LIFE SCIENCE GR11

STUDY NOTES
Compiled by: Clarissa Iyer

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TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

1. Introduction 3

2. Micro-organisms 4

3. Immunity 10

4. Biodiversity in plants 15

5. Biodiversity in animals 30

6. Photosynthesis 38

7. Cellular respiration 45

8. Gaseous exchange 49

9. Animal nutrition 61

10. Excretion 74

11. Population ecology 86

12. Human impact on environment 94

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 INTRODUCTION
Tips and Advice for Life Sciences
1. Practice past papers as much as possible. Once you begin to find the patterns and
understand the questions better, you are able to apply yourself accurately, and
provide in depth answers of what the teachers want
Here is a link to a website that provides all DBE past papers for Life Sciences grade
11: https://www.stanmorephysics.com/life-sciencegrade-11/
2. Know your diagrams and labels well. Make sure to always add a title at the bottom
of your diagram, and use either a pencil or pen depending on the preference of the
educator.
3. Please always make sure to write the name of a genus or species in italics ex.
Anopheles mosquito
4. When writing down labels from a diagram provided, don’t forget to write the first
letter of the name in a capital letter, as marks can be removed for this. Ex. D – Loop
of Henle✔; D – loop of henle x
5. Study, Study, Study. The biggest piece of advice I would suggest for Life Sciences is
studying, re-reading and reviewing. Make sure to go over your work every day, and
make use of flash cards. Try to take time off at least 4 times a week to review your
life science work. Something that could help motivate you to do this can be an app,
such as ‘Study Bunny’, or creating your own goals and reward-system.

The material for Life science Grade 11 has been summarised down into 118 pages, and
includes the key points, labelled diagrams, graphs and key terms of the all the different
sections in the work covered.

Please Note: Always make sure to listen and read the additional content the teachers may
give you, especially before a test or exam, as the work they choose to cover or focus on more
is sometimes most likely to come out in the paper. Always keep eyes and ears open
throughout each lesson.

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 TERM DEFINITION
Pathogens Disease causing micro=organisms
Phagocytosis a process whereby a cell or unicellular organism surrounds and
engulfs a large particle of food or another cell.
Multi-drug resistant refers to bacteria that are resistant to at least TWO anti-TB drugs.
tb (MDR-TB)

PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
Organisms without a true nucleus Organisms with a true nucleus
DNA is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane DNA is enclosed by a nuclear membrane
and occurs freely in the cytoplasm inside the nucleus
Membrane-bound organelles are absent Membrane-bound organelles occur inside
the cytoplasm

Viruses
- Are not classified as living organisms:
• Acellular
• Can only reproduce inside the cells of
living organisms
- Not involved in transforming energy
- They can infect plant, animal or bacterial cells
- Some viruses are enclosed by a sheath of lipid
and protein molecules which originates from
the host cell’s outer membrane

How do viruses cause disease?

- Take control of host cell’s genetic material, regulate the
synthesis/assembly of new viruses - multiply
- Infect the host cell - cause acute diseases.
- Most viral infections can resolve in weeks, but others can be fatal.

Importance
They’re important microbial predators that influence global
biogeochemical cycles and drive microbial evolution.

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 Bacteria

- Classified: Monera
- AEROBIC BACTERIA - can live in
the presence of oxygen
- ANAEROBIC BACTERIA - can live in
the absence of oxygen
- Some are pathogenic (cholera,
TB)
- Unicellular and prokaryotic

BACTERIA EXPLANATION
Autotrophic bacteria Produce their own organic substances (through
photosynthesis/chemosynthesis)
Heterotrophic bacteria Cannot produce their own organic substances.
- Parasitic: obtain food from living organisms
- Saprophytic: Obtain food from dead organic material
- Mutualistic: Obtain food from a symbiotic relationship with
another organism (both benefit)

Importance

SAPROPHYTIC BACTERIA
AUTOTROPHIC BACTERIA
break down dead organic matter
produce own organic food. Use CO2,
into inorganic substances - recycled
release 02 - photosynthesis – O2 and
into soil - fertile. Release CO2 and
CO2 balance ins maintained.
heat into atmosphere.

NITROGEN FIXING BACTERIA

DENTRIFYING BACTERIA
convert nitrogen gas (N2) into
return nitrogen from nitrates
nitrates which can be absorbed by
back into the atmosphere.
plants to produce proteins.

