Life Processes

All living things perform certain life processes like growth, excretion, respiration, circulation..
The basic functions that living organisms perform for their survival and body maintenance are called
life processes.
The most important criterion to decide whether something is alive is movement.
Since life on Earth depends on carbon-based molecules, most of our food sources are also carbon-
based.
A series of chemical reactions in our body is necessary for life.
Oxidising-reducing reactions are some of the most common chemical means to breakdown
molecules.
Metabolism:
is the chemical process in which different types of chemical reactions are involved in controlling the living state of
the cells in an organism.
Anabolism: Chemical reactions to generate larger molecules from smaller ones.
example: proteins made from amino acids. Energy is stored for further requirements.
Catabolism: Chemical reactions that break down larger molecules into simpler ones.
example: breakdown of fats to carry acids and glycerol. Energy is released.

Functions Of Metabolism:
→ To generate energy in the food for various cellular activities/processes.
→ To make proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates.
→ elimination of metabolic wastes.

Modes of Nutrition
Autotrophic:-Kind of nutrition in which organisms can synthesize their own food from simple
inorganic substances like CO2 and H2O in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight. Eg. Green
Plants.
Heterotrophic:- Kind of nutrition in which organisms do not possess the ability to synthesize their own
food. They depend on autotrophs for their food supply directly or indirectly. Eg. Animals, Fungi
Autotrophic Nutrition
Autotrophs: The organisms that can make their own food are called autotrophs (green plants).
Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants make their own food with the help of CO2 and
H2O in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight is also called photosynthesis.
Raw Materials for Photosynthesis: CO2 and H2O and sunlight.
Site of Photosynthesis: Chloroplast in the leaf. Chloroplast contains chlorophyll. (green pigment).
Stomata
minute pores on the undersurface of the leaf and are guarded by two kidney-shaped guard cells.
Functions of Stomata
Exchange of gases
Loses large amount of water [water vapour] during transpiration and helps in up flow of water
The opening and closing of stomatal pores:
Opening and closing is controlled by the
turgidity of guard cells.
When guard cells take water from surrounding
cells, they swell to become a turgid body, which
stomata
enlarges the pore in between(stomatal
opening).
But when water is released, they become
flaccid, shrinking to close the pore(stomatal
closing). cross section of a leaf
Photosynthesis:
Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into H2 and O2 .
Reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates.
Factors affecting photosynthesis:
Mechanism of photosynthesis
Light intensity
Occur in two steps -
Consentration of CO
The first step is called light reaction (light-dependent reaction)
Humidity
The second step is called dark reaction (light-independent reaction)
Water
Temperature
LIGHT REACTION:
Presence of Chlorophyll
In thylakoid membrane.
Pigments absorb light energy in the form of packets of light photons.
Chlorophyll molecules get excited and emit electrons.
Energy is released which is used to convert ADP to ATP.
Light energy is used to break water molecules- the process is known as photolysis.
H+ ions - used to make NADPH.
O2 is released.
Splitting of water molecules into

DARK REACTION:
In stroma.
ATP and NADPH produced during light reactions are used to convert CO 2 into carbohydrates.
(carbon fixation)

Heterotrophic nutrition:

CAM Plants:
-> Crassulaeean Acid Metabolism.
-> Which fixes CO2 by CAM pathway.
-> Process where desert plants take up CO2 at night and prepare an intermediate which is acted upon by
energy absorbed by chloropyll during the day time.

Pigments:
Organic substances that absorb light of different wavelenghts.
Chlorophyll
Photosyntheic pigments in chloroplast.
Cartonoids
 Activity 6.1
variegated leaf- leaf with different colors.
The leaf is dipped in boiling water so that the hot water destroys the cell membranes and softens the
cuticle and cell walls.
Then the leaf is immersed in a breaker containing alcohol which will be placed in a water bath and will
be heated to remove chlorophyll.
Alcohol cannot be heated directly (because it might catch fire)
The alcohol will break down the chlorophyll, taking the green color away.
Iodine reacts with starch present in the leaf to give a blue-black color.

Activity 6.2
KOH is used to absorb CO2
Vaseline is used to prevent any gaseous exchange.
Materials like nitrogen, phosphorus, Iron, and magnesium are taken
up from the soil.
Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and
other compounds..

