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IMPORTANT NOTES AND DETAILS

Biochemical engineering – concerned with conducting biological processes in an industrial scale

Biotechnology – commercial techniques that uses living organisms or substances from living
organism to make or modify product
Techniques such as: recombinant DNA and cell fusion
Genetic engineering – laboratory technique for genetic manipulation
General objective: Splice a foreign gene for a desired product into circular forms of DNA
(plasmids) then, inserted into organism
Cell fusion – process to form a single hybrid cell with nuclei and cytoplasm from two different
types of cell
Applications of biotechnology
Fields Product or application
Pharmaceuticals Antibiotics, antigens, endorphin, gamma gobulin, human
growth hormone, human serum albumin, immune regulators,
insulin, interferon, interleukins, lymphokines, monoclonal
antibody, neuroactive peptides, tissue plasminogen activator,
vacines
Animal agriculture Development of disease free seed stock, healthier, higher
yielding feed animals
Plant agriculture Transfer of stress, -herbicide- or pest- resistant traits to crop
species, development of plants with increase abilities of
photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation, development of
biological insecticides and non-nucleating bacterium
Specialty chemicals Amino acids, enzymes, vitamins, lipids, hydroxylated
aromatics, biopolymers
Environmental applications Mineral leaching, metal concentration, pollution recovery, toxic
waste degradation, and enhanced oil recovery
Commodity chemicals Acetic acid, acetone, butanol, ethanol, and many other
products from biomass conversion process
Bioelectronics Biosensors, biochips

Large scale bioprocess:

1. To obtain the best biological catalyst (microorganism, animal cell, plant cell, or enzyme)
for a desired process
2. To create the best possible environment for the catalyst to perform by designing the
bioreactor and operating it in the most efficient way
3. To separate the desired product from the reaction mixture in the most economical way
Advantages of biological process:
1. Mild reaction condition – typical condition at room temp, atmospheric pressure and fairly
medium pH as a result less hazardous and complex compared to others
2. Specificity – an enzyme catalyst is highly specific and catalyzes only one or a small
number of chemical reaction
3. Effectiveness – rate of enzyme catalyzed reaction is faster than same reaction with non
– biological catalyst
4. Renewable resources – major raw material = biomass which provides both
5. Recombinant DNA technology – the development of the recombinant DNA technology
promises enormous possibilities to improve biological process
Disadvantages of biological process:
1. Complex product mixtures
2. Dilute aqueous environment – the components of commercial interests are only
produced in small amounts in small aqueous medium therefore, separation is expensive
3. Contamination – the fermenter system can easily be contaminated, since, many
environmental bacteria and molds grow well in most media
4. Variability – cells tend to mutate due to the changing environment and may lose some
characteristics vital for the success of process

CHAPTER 1: A Little Microbiology

Microbiology – is the study of living organism too small to be seen by the naked eye
Microorganisms – diameter 0.1 mm or less
Biophysics – sometimes used to indicate explicitly the union of the biological and physical
sciences
Schleiden and Schwann (1838) – Proposed the cell theory
Cell theory – “states that all living things are composed of cells and their products”
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The structure of cells:

Procaryotic cells
--- Do not contain a membrane enclosed nucleus
--- Are relatively small and simple cells
--- Can be spherical, rod like and spiral
--- From 0.5 to 3 µm
Basic features:
Rigid wall = 200 A (angstrom) thick
Cell membrane – has a thickness of 70A
Nuclear zone – which is the dominant control center for cell operation
From notes:
Microbes in our lives:
Microorganisms
--- Living things to small to be seen with unaided eye
--- Important in maintaining earth’s ecological balance
--- Some live in humans and animals are needed for good health
--- Some are used to manufacture foods and chemicals
--- Some causes diseases
Naming and classifying microorganisms:
Morphology – physical form and structure between various types of organisms
Taxonomy – art of biological classification
Carolus Linnaeus (1735) – designed a nomenclature system which assigns living organisms
with two names (genus and specific ephiphet)

