing the potential of
urban growth. United Nations Population Fund. 249.
UNPD (United Nations Population Division) 2008. The
2006 revision and world urbanization prospects: the
2005 Revision. Population Division of the Department of
Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations
Secretariat, World Population Prospects. 250.
UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund) 2008 The State
of World Population 2007: unleashing the potential of
urban growth. United Nations Population Fund. [87].
UNPD (United Nations Population Division) 2008 The
2006 revision and world urbanization prospects: the
2005 Revision. Population Division of the Department of
Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations
Secretariat, World Population Prospects. [88].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

53/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 39 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 39 WORDS

Van Vuuren D. P. Outlook on agricultural change and its Van Vuuren D. P. Outlook on agricultural change and its
drivers. In Agriculture at a crossroads (eds McIntyre B. D., drivers. In Agriculture at a crossroads (eds McIntyre B. D.,
Herren H. R., Wakhungu J., Watson R. T.), 2009.pp. 255– Herren H. R., Wakhungu J., Watson R. T.), 2009.pp. 255–
305 Washington, DC 254. 305 Washington, DC [89].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf

54/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 41 WORDS MATCHING TEXT 41 WORDS

Vishweshwar, S.K and N. Krishnaiah. Food and nutritive 100%

value of milk. Quality control of milk and processing,
State Institute of Vocational Education Director of
Intermediate Education Govt. of Andhra pradesh, India,
2005. p. 10. 259.
Vishweshwar, S.K and N. Krishnaiah. Food and nutritive
value of milk. Quality control of milk and processing,
State Institute of Vocational Education Director of
Intermediate Education Govt. of Andhra pradesh, India,
2005. p. 10. [90].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf
 55/55 SUBMITTED TEXT 27 WORDS 100% MATCHING TEXT 27 WORDS

World Bank. Minding the stock: bringing public policy to World Bank. Minding the stock: bringing public policy to
bear on livestock sector development. Washington, DC: bear on livestock sector development. Washington, DC:
2009. Report no. 44010-GLB. 267. 2009. Report no. 44010-GLB. [91].

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/Vol15-issue1/Ser-2/D1501021730.pdf