Amoeba
Amoeba feeds on microscopic organisms.
They take in food using temporary finger-like extensions (pseudopodia) of
the cell surface which duse over the food particle, forming a food vacuole.
Ingestion- Amoeba engulfs the food by enclosing it with pseudopodia.
Digestion- Food is broken down using digestive enzymes in the vacuole.
(interacellular digestion)
Absorption- All nutrients from the digested food material are also absorbed
into the cell's cytoplasm.
Assimilation- Digested soluble form of food diffuses into cytoplasm and is then
utilized by the cell.
Egestion- Undigested food is thrown out through the cell membrane. (by
exocytosis)

Pseudopodia are temporary processes that help in locomotion and food capture.

Phagocytosis (Endocytosis) in Amoeba

• The food particle gets surrounded by the pseudopodia which touches each other by their tips.
• At this moment the membrane closer to the food particle gets dissolved with the help of the
lysosomes and become a bag called food vacuole. The food vacuole then gets digested.

Nutrition in Humans
• Humans are omnivores, they can eat plant-based food as well as animal-based food.
• Being more complex, humans have a very complicated nutrition system.
• The digestive system has an alimentary canal and associated digestive glands, which together
function to nourish the body.
• Four stages i.e. ingestion, digestion, absorption, and egestion take place in the alimentary canal
while the assimilation of food takes place in the whole body.
 Digestion starts in the mouth.
Teeth break down food (mechanically) into
small pieces.
Salivary glands- three pairs- secrete saliva
to soften food and help break down the food.
Buccal cavity: mouth leads to a cavity –
buccal cavity of which tongue is in the floor,
jaws on the sides which have teeth.
Teeth and tongue help to chew and swallow
the food. pH of the buccal cavity is neutral is
neutral
• Enzymes digest the food into smaller
particles and make them easy to absorb.

Tongue: Muscular organ- helps in mixing

food with saliva to start chemical digestion.
Eppiglotis: flap-like structure at the back of
the throat over the trachea(windpipe) to
prevent food from entering it.
Pharynx: Passage for food and air. Bolus
passes from the buccal cavity to the
esophagus through the pharynx.
Bolus: food made soft by saliva.
Mastication: Mechanical grinding of food
into smaller pieces by the saliva- increased
surface area of food so saliva can break it
down easily.
Oesophagus
• The swallowed food passes into the oesophagus.
• It is a muscular tube, about 25 cm long, with a sphincter (valve/opening) at each end.
• Its function is to transport food and fluid, after being swallowed, from the mouth to the stomach.
• Food is pushed down by peristaltic movements.

Peristalsis: Contraction and expantion of stomach tiny muscles in wavelike movement.

Stomach
J-shaped sac-like muscular organ with strong muscular walls.
It receives food from the esophagus at one end and opens into the small intestine at the other end.
The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid, and digestive juices.
Food is churned into a semi-solid mass in the stomach and is called chyme.
Enzymes present in the gastric juice break down the food.
HCl acid gives an acidic medium for the activity of the enzyme pepsin and it kills bacteria.
The mucus on the inner lining protects from action of acids.
Functions:
Gastic Juices: Mechanical churning of food. (Help in mixing of food
Pepsin: breakdown of proteins with digestive enzymes)
Lipase: Partial breakdown of fats. Partial digestion of food.
Kenin: In small babies (Digestion of milk) Regulation of the flow of food into the small intestine
Storage of food.
 Small Interstine
Longest part of the alimentary canal.
Major part of digestion occur here.
Three parts- First part: duodemiun
Second part: Jejunum- digestion and
absorption
Last part: Ileum- sigestion and
absorption
In the small intestine, food mixes with juice secreted by the
pancreas (helps in the digestion of carbohydrates) and liver (bile
juice secreted by liver is stored in the gallbladder) Here food is
changed into fine particles which can easily be absorbed by
walls of small Intestine.
It recives (duodenum) pancreatic juice and bile that act on the
food
food from stomach - acidic in nature and has to be made basic
for pancreatic enzymes to act
Pancreatic Juice - contains - Bile juice form the liver acomplished this in addition to acting on
Trypsin (for digesting proteins) fats.
Pancreatic amalyse (for digesting starch)
Lipase (fats to fatty acids and glycerol {for breaking down
emulsified fats}) Villi
Bile small finger-like projections in the small
intestine which increase surface area for
The largest gland, decrete Bile which digests lipids
absorption.
(fats).
Rich in blood vessels which take absorbed
Bile is stored in Gall Bladder
food to every cell of the body where its utilized
Bile contains bile salts which convert large fat
for growth, repair, etc.
globules to small globules (emulsification) so that
Absorbs all nutrients.
enzymes can digest it.