PROTIST
KINGDOM

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
- No nucleus - Plant or
or membrane animal cell
bound -Cells with true
organelles nucleus

Bacteria
- Unicellular organisms Blue Green Algae
-Have peptidoglycan cell - Cyanobacteria, do not
wall carry out oxygenic
-Divide by Binary Fusion photosynthesis
- Uses a wide variety of - Capable of nitrogen
chemical substance for fixation
nutrition

Algae
- Multicellular or unicellular
Fungi eukaryotes that obtain Protozoa
(Mushroom, nourishment by photosynthesis - Primitive
Molds and Yeast) - Produce oxygen and animals that
- Have eukaryotic carbohydrates that are used by can¶t exploit
Archaeobacteria cells organisms sunlight¶s
- Consists of - Multicellular - Are relatively large eukaryotes energy
prokaryotic cells
Eubacteria having sophisticated and highly
without
organized structures
peptidoglycan
layer

Viruses
--- Are non-cellular entities that are parasite of cells
--- Consists of a nucleic acid core (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat
Helminths – Principal group of multicellular animal parasites (round and flatworms)
History of microbiology:
1. Robert Hooke – Cell theory, that all living things are composed of cells
2. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1673) – used a microscope and first observed microorganisms
3. Francesco Redi (1668) – Demonstrated that maggots appear on decaying meat when
flies lay their eggs
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4. John Needham (1745) – Claimed that microorganisms could arise spontaneously from
heated nutrient broth
5. Lazzaro Spallazani (1765) – Repeated needham’s experiment and suggested that
results were due to microorganisms entering the broth
6. Rudolf Virchow (1858) – Introduced biogenesis – Living cells can arise from preexisting
cells
7. Louis Pasteur (1861)
--- Demonstrated that microorganisms in the air everywhere and offered a proof of
biogenesis
--- Led to antiseptic techniques used in laboratory and medicine to prevent
contamination
The golden age of microbiology:
Pasteur – found that yeasts ferment sugar to alcohol and that bacteria can oxidize the alcohol to
acetic acid
Pasteurization – used to kill bacteria in some alcoholic beverages and milk
1. Agostino Bassi and Pasteur – showed the casual relationship between microorganisms
and disease
2. Joseph Lister (1860) – Introduced the use of a disinfectant to clean surgical wounds in
order to control infection in humans
3. Robert Koch – Proved that microorganisms can cause diseases
Koch Postulates (1876) – used to prove that a particular microorganism can cause
disease
4. Edward Jenner – Demonstrated that inoculation with cowpox material provides humans
with immunity to small pox
Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
Prokaryotic cells
--- Lack membrane bound organelles (such as nucleus)
--- Most bacteria are 0.2 to 2.0 µm in diameter and 2 to 8 µm in length
--- Three basic bacterial shapes
1. Coccus (spherical)
2. Bacillus (rod-shaped)
3. Spiral (twisted)
--- Pleomorphic bacteria – has several shapes
Eukaryotic cells
--- Has membrane bound nucleus and organelles
Structures external to the cell wall:
Glycocalyx
--- Gelatinous polysaccharide or polypeptide covering
--- Protect pathogen from phagocytosis
--- Enable adherence to surfaces, prevent desiccation and provide nutrients
Flagella – relatively long fillamentus appendages consists of filament, hook and body
Prokaryotic flagella – rotate to push the cell
Spirochetes – spiral cells that move means of axial filament (endoflagellum)
Endoflagellum – similar to flagella except they wrap around the cell
Fimbrae – help cells adhere to surfaces
Pili – involves in twitching mobility and DNA transfer
Characteristics of cell wall:
1. The cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane and protect the cell from changes in
water pressure
2. The bacterial cell wall – consists of peptidoglycan – a polymer consisting of NaG and
NaM and short chain of amino acids
3. Penicillin interferes with peptidoglycan systhesis
4. Gram positive bacteria – consists of many layers of peptidoglycan and contain teichoic
acids
5. Gram negative bacteria – have a lipopolysaccharide – lipoprotein – phospholipid outer
membrane surrounding a thin peptidoglycan layer
6. Porins – protein that permit small molecules to pass through the outer membrane
Nucleus
--- Chromatin – mass of DNA which coils up into recognizable chromosomes
--- Nuclear envelope – double membrane perforated with pores
--- Site of DNA replication and RNA synthesis
Rough ER
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--- Rough – because it is embedded with ribosomes