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Protists
– Most are unicellular
– Protozoa ingest their food through phagocytosis

MAIN GROUPS
Protozoa animal like, unicellular, heterotrophic
Algae plant like, uni/multicellular, autotrophic
Slime moulds Fungi-like, multicellular, heterotrophic

Importance

PHYTOPLANKTON PROTISTS PHOTOSYNTHEIC PROTISTS

are producers in aquatic maintain the balance between
food chains oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
aquatic environment

SEAWEEDS
are used in food
SAPTOPHYTIC PROTISTS
PARASITIC PROTISTS (SLIME MOULDS) are
cause disease decomposers and nutrient
recyclers

Fungi
– Eukaryotic
– Cell walls – consists of chitin
– Consists of mass of branched filaments/hyphae
– Heterotrophic (no chlorophyll)
– Includes saprophytes, parasites and mutualism
REPRODUCTION:
– Unicellular – asexually (binary fission)
– Multicellular – sexually (gametes)

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 Importance

responsible for breaking down Fungi are essential to many

organic matter and releasing carbon, household and industrial processes,
oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus notably the making of bread, wine,
into the soil and the atmosphere. beer, and certain cheeses.

Fungi are also used as food; and

mycoproteins derived from the
mycelia of certain species of fungi

Rhizopus (Bread mould)

- Multicellular
- Consists of hyphae
- Hyphae are interwoven to form the vegetative body – mycelium
- Is a THALLUS –no true roots, stems and leaves can be distinguished

TYPE OF HYPHAE EXPLANATION

Runners/Stolons Hyphae that branch HORIZONTALLY on the surface of the substrate
(bread, cake etc.)
Rhizoids Branches of the stolon that PENETRATE the substrate and anchor
the mycelium
Sporangiophore Hyphae that grow up VERTICALLY and develop SPORANGIA on their
tips to produce SPORES

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Diseases
Tuberculosis
- Caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis
- Mainly affects lungs
- Transmitted through infected droplets which may
be inhaled
EFFECTS
When inhaled - reproduces and causes
infections in the lungs
If immune system is WEAK – develops
into active TB, where pneumonia
occurs repeatedly (bacteria spreads to
other parts of body)
TB patient can lose between 3 – 6
moths of income because they can’t
work
PREVENTION
Well-educated; well-informed on spread
of TB, importance of hygiene, balanced
diet, sunlight, fresh air
Treatment must begin directly after
diagnosis
Healthcare workers must be informed on
the risks of TB; report any symptoms
Babies must be vaccinated with the BCG
vaccine.
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MANAGEMANT
Aggressive course of antibiotics over 6
months.
Do not stop course of antibiotics, if taken
again it won’t work (bacteria become
resistant to antibiotic)
DOTS programme (Directly Observed
Treatment, Short-course) is introduced to
ensure the patient completes the course of
antibiotics (healthcare worker keeps check)
Counselling of patients and their families
DRUG RESISTANT BACTERIA
Don’t respond to medication
Due to badly managed TB care and
incorrect use of anti-TB drugs
More recent, extreme drug resistant TB
(XDR-TB)
MDR-TB requires long term
chemotherapy involving expensive
medication (only 50% of patients get
cured)
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 Malaria
- Caused by a protist of the genus plasmodium and is transmitted via
mosquito
- There are 5 plasmodium species, most severe – PLASMODIUM
falciparum
- Transmitted through the bite of a female anopheles’ mosquito
- PRIMARY HOST – female mosquito; vector of malaria parasite
- SECONDARY HOST – humans

EFFECTS
EEFECT EXPLANATION
On the body After infection, the parasite moves into bloodstream to the liver, where
it multiplies after 6-14 days
The new parasite then enters the blood, multiply within the RED BLOOD
CELLS
Red blood cells BURST during MULTIPLICATION. This can cause anaemia
Complications like brain damage can also develop and cause conditions
known as cerebral malaria
Symptoms Fever
Headache
Shivering
Joint pain
Vomiting
Convulsions
On economy Poverty
Expensive treatment
Loss of income
Burden on healthcare

TREATMENT
Immediate and effective treatment with a combination of anti-malaria drugs is essential
- QUININE – anti-malaria drug derived from bark of cinchona tree
- Artemisinin – nowadays drug, used in combination with other drugs
- Immunisation/vaccines
- Prophylactic medication
- Elimination of vector mosquitoes
- Mosquito nets

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 TERM DEFINITION
Antibodies cells that defend your body against intruder cells
Antigens Any substance that causes your immune system to produce antibodies
against it. It may be a substance from the environment, such as
chemicals, bacteria, viruses, or pollen
Phagocytes Large white blood cells that are produced in red bone marrow.
Vaccine consists of a weakened strand of the actual pathogen.