Large Intestine
Small intestine- digestion complete From small inestine, undigested
site of complete digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. food passes to large intestine.
Walls of small intestine contain glands - secrete interstinal jucies Water is absorbed here
Enzymes present convert Has two parts:
colon
proteins to amenos
complex carbohydrates - simple sugars
rectum
undigested food is stored here
fats- fatty acids and glyserol
undigested food is then thrown out
the anus
Anus: opening of the end of the digestive system. Faces (waste food) is ready for release. ---- known as defecation.

Alimentary canal in herbivores is

long as the cellulose content of their
plant-based diet takes a long time to
digest.
On the other hand, the alimentary
canal of carnivorous animals is
comparatively shorter because meat
gets digested faster
 Q) Are breating and respiration the
same?
Cellular respiration- biochemical
process of relieaseing enerygy.
Breathing- Biological processes -
oxygen is inhales and carbondioxide
is exhaled.
Breathing is the first step of
ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate [AMP + P --> ADP + P --> ATP] respiration

Steps of Respiration
The food material taken in during the process of nutrition is
used in cells to provide energy for various life processes
Diverse organisms do this in different ways - aerobic and
anaerobic
In all cases, the first step is the breakdown of glucose, a six-carbon molecule into a three-carbon
molecule called pyruvate.
This process is known as Glycolysis- it takes place in the cytoplasm.
Glycolysis- a series of reactions that extract energy from glucose by splitting it into a three-carbon
molecule called pyruvate. (O2 not req for this.)
38 molecules of ATP are released per molecule of glucose as a result of aerobic respiration.
The release of energy in this aerobic process is greater than in the aerobic process.

Path of Air:
Air is taken into the nostrils.
Air is filtered by fine hair and mucus in the nose.
Mucus helps in making inhaled air moist.
From there, air passes through the pharynx, the larynx (voice box), Traches (windpipe), and into the
lungs.
The trachea is surrounded by rings of cartilage.
These ensure that the air passage doesn't collapse
The trachea divides into bronchus/bronchi and enters the lungs.
Within the lungs, it divides into smaller tubes called Bronchioles which then terminate in ballon-like
structures called alveoli.
The oxygen in the alveolar air diffuses Alvoeli adapted for exhange of gases:
into the blood capillaries and is Huge surface area for exchange of gases
transported to the cells in the body and Moist lining for dissolving gases.
blood brings CO2 from cells for release Very thin walls for easy diffusion of gases.
into the alveoli. Walls contain a network of blood vessels (capillaries).
CO2 is more soluble in water than O2 (Since the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide has to
is, and hence is mostly transported in take place across this surface, this surface is very fine and
the dissolved form in our blood. delicate.)
In large animals like humans, diffusion The respiratory pigments in humans is present in RBC,
pressure alone cannot take care of O2 which has a very high affinity for O2
delivery to all parts of the body, Instead,
breathing takes place due to the combined action of
respiratory pigments take oxygen from
intercostal muscles and the diaphragm while the exchange
the air in the lungs and carry it to the
of gases takes place due to simple diffusion.
tissues where oxygen is less.
Exchange of gases in plants:
Exchange gases through stomata. CO2 and O2 are exchanged by diffusion here.
Diffusion direction depends upon the environmental conditions.
Large intercellular spaces ensure that all cells are in contact with air.

NIGHT: CO2 elimination is the major exchange (no photosynthesis)

DAY: O2 release is the major exchange, (CO2 will be used for photosynthesis)

Transpiration
Transpiration is a biological process in which water is lost in the form of water vapor from the aerial parts
of the plants.
This process occurs mainly through the stomata where the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) occurs.
Transpiration helps in the transportation of water from roots to upper parts of plants and this is explained
by the 'transpirational pull theory'.
Loss of water, especially from leaves, acts as a straw effect and pulls water upwards from roots.
Transpiration also acts as an excretory mechanism in plants as it helps to get rid of excess water.

Diaphram
During inhalation, flat muscles known as diaphragm contract/flatten and the ribcage rises up
It expands the volume of the chest cavity.
Because of this, air is sucked into the lung and fills the expanded alveoli.
When the rib cage lowers and the diaphragm releases, pressure in the chest cavity is greater than
atmospheric pressure, and air is pushed out of the lungs.
During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always contain a residual volume of
air so that there is sufficient time for O2 to be absorbed and for the CO2 to be released.