--- Synthesis of secretary proteins
--- Site for synthesis of membrane, enzyme synthesize phospholipids
--- Ribosomes – synthesize protein then converts it into glycoprotein and packaged in transport
vesicle for secretion
Smooth ER
--- Site for synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and steroids
--- Production of steroid hormones is tissue specific
Golgi complex
--- Series of folded membranes
--- Processes enzymes and other product of ER to a finished product
--- Source of production of lysosomes
Mitochondria
--- Site of respiration and converts chemical energy of sugar and other organic compound into
high energy phosphate bond of ATP molecule
--- Double membrane
--- Cristae – inner membrane, site of electron transport system
Lysosomes
--- Membrane bound vesicles that harbor digestive enzymes
--- Membrane of lysosomes – will fuse with vacuole membrane and release digestive enzyme
Vacuoles
--- Membrane bound sacs with different functions:
Central vacuole of plant – serves as a large lysosome
Absorbs water
Central vacuole of flower – holds color
Contractile vacuole of protists – coiled and excrete water
Chloroplast
--- Double membrane bound organelles and site for photosynthesis
Granum – inner membrane forms a series of stacked plates
Stroma – thick fluid found in chloroplasts
Cytoskeleton
--- Meshwork of any tiny fibers that support structure
A. Microfilaments
--- Solid helical rods composed of protein actin
--- Twist double chain of actin molecules
B. Intermediate filaments
--- Variable but, are ropelike structures made of twisted filaments of fibrous protein
C. Microtubules
--- Straight, hollow tubes composed of protein tubulins
--- Anchor organelles and provide tract which organelles move
Cilia and Flagella
--- Found in cells such as protest and motile
--- Cilia – short and numerous
--- Flagella – longer and less numerous appendages
Cell surface:
Cell junction – structure that holds the cells together
Three types of junctions:
1. Tight junction – bind cells together and form a leakproof sheet
2. Anchoring junction – attach adjacent cell/s to an extracellular matrix
Extracellular matrix – substances which cell tissue are embedded
3. Communicating junction – channels between cells
Plasmodesmata – passages between adjacent plant cells that allow material to move

CHAPTER 2: Chemicals of Life

- Total of 83 stable chemical elements in the universe
- 95 % if the mass of all terestial organisms is composed of:
Carbon = 10.50%
Hydrogen = 61%
Oxygen = 26%
Nitrogen = 2.4%
- Water = 90% of life and good temperature buffer
- Carbon – allows us to form chains due to its electronic configuration
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- Nitrogen – prominent in biological compounds due to its reactivity with carbon and form
chains
Lipids and phospholipids
Lipids
--- Long hydrocarbon chain with active group on one end
--- Concentrated sources of energy (9.45 Kcal/g)
Fatty acids
Neutral fats
Phospholipids
--- Structural formation is analogous to surfactant, block copolymer
Two types of lipids
1. Open chain compound with polar head group and long non polar tails
(a) Fatty acids
(b) Triacylglycerol
(c) Sphingolipids
(d) Phosphoacylglycerol
(e) Glycolipids
2. Fused ring compound
(a) Steriods
Lipid classes:
1. Simple – fatty acid esterified with glycerol
2. Compound – same with simple lipid but with other compounds
3. Phospholipids – Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and nitrogen
4. Glycolipids – Fatty acid with CHO without nitrogen (N2)
5. Derived lipids – hydrolysis
6. Sterols – large molecular weight alcohols found in nature
Fatty acids – has a carbonyl group at polar end and hydrocarbon at non polar end
Fat molecule – glycerol + fatty acid
Structure:

Naturally occurring saturated fatty acids:

Acid Number of carbon (n) Formula
Lauric 12 CH3(CH2)12COOH
Myristic 14 CH3(CH2)14COOH
Palmitic 16 CH3(CH2)16COOH
Stearic 18 CH3(CH2)18COOH
Arachic 20 CH3(CH2)20COOH
The formula follows: CH3(CH2)nCOOH
Naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acid:
Acid No. of carbon/ Degree of Formulas:
unsaturation
Palmitoleic 12/16:1 Δ9

Oleic 18/18:1 Δ9

Linoleic 18/18:2 Δ9, 12

Linolenic 18/18:3 Δ9, 12, 15

Arachidonic 20/20:4 Δ5, 8, 11, 14

Phosphoacyl glycerol (phospholipids)

Phosphatidic acid
--- One of the OH groups is esterified with H3PO4 rather than COOH
--- The two other groups are esterified with fatty acids
Phosphatidyl ester
--- Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) molecule bonds with glycerol and same OH
Waxes
--- Complex mixtures of ester of long chain hydrocarbon
Formula/ Structure:
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Carnauba wax – myricyl cerotate

Spermaceti – Whale wax – cetyl palmitate
Sphingolipids
--- Doesn’t contain glycerol, contains amino acid sphingosine
--- Present in plants and animals
--- Abundant in nervous system
--- Ceramide – simple compound of class
--- Sphingomyelins – causes multiple sclerosis
Glycolipids
--- Hybrid molecules containing both lipid and carbohydrate group
--- Also known as glycoacylglycerol
Steroids
--- Derivatives of saturated tetracyclic hydrocarbon
Examples:
1. Testosterone – principal male sex hormone and an anabolic steriod
2. Cholic acid – a bile acid, showing the carboxylic acid and additional hydroxyl group often
present
3. Dexamethasone – a synthetic corticosteroid drug
4. Lanosterol – the biosynthetic precursor to animal steroids
5. Progesterone – a steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy
and embryogenesis
6. Medrogestone – a synthetic drug with similar effects to progesterone
Steroid hormones:
(a) Sex hormones
--- Androgens, estrogens and progestogens
(b) Corticosteroids
--- Glucocorticoids – regulate many aspect of metabolism and immune function
--- Mineralocorticoids – help maintain blood volume and control renal excretion of
electrolytes
--- Aldosterone – a mineralocorticoid which help regulate blood pressure
--- Cortisol – a glucocorticoid whose function include immunosupression
(c) Anabolic steroids
--- Natural and synthetic
Types of steroids:
1. Intact ring system
Class Number of Example
carbon
atoms
Cholestanes – is a saturated 27 carbon steroid 27 Cholesterol
precursor which serves as the basis for many
organic molecules
1. Sterols
2. Cholestenes
Cholanes – is a steroid with a molecular weight of 24 Cholic acid
330.59, it can exist as either two stereoisomers,
5α-cholane and 5β-cholane
Pregnanes – are steroid derivatives with carbon 21 Progersterone
present at position 1 through 21
1. Pregnenes
Cortisone, Hydrocortisone, Progesterone
2. Pregnadienes
Cyproterone acetate, Danazol,
Fluocinonide
3. Prenatrienes
Androstanes – is a steroid which can exists as two 19 Testosterone
isoments 5α-androstane and 5β-androstane
Estranes 18 Estradiol
2. Cleaved, contracted and expanded rings

Sterane
--- Perhydrocyclopentanophenanthrene compounds
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--- are a class of 4 cyclic compounds derived from steroids or sterols via diamagnetic and
catagenetic degradation and saturation

Chemical structure of sterane:

Polysaccharides
--- Polymers composed of sugar
--- Similar to synthetic polymers in that primary structure
--- Follows chair or boat conformation
Uses include:
--- Energy storage
--- Component of extra cellular matrix
Disssacharides
- Maltose = Glucose + Glucose

- Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose

- Lactose = β – D galactose + glucose

Starch – used to describe a biopolymer system comprising predominantly of 2 polysaccharides