Immune response in plants

- Plants are affected by pathogens.

- They have natural immunity
- When their natural immune responses are activated,
chemical compounds are released into the phloem of the
plant, stimulating the production of chemical defences that
protect the uninfected cells from infection.

Immune response in animals

Natural immunity
Examples of natural immunity:
Body’s first line of defence against pathogens.
- Coughing
Made up of external barriers which prevent the pathogens
- Sneezing
from entering the body.
- Washing action of tears
If the pathogen goes past the external barriers - inflammation - Secretion of mucus
and fever – body’s response - secondary defence. - The skin

Acquired Immunity
Pathogens that have invaded the body
are actively destroyed and the body
stores the memory of the response
Antigens (protein molecules) occur on
the surface of the pathogenic cells, acting
as markers of the foreign bodied and
enabling easy detection.

This enables the leucocytes to

White blood cells (leucocytes)
immediately destroy or neutralize
recognize the pathogens, with the
the pathogens once they are in the
help of antigens on their surface.
bloodstream.

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Cells
Phagocytes

They can change their Antibodies, produced by B-lymphocytes facilitate phagocytosis by:
shape and engulf 1. Marking the pathogens
pathogens whole by the 2. Clumping the pathogens together
process of phagocytosis 3. Inactivating them

Phagocytosis

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 B-lymphocytes
1. Have receptor proteins - found on
surface, allowing them to attach
themselves to antigens that are on the
surface of the pathogen.
2. Multiply Producing millions of B-
lymphocytes which produce antibodies
which are released into blood plasma.
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The produced antibodies do the following
when they have attached themselves to the
antigens of the pathogens:
- Mark pathogens for phagocytosis
- Cause pathogens to clump together
(agglutinate), inactivating them.
- Cause pathogens to burst.
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 T-lymphocytes
Responsible for recognising and destroying body cells that are infected by viruses.

Viruses hide inside of the host The infected cells carry antigen of virus on surface -
cells; thus, they remain detected by the receptor proteins on the T-
unrecognized by antibodies. lymphocytes. They destroy infected cell - secreting
chemicals/cause the entire cell to burst.

Some lymphocytes become memory cells, which CD4 cells are special types
remain in the blood. This enables them to produce of T-lymphocytes which
more antibodies to destroy the pathogen when an stimulates the immune
individual is infected by the same pathogen. response against infections.

The immune response is more effective and faster

this time. Causes pathogen to be killed before it
multiplies and spreads to other cells. At this stage,
a person is immune to the specific pathogen.

Immunisation and vaccines

.
The process of immunisation is the administration of a
vaccine for the body to develop immunity.
- administered by injection or orally (mouth).
- Vaccine stimulates production of antibodies
- develops a memory of the response
- when the vaccinated individual gets infected by the
specific pathogen, the body will respond rapidly, by
destroying the pathogen immediately.
This is known as immunity.

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Genetic engineering (insulin)
Human insulin can be produced synthetically through genetic engineering by the process of
recombinant DNA technology
1. DNA with gene coding for the production of insulin is removed from healthy human
pancreatic cells
2. Restriction enzymes are used to ‘cut’ DNA into segments to isolate the specific gene
3. E. coli, a bacterium present in the human intestine is used to produce insulin
4. Plasmids are removed from E. coli bacteria
5. Restriction enzymes are used to cut these plasmids
6. The human gene coding for the production of insulin is inserted into the bacterial
plasmid with the help of enzyme DNA ligase
7. The plasmid reforms its ring shape and the human gene is now part of the
recombinant DNA in the bacterial plasmid
8. The recombinant DNA (plasmid) is placed back into host cell (E. coli)
9. E coli accepts the new gene as part of its genetic material and produces insulin
10. The insulin gene is replicated as soon as E. coli reproduces
11. Large numbers of bacterial cells with the desired gene coding for insulin production is
formed
12. The insulin is extracted from the bacteria, purified and sold as treatment.