Animals like earthworms take in

gases through their skin.
Fishes have gills for gaseous
exchange.
Insects have a tracheal system,
which is a network of tubes,
through which air circulates and
gaseous exchange takes place.
Frogs breathe through their skin
when in water and through their
lungs when on land.
 TRANSPORTATION PLASMA: 55% of blood is
pale yellow fuid called plasma.
Blood: red-colored fluid connective tissue, which circulates in our body.
Transports food, CO2,
Red color due to the presence of pigment hemoglobin in its red cells.
nitrogenous wastes in
deficiencies of hemoglobin in our body is referred to as anemia.
dissolved form.
Platelets: In case of any injury and bleeding, the loss of blood from the 90-92% water and rest are
system has to be minimised as it leads to loss of pressure of pumping inorganic saltss, amino
system. To prevent this, the platelets circulates around the body helping in acids, enzymes, proteins,
the clotting of blood at site of injury. nutreints, antibodies,
wates(urea), gases (CO2
and O2)
Blood cells are suspended
in the plasma
Heart
Muscular organ that acts
as a pump.
In humans, heart is placed
in the centre of the chest
cavity (thorax) with narrow
end slightly tilted towards
the left.
Heart enclosed in a
double membrane called
The right side of the heart carries deoxygenated blood and the left side pericardium and the
carries oxygenated blood. cavity between the two
Blood vessels that take blood to the heart are veins and those that take layers is filled with
blood away from the heart are arteries. pericardial fluid which
The right side of the heart receives blood from the body and sends it to reduces the friction while
the lungs. pumping of the heart.

Capillaries Veins Artries

Have thin walls. They are one-celled
thick for diffusion of molecules. Have thin walls
carry deoxygenated blood to the Have thick walls
The smallest type of blood vessels are
heart from the body Carry oxygenated blood away
small branches of arteries and veins.
Less pressure from the heart to the body.
A capillary connects an arteriole small
Blood moves at high pressure
artery to a venule (small veins) to form Valves are present to prevent
No valves
a network of blood vessels in amount the backflow of blood.
all parts of the body.
RBC/ Erythrocytes WBC/ Leukocytes Platelets/ Thrombocytes
Transport O2 to various Body’s defense system Cells that help in coagulation
parts of the body. Provide immunity by fighting of blood to form clots.
Formed from stem cells in off pathogens and harmful Colorless
the bone marrows microbes No nucleous
Red due to pigment Colorless Round on biconvex
hemeoglobin Nucleous present, large, fragments of lens
No nucleous, Minute, circular/irregular Lifespan- 7-8 Days.
Biconcave shape Lifespan- few hours to few
Lifespan- 120 days. days.
 The left side of the heart receives blood from the lungs and sends it to the body parts.
Muscular septum present between two auricles and ventricles prevents the mixing of oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood.
Circulation of blood by rhythmic contractions and relaxation of atria and ventricle.
The mixing of oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood can decrease the concentration of
oxygen in the cells thereby slowing the metabolism.

What would be the consequences of deficiency of hemoglobin in our

bodies?
Haemoglobin efficiently binds with O2 and transports to various parts of the
body. A deficiency of hemoglobin is referred to as anemia. The consequence
of such a condition is that blood is unable to carry O2 required by the body for
respiration and to produce energy. In anemia, the person feels weak, skin
becomes pale, etc.

Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood in

mammals and birds?
As they are warm-blooded, they need energy constantly to maintain their body Tricuspid valve: located between
temperature. Thus, their oxygenated blood mustn't get mixed with the right atrium and right ventricle.
deoxygenated blood to make the circulatory system more efficient. Mitral (Bicuspid) Valve: located
between the left atrium and left
Cardiac cycle: One contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) of ventricle.
the heart. Pulmonary valve: Located
between the right ventricle and
Circulation in Human Beings: pulmonary artery (base of
pulmonary artery.)
Circlulation between heart and lungs is called pulmonary circulation.
Aortic Valve: located between the
Right Atrium Tricuspid valve Right ventricle Pulmonary
left ventricle and the aorta.
valve Pulmonary artery lungs(oxgenation) Pulmonary
Aortic semilunar valve
vein.

Double Circulation:
In human beings, blood flows twice through the heart during one complete cycle, thus, the circulation
of blood in humans is called double circulation.
In pulmonary circulation, blood is taken from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart.
What is the function of this part? Exchange O2 and CO2 with the air, Low pressure.
The systematic circulation carries blood around the body and brings it back to the heart.

Systemic Circulation
Circulation of blood between the heart and body organs (except lungs) is called systemic circulation
The left auricle sends oxygenated blood into the left ventricle through the bicuspid valve. From there,
blood into the left ventricle through the bicuspid valve. From there, blood is pumped into the aorta which
branches and gives blood to all organs except lungs. Deoxygenated blood received from all organs is
brought back to the right auricle via the inferior and superior vena cava.
Activity 6.4

Activity
6.5