2 polysaccharides:
1. Amylose
--- Smaller of two polysaccharides which makes up starch
--- Amylose is a linear molecule
--- Comprised of (1,4) linked α – D glucopyranosyl units
Structure of Amylose:
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2. Amylopectin
--- Larger of two components
--- Highly branched with much greater molecular weight
--- Structure contains α – D – glucopyranosyl units mainly by (1 – 4) linkage but, with
greater proportion of (1 – 6) linkage
--- Gives a highly branched structure
--- Basis of the structure of starch granules
--- Short branched (1 – 4) chains are able to form helical structures which crystallize
Structure of Amylopectin:

Cellulose
--- Major structural component of woody plants and natural fibers such as cotton, wood and cork
--- A β – D glucose polymer found in vegetable matter
Proteins
--- Are polymers composed of amino acid monomers
--- Polypeptide – another term for amino acid polymers
--- Characterized by a specific structure – order of mers in backbone and DP
--- Control of primary structure leads to control of 3D structure
--- The control of protein structure builds information into the molecule that translate into
functions
--- Perform structural and functional tasks
Collager (Triple helix – Gly – x – y) where proline and hydroxylproline is often present is
the basic structural protein
Enzyme perform specific catalytic tasks
Adhesive proteins are bind cells to substrates
Provide signal transduction between cells and ECM
Protein hierarchy structure:
(a) Secondary structure (four types)
1. α Helix – regular helix
2. β Sheet – extended zig-zag
3. β Turn – puts folds into β sheet
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4. Globular or random coil

(b) Tertiary structures
--- Refers to secondary structures stabilized by H bonds
DNA chemistry:
DNA – is a complex molecule which is built of three basic type of monomer
1. Sugar (ribose)
2. Phosphate (PO4)
3. Nitrogenous bases

DNA construction:
--- The double helix (which resembles a twisted ladder)
--- Rails made up of sugar and phosphate
--- Rings composed of four pairs of nitrogenous bases either AT, TA, GC, or CG
DNA letters and genes
--- The rings of double helix are like map on the floor they spell out where amino acids should
line up
--- Each ring can one of four possible letters (AT, TA, CG, and GC)
--- Each slot where an amino acid will line up is formed of three rings of the double helix
--- Set of three rings = gene
--- Each gene matches up chemically to one of 20 amino acids used by life
Chirality of biological molecules:
--- Amino acids – left handed
--- Sugar – right handed
The nucleic acid – complex structure used to maintain genetic info
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
--- Serves as the master copy for most information in the cell
--- Is a polymer known as polynucleotide
--- Each nucleotide is composed of
--- 5 carbon sugar
--- Nitrogen containing base attached to sugar
--- 4 nucleotides
--- Adenine
--- Guanine
--- Thymine
--- Cytosine
RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
--- Acts to transfer information from DNA to the rest of cell
--- Composed of:
(a) Phosphoric acid
(b) Ribose (pentose)
(c) Organic (nitrogenous) bases
Purines: Adenine and Guanine
Pyramidines: Cytosine and Uracil
Main classes of RNA:
1. mRNA (messenger RNA) – copy of genetic information
2. tRNA (transfer RNA)
--- Small RNA molecule (70 – 90 base units)
--- Used to bring the correct amino acid to the site of protein synthesis
3. rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
--- Platform for protein synthesis, holds mRNA in place and helps assemble the protein
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The secondary and tertiary structures:

--- Two strands are anti – parallel
--- The sugar – phosphate backbone is one the outside of the helix
--- In the middle are base pairs which are restricted
- Adenine – Thymine (AT)
- Cytosine – Guanine (CG)
DNA replication – occurs each time a cell divides
Simplest mechanism involves
1. Initial separation of two strands
2. Transport of complementary nucleotides to each strand
3. Production of a new strand, leading to a new molecule of DNA
RNA codons and Anti – codons
Codon – sequence on the mRNA
Anti – codon – sequence on the tRNA
Two additional types of codons:
1. Initiation (AUG)
2. Termination (UAG, UAA, UAG)
Nutritional requirements for microorganisms:
Microbial nutrition:
1. Macronutrients
2. Micronutrients
3. Growth factors
Carbon
--- Bacterial cells = 50 % Carbon
--- Heterotrophs – organic carbon such as amino acid, fatty acid, sugar and etc.
--- Autotrophs – inorganic carbon such as CO2
Nitrogen
--- Bacterial cell = 12 % Nitrogen
Two sources:
1. Inorganic nitrogen
NH3, NO3-, NO2-, N2
NH3, NO3, NO2- - could be used by most bacteria
N2 – can be used by nitrogen fixing bacteria
2. Organic nitrogen
Amino acids, proteins
Other macronutrients
1. Phosphorus (P)
--- Organic or inorganic
--- Used to form nucleic acid and phospholipids
2. Sulfur (S)
--- Used to form amino acid cysteine and methionine
--- Found in vitamins such as thiamine, biotin, lipoic acid and enzyme A
3. Pottassium (K)
--- Enzymes for protein synthesis
4. Magnesium (Mg)
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--- Stabilize ribosome, cell membrane and nucleic acid

5. Calcium (Ca)
--- Stabilize bacterial cell wall
6. Sodium (Na)
--- Marine animals require for growth
7. Iron (Fe)
--- Plays a major role in cellular respiration
Trace elements needed by living organisms:
(a) Chromium (Cr) – required by mammals for glucose metabolism
(b) Cobalt (Co) – vitamin B12, transcarboixylate (propionic acid bacteria)
(c) Copper (Cu) – respiration, cytochrome C oxidase, photosynthesis, plastocyanin, same
superoxide dismutases
(d) Manganese (Mn) – activator of many enzyme, present in certain superoxide dismutases
and water splitting enzyme
(e) Molybdenum (Mo) – certain Flavin containing enzymes, nitrogenase, nitrate reductase,
sulfur oxidase, DMSO-TMAG reductase, some formate dehydrogenase
(f) Nickel (Ni) – most hydrogenases and co-enzyme F430 of methanogenens, carbon
monoxide dehydrogenase, urease
(g) Selenium (Se) – formate dehydrogenase, some hydrogenases, amino acid,
selenocystiene
(h) Tungsten (W) – some formate dehydrogenase, oxotransferases of hyperthermopiles
(i) Vanadium (V) – vanadium nitrogenase, bromoperoxidase
(j) Zinc (Zn) – carbonic anhydrase, alcohol dehydrase, RNA and DNA polymerases, and
many DNA binding polymer
(k) Iron (Fe) – cytochromes, catalases, peroxidases, iron sulfur proteins, oxygenases, all
nitrogenases

Other terms and definitions:

Archaebacteria – type of bacteria that are considered to be ancient organisms such as
methanogens, halobacteria and thermoacidophiles
Eubacteria – could be either a gram positive or gram negative, characterized by a rigid cell wall,
they can be motile or non-molite. If they are motile that have flagella
Bacteriophage – is a virus that infects and replicated within bacteria
Virus – is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cell of other organisms
Acetobacter – is a genus of acetic acid bacteria and has the ability to convert ethanol to acetic
acid in the presence of oxygen
Lactic acid bacteria – refers to a large group of beneficial bacteria that have similar properties
and all produce lactic acid as an end product of the fermentation process
Bacili – refers to a taxonomic class of bacteria, which contain pathogens such as bacillus
anthracis (cause of anthrax)
Two orders:
1. Bacillales
2. Lactobacillales
Pollution – is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment which causes
adverse change
Putrefaction – is the 5th stage of decomposition, and the process in which the breakdown of a
body of a human or animal after death
Dissolution – is the process by which these original states become solutes
Activated sludge process – is a process for treating sewage and industrial waters using air and
a biological floc composed of bacteria and protozoa
Trickling filter process – is a type of wastewater treatment which consists a fixed bed of rocks,
lava, coke, gravel and etc over which sewage or other wastewater flows downwards and causes
a layer of microbial slime to grow covering the bed of media
Thermal death time (TDT) – used to determine how long it takes to kill bacteria at a specific
temperature
Thermal death point (TDP) – is the lowest temperature at which all microbes in a liquid will be
killed in 10 minutes
Single-cell protein (SCP) – refers to edible unicellular microorganisms
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – is the energy currency of life and it provides that energy for
most biological processes by being converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Phytoplankton – also known as microalgae are similar to terrestrial plants in that they contain
chlorophyll and require sunlight in order to live and grow.
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Two classes of phytoplanktons:

1. Dinoflagellates
--- Uses a whip like tail or flagella to move through water and their bodies are covered
with complex shells
2. Diatoms
--- Do not rely on flagella to move through water instead, rely on ocean current to travel
through water
Amoeba – is a type of cell or organism which has the ability to alter its shape, primarly by
extending and retracting pseudopods
Algal bloom – is a rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae in water system
Zooplankton – are heterotrophic plankton
Culture media – materials in which microorganisms are grown in a laboratory
Urease – an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea, forming ammonia and carbon dioxide
Pepsin – is an enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides, it is produced in the
stomach and is one of the main digestive enzymes
Papain – enzyme present in papaya
Bromelain – is a proteolytic enzyme found in fresh pineapple. It is often used to treat muscle
injuries and as a digestive aid
Sporulation – is the formation of nearly dormant forms of bacteria
Autotrophs – are organisms that can produce their own food from the substances available in
the surroundings using light, obtain carbon from CO2, plants, self-feeders or primary producers
Heterotroph – cannot synthesize their own food and rely on other organism, get reduced carbon
from other organism
Aerobic organism or aerobe – is an organism that can survive and grow in an oxygenated
environment
Mesophile – is an organism that grows best in moderate temperature neither too hot or too cold
typically between 20 to 45 0C
Psychrophile – organism that grows best in below 20 0C
Thermophiles – organism that grows best in above 40 0C
Hydrophile – is a molecule or other molecular entity that is attracted to and tends to be
dissolved by water
Lyophilization or freeze – drying – is a process in which water is removed from a product after it
is frozen and placed under a vacuum allowing the ice to change directly from solid to vapor
Pasteurization – process of heat processing a liquid or a food to kill pathogenic bacteria. Used
commonly in milk
Streptomyces griseus – a species of bacteria in the genus Streptomyces commonly found in soil
Aspergillus sojae –
Lecithin – is a generic term to designate any group of yellow – brownish fatty substances
occurring in animal and plant tissue
Carotene – is responsible for the orange color of carrots and the colors of many other fruits and
vegtables
Lipoprotein – molecules made up of proteins and fats
Riboflavin – a yellow vitamin of the B complex that is essential for metabolic energy production
Bile or gall – is a dark green to yellow brownish fluid, produced by the liver of most vertebrates
Insulin – is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets
Hydrocortisone or cortisol – a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex and used
medicinally to treat inflammation resulting from eczema and rheumatism
Catalytic unit – used to express unit of concentration per second, or used to express catalytic
activity
Enzyme unit (U) – the amount that catalyzes the conversion of 1 micromole of substrate per
minute, temperature of 250C and optimal pH value
Sickle cell disease (SCD) – describes a group of inherited red blood cell disorder which have
abnormal hemoglobin
Hemoglobin – is a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body
Acid number or neutralization number or acid value – is the mass of potassium hydroxide (KOH)
in milligrams that is required to neutralize one gram of chemical substance
Iodine number – the mass of iodine in grams that is consumed by 100 grams of chemical
substance
--- often used to determine the amount of unsaturation in fatty acids
Saponification value – represents the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH)
required to saponify 1g of fat under the condition specified
--- It is a measure of the average molecular weight of all the fatty acid present
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Deborah number (De) – is a dimensionless number often used in rheology to characterize the
fluidity of materials under specific flow condition