Why antibiotics are ineffective against (disease/infection)

• Course of antibiotics is not completed resulting in the production of more bacteria
• Mutations of bacteria may occur making them resistant to the antibiotic
• Overuse of antibiotics kills sensitive antibiotic-sensitive bacteria, allowing antibiotic-
resistant bacteria to grow and multiply.

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TERM DEFINITION
Gametophyte the gamete-producing and usually haploid phase, producing the zygote
from which the sporophyte arises. It is the dominant form in bryophytes.
Phylogenetic tree is a branching diagram that shows the evolutionary relationships
between organisms.

Types of plants
Bryophytes
- Mosses grow in cool, moist, shady environments
- Plant body is known as thallus (does not have true roots, stems. Leaves)
- Has leaf-like structures, stem-like structures and rhizoids

FUNCTION OF RHIZOID: Rhizoids anchor the moss plant firmly in the soil and absorb
water and mineral salts
Vascular tissue is absent

1. Gametes are produced in male and female sex organs of gametes.

2. In reproduction, sperm requires water to move to the ovum for fertilisation to occur.
3. Afterwards, a zygote is formed. This is the beginning of the sporophyte generation.
4. The sporophyte develops on the gametophyte and is dependent on it.
5. Spores form in the sporangium.
6. Sporangium eventually dries out and releases spores.
7. Spores are dispersed by the wind and germinate in damp soil.
8. A new plant, representing the gametophyte generation, develops.

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Pteridophytes

Grow in moist, shady environments

Fern is not a thallus
The stem is usually a horizontal, underground rhizome.

1. Adventitious roots develop from the rhizome, anchor the plant in the soil and absorb
water and mineral salts.
2. The green compound leaves with long leaf stalks develop buds on the rhizome.
3. Well – developed vascular tissue is present.
4. The sporophyte is perennial and therefore produces spores over many generations.
5. Clusters of sporangia are found on the underside of the leaves.
6. These clusters of sporangia are called sori.
7. Spores are released from the sporangia and dispersed by the wind.
8. When a spore germinates it gives rise to a green, heart-shaped prothallus, which
represents the gametophyte generation.
9. The GG is less prominent, has a shorter lifespan, and disappears after 1 cycle of gamete
formation and fertilisation.
10. Rhizoids on the lower surface or the prothallus anchor it in the soil.
11. Male and female sex organs are found on the ventral surface of the prothallus.
12. Released sperm need water to move to the ovum in the female sex organ.
13. Afterwards, a zygote is formed, gives rise to a new plant (sporophyte)

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Gymnosperms (naked seeds)
TYPE EXPLANATION
Conifers Most abundant group (shrubs, trees, coniferous/cone-bearing trees)
Cycads Includes cone-bearing, palm-like plants
Gnetales Consists of 3 genera
Ginkgo Limited to 1 genus, single species (ginkgo biloba)

PINE - PINUS SP
- Plant is not a thallus
- The roots consist of a well – developed taproot system with lateral roots
- The stem is woody and covered in bark
- Two types of leaves in pine:
• Needle-shaped green leaves
• Brown scales

MALE CONE FEMALE CONE

Small and born in clusters Larger and occur singly on the ends of
branches
Bear the pollen sacs containing pollen grains Bear the ovules containing female spores on
(male spores) the upper surface of each scale

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 1. The male gametophyte (germinating pollen grain) produces male gametes (sperm)
2. The female gametophyte (tissue in the ovule/embryo sac) produces female gametes
(ova)
3. The pollen tube of the germinating pollen grain grows into the ovule and enters one of
the female sex organs.
4. The 2 male gametes are released and 1 gamete fuses with the ovum to form a zygote.
5. Water in not required for fertilisation
6. The zygote is in the beginning of the sporophyte generation.
7. The zygote develops into the embryo.
8. The fertilised ovule develops into a seed.
9. The seed is not enclosed by a fruit and is described as a naked seed.
10. The seed scales open in dry conditions, the seed is released and dispersed by wind.
11. Conditions favourable: seed germinates- gives rise to new pine tree

Angiosperms (flowering plants)

- Has true roots, stems, leaves and flowers

- Xylem and phloem present (in vascular bundles)

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 Bears its leaves in a
Positions its flower favourable position to
in such a way that absorb sufficient sunlight
they can easily be and CO2 for photosynthesis
pollinated

Stem –
angiosperms

Grows upright and Has strengthening

consists of nodes tissue that ensures that
and internodes the plant grows upright

Flower consists of 3 main parts:

1. Gynoecium (pistil)
2. Perianth (corolla/calyx)
3. Androecium (stamen)

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS
Have an adventitious root system
Leaves have Parallel veins
The perianth consists of a single whorl
(floral ring)
DICOTYLEDONOUS
Have a taproot system, consists of a main
root with lateral roots.
Leaves – net variation w/ 1 or more main
veins
The perianth is differentiated into 2 whorls:
corolla (has petals) and calyx (has sepals)

Adventitious roots tap roots

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1. A ripe pollen grain (male spore) lands on a receptive stigma.
2. After pollination, the pollen grain germinates (in a sugar solution on the stigma)
and develops a pollen tube with two male gametes.
3. The germinating pollen grain, containing the two male gametes, represents the
male gametophyte.
4. One of the female spores forms the embryo sac (female gametophyte).
5. The pollen tube grows down the style into the ovary and penetrates the ovule and
eventually the embryo sac to release the 2 male gametes.
6. DURING FERTILISATION – 1 of the male gametes fuses with the ovum to form a
zygote (beginning of next sporophyte generation).
7. The zygote develops into an embryo, which enters the dormant phase.
8. The fertilised ovule develops into a seed that contains the embryo, endosperm
and testa (hard seed coat).
9. The testa ruptures when water is present and seeds germinate.
10. The radicle of the germinating seed gives rise to the root and the plumule to the
stem of the new vegetative plant which represents the sporophyte generation.

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QUICK SUMMARY
TYPE Dominant Vascu Spores/seed Fruits Dependency
generation lar s on water for
tissue reproduction
BRYOPHYTES GAMETOPHYTE absent spores none Water needed
(mosses, -thallus
liverworts,
hornworts)
PTERIDOPHYTES SPOROPHYTE Xylem, spores none Water needed
(ferns) -not a thallus phloem
GYMNOSPERMS SPOROPHYTE Xylem, Spores gives none Water NOT
(conifers, -taproot system Phloem rise to needed
cycads, (lateral roots, separate male
Gnetales, small leaves, and female
ginkgo) woody stem) gametophytes

Seeds are
produced
ANGIOSPERMS SPOROPHYTE Xylem, Spores give Fruit Water NOT
(flowering -roots, stems, Phloem rise to surroun needed
plants) leaves and separate male ds the
flowers and female seed
gametophytes

Seeds are
produced

Phylogenetic tress

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Reproduction in plants
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
One parent is involved and all offspring have the same genetic composition as the parent.
NO gametes are involved.
The process occurs by mitosis

ADVANTAGES
In favourable conditions, a large number of
offspring are produced rapidly and simply
Energy expenditure is low, because no
gametes are produced.
The offspring will easily adapt in the same
environmental conditions as the parent
because the offspring and parent are
identical.
DISADVANTAGES
Since there is no genetic variation in the
offspring, adaptations to changed
environmental conditions is difficult.
All the offspring share the same weak
characteristics. If the stable environment
changes, the consequences could be fatal
and drastically reduce their chances of
survival.
Some methods of asexual reproduction
produce so many offspring that it leads to
overpopulation. Competition for food and
space increases.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Two parents are involved and their genetic material combines.
Gametes are produced by meiosis
Fertilisation takes place, during which the male gamete and a female gamete fuse to form a
zygote, which develops into a new individual.

ADVANTAGES
The offspring show greater genetic
variation. More adaptable, greater chance
of survival in changing environments.
It forms the basis of evolution - results in
the formation of new species
Since the genetic material of the parent is
reshuffled, the chances of inheriting a
disease or weak characteristic from a parent
decrease
DISADVANTAGES
The process takes longer than asexual
reproduction. Gamete formation takes time.
Fewer offspring are produced, decreasing
chances of survival.
Energy expenditure is higher than asexual
reproduction. Special reproductive organs
develop
Negative mutations and recessive genes are
expressed in the phenotype of the offspring.
Plants need agents to disperse pollen or
seeds.

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Flowers as reproductive organs
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS
The flower of Petunia consists
of 4 whorls (rings of loral parts):
- Calyx
- Corolla
- Androecium
- Gynoecium

2. Corolla
1. Calyx
- Whorl consists of 5 striking,
- Outermost whorl
brightly-coloured petals that are
- Has 5 small, green sepals
fused together to form a
- Sepals surround other whorl –
trumpet shaped corolla.
protects flower in the bud stage.
- Petals attract insects and birds to
the flower for pollination
4. Gynoecium (Pistil)
- Innermost whorl
- Female part
- Consists: 1 stigma, thin style, ovary 3. Androecium (Stamens)
- Male part
- Surface of stigma is so sticky, pollen grains
- The Petunia has 5 stamens that
stick to it
are attached to the inside of the
- Ovary contains 2 locules with large
petals
numbers of ovule- ovules are attached to
- Each stamen consists of a long
the separating wall between the 2 lobes
filament ending in a lobed anther.
- Ovary - above place of attachment in
- The anther contains pollen sacs in
sepals, petals, stamens at base of flower -
which pollen is formed.
superior ovary.

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 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS
Ex. The Aloe flower contains 3 whorls
- Perigone
- Androecium
- Gynaecium

1. Perigone 2. Androecium (stamen)

- Orange in colour, fused at base to from a - Consists: 6 stamens
narrow tube. arranged in 2 whorls of 3
- Perigone performs the same function as each
the sepals (calyx) and petals (corolla)

3. Gynaecium (pistil)
- Consists: simple stigma, long thin
style, ovary with 3 lobes
- 2 rows of ovules
- Ovary is superior

Pollination
SELF POLLINATION
Transfer of pollen from an anther to a
receptive stigma of the same flower or
other flowers on the same plant.
CROSS POLLINATION
Transfer of ripe pollen from the anther of
one flower to the receptive stigma of the
flower on another plant

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Adaptation of flowers for pollination

No nectar
Pollen grains are Small, inconspicuous
produced
small, light – easily flowers, no bright petals
carried by wind

Petals/sepals often
Flowers are carried in absent – better
groups, close to each Pollination by exposure to the wind
other, at tips of the wind
stem No scent

Long, thin filaments Stigmas are long/feather-

outside flower- easily Anthers are like, with a large surface
shaken by wind large – release area – suspended outside
larger quantities flower, easily traps pollen
of pollen

Stamen and stigma positioned in flower

– ensures pollen on insects’ body can
rub off onto the sticky stigma while it
searches for nectar

Pollen is sticky –
Pollination Sweet scent
easily sticks to
by insects
insects’ body

Produces nectar as
food for insects
Brightly colored –
attracts insects

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 Flowers are carried in clusters on
tips of long, solid leafless stems
(protrudes above plant leaves) –
make accessible to birds

Shaped like a trumpet – Has little to no

stamens/stigma Pollination smell – birds have
protruding from flower by birds weak sense of
smell

Produces large Brightly colored-

quantities of nectar attracts birds
– attracts birds

Formation of seeds
• Fertilised ovule develops into seed – encloses & protects embryo and endosperm.
• Tissue around ovule hardens to form the testa.
• Embryo develops 1 or 2 cotyledons – stores & reserves food, absorbs nutrients from
endosperm.

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS SEEDS
- Reserve food – stored in endosperm
- usually has 1 small cotyledon – transfers this reserve food to developing embryo

DICOTYLEDONOUS SEEDS
- most of reserve food is stored in 2 large cotyledons, surrounded by small amount of
endosperm
o Ovary around fertilised ovule develops – fruit – protects developing seed.
o Fruit either opens / eaten to release the seeds.
o Germination occurs when seeds absorb water.
o Testa swells & bursts to open.
o Embryo plant grows out of the seed to form a young seedling.
o Radicle gives rise to the root system and the plumule gives rise to the stem of new
vegetative plant.
o Cotyledons function as leaves to provide food until first leave develops.

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Seeds
IMPROTANCE OF SEEDS
Testa that surrounds seed
protects embryo against
unfavourable conditions
Seed store reserves food in the
endosperm for early
development in the embryo –
makes it possible for seeds to
survive harsh weather conditions
by remaining dormant.
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Cotyledons of embryo
provide food for the young,
developing seedlings after
germination
They’re adapted to be dispersed
– the new seedling germinates far
from parent plant – species is well
distributed to reduce competition
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 Re-establish
Conserve
endangered or
endemic species
extinct plants

Cultivate new Use of seed banks Rehabilitate

hybrids that are to maintain damaged or
harder and more biodiversity destroyed habitats
resistant to disease

Cultivate plants that

are over exploited

SEEDS AS A SOURCE OF FOOD

Nuts Have high protein and fibre
High in antioxidants and mono-unsaturated fatty acids
Grains Important source of energy – rich carbohydrate, starch
The testa provides large amounts of fibre
Legumes Important source of protien
Easilt cultivated, transported and stored
Low in fat, contains lots of fibre

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 TERM DEFINITION
Phylogenetic tree A diagram showing the evolutionary relationship between ancestral
groups of organisms and their descendant
Phylum A taxanomic rank below kingdom and above class
Taxonomist Bilologist that identifies and groups organisms according to their
characteristics
Cephalisation The presence of a definite head that contains sense organs in an
animal
Sessile Organisms that are immobile and attatched to one place for life
Diploblastic Having a body wall that is composed of two layers – the endoderm
and ectoderm
Triploblastic Any organism that develops from a 3-layered embryo, ecoderm,
endoderm, mesoderm
Ceolom A fluid-filled cavity that lies between the ectoderm and endoderm
and in found in the triploblastic organisms
Open circulatory The blood is not enclosed in the blood vessels but is pumped into a
systems cavity called a hemocoel
Closed circulatory The heart pumps blood through vessels that are separate from the
system interstitial fluid of the body
Haemocoel The body cavity of most invertebrates containing circulatory fluids
Ectotherms Any animal whose regulation of body temperatures depends on
external sources such as sunlight or a heated rock source
Endotherms Any animal that maintains a constant body temperature usually by
using heat released by internal bodily functions or metabolism –
regardless of the environment
Ecdysis The process of casting off the outer cuticle in arthropods
Humus The organic component of soil, formed by the decomposition of
leaves and other plant material by soil microorganisms
Aeration The process of turning or puncturing compacted soil to allow are
and water to penetrate
Pollination The transfer of pollen from the male parts of a flower to the female
part of the flower of the same species by a pollinator

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 Body Plans
A body plan is the structural characteristics of an organism that separates it from other
organisms or groups of organisms.

Body symmetry
and cephalisation Number of
tissue layers
Important features
of body plans
Include
The presence of a
body cavity Number of gut
(coelom) and blood openings
systems

Symmetry and cephalisation

Asymmetry - Show no symmetry

Bilateral symmetry - Can only be cut into 1 vertical plan through its centre to form
two mirror images.
- Has a definite dorsal and ventral side. Left and right side. An
anterior and posterior end.
- Goes together with the development of a specialised,
sensitive area (head) and anterior.
- Central nervous system is formed - proves advantage for
locomotion.
- - methods of locomotion are made possible by cephalisation.
Radial symmetry - Can be cut in more then 1 vertical plane through its centre to
obtain 2 mirror images.
- Have a definite aboral and oral side. NO left and right.
- Animals are usually sessile or free-floating.
- Has an extended nerve net that makes exploring the
environment possible.
• - DISADVANTAGE: locomotion is slow and inefficient.

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TISSUE LAYERS THAT DEVELOP IN THE EMBRYO
Types of Germ layers (tissue layers)
- Ectoderm – outer germ layer
- Endoderm – inner germ layer
- Mesoderm – germ layer between ecto- and endoderm

DIPLOBLASTIC TRIPLOBLASTIC
• embryo has 2 germ layers, • Embryo has 3 germ
(ectoderm and endoderm) layers (endo- ecto-
• the 2 cell layers are separated mesoderm)
by the mesoglea (non-cellular,
jelly layer) - Animals that have bilateral
symmetry are triploblastic
- Animals that show radical
w/ 3 germ layers
symmetry only have 2 germ layers
- They have an organ level
– diploblastic
of organisation.
- Diploblastic animals have a tissue
layer of organisation and DO NOT
develop organs.

TISSUE LAYER EXPLANATION

Germ layer • Tissues or organs that develop from each layer
Ectoderm • Outer protective layer
• Nervous system and sense organs
Endoderm • Epithelial lining of the digestive tract
Mesoderm • Internal organs that form part of the blood system, muscular
system, reproductive system, skeleton and connective
tissue.

COELOM AND BLOOD SYSTEM

A coelom is an internal fluid-filled cavity that develops in the mesoderm of
triploblastic animals. It separates the digestive tract from the body wall.

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- Diploblastic animals DO NOT have a coelom
- Triploblastic:

Acoelomate Pseudocoelomate

Has a coelom, but is not

Has no cavity
Triploblastic seen as a ‘true’ coelom
(coelom) in the
because it is not only
mesoderm
surrounded by mesoderm
tissue

coelom

- Due to the separation of the digestive tract from the body wall of mesodermal organs in
triploblastic animals, there is a need for a transport system. A blood system developed to
transport gases and digested nutrients, and an excretory system to transport waste
products.

DIGESTIVE TRACTS

ACOELOMATE ANIMALS
- one gut opening (blind-ending gut)
- Digestion is discontinuous.
- Undigested remains are
egested.

CEOLOMATE ANIMALS
– two gut opening (through gut)

ADVANTAGES
Allows the creation of a hydrostatic force to be generated for movement in soft-bodies animals.
Different regions in the digestive tract become specialised to improve efficiency.
Incoming food does not mix with outgoing undigested remains.
Presence of coelom – food can move by peristalsis through digestive tract, independently of the
muscles in the body wall
Coelomic fluid helps to transport nutrients and waste in the body

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Different Phyla
PHYLUM MODE OF SYMMETRY & NUMBER PRESENCE PRESENCE
LIFE CEPHALISATION OF TISSUE / ABSENCE /
LAYERS OF ABSENCE
COELOM & OF
BLOOD COMPLET
SYSTEM E GUT
PORIFERA Marine Asymmetrical Cellular Acoelomate NONE
Sessile NO cephalisation NO tissue NO blood
layers system

CNIDARIA Aquatic Radial symmetry Two tissue Acoelomate Absent

Sessile and NO cephalisation layers NO blood Only one
free living (diploblastic) system opening
PLATYHELMIN Aquatic Bilateral Three tissue Acoelomate Absent
THES Free living symmetry layers NO blood Only ONE
Cephalisation (triploblastic) system opening
ANNELIDA Aquatic and Bilateral Three tissue Acoelomate Present
moist symmetry layers Closed blood Two
terrestrial Cephalisation (triploblastic) system openings
environments
Free living
ARTHROPODA Aquatic, Bilateral Three tissue Coelomate Present
terrestrial, soil symmetry layers Open blood Two
and air Cephalisation (triploblastic) system openings
Free living
CHORDATA Aquatic, Bilateral Three tissue Coelomate Present
terrestrial, soil symmetry layers Closed blood Two
and air Cephalisation (triploblastic) system openings
Free living

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Porifera

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Cnidaria

Specialisation of cnidaria

• Musculo-epithelial cells • Cnidocytes or Nematocytes: occur in the tentacles;

and sensory nerve cells:
Occurs in the mesoglea
and plays an important
role in locomotion.
• Enzyme secreting cells: These
cells occur in the endoderm
surrounding coelenteron.
1. When food enters the mouth
- moves to coelenteron where
enzymes secreted by enzyme
secreting cells digest food.
2. All undigested food leaves the
body via mouth - Cnidaria has
an incomplete gut.
3. No circulatory system -
nutrients must move from
cells that absorb them in the
lining of gastrovascular cavity
through mesoglea to other
cells.
contain stinging organelles that are used to catch prey
and protection.
1. The stinging cell has a trigger (cnidocil) - causes the cell
to respond when stimulated.
2. A sac-like structure, the nematocyst is filled with a toxic
fluid.
3. Inside the nematocyst is a long thread-like filament that
discharged when the cnidocil is stimulated.
4. This filament is forced into the prey’s body tissue and
the toxin is released which paralyses the prey.
5. Some filaments have barbs that hook into the body
tissue of prey.
6. Paralysed prey is then pulled into the mouth by the
tentacles.

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Platyhelminthes
ECTODERM MESODERM ENDODERM
Gives rise to epidermis, Form’s parenchyma cells Form’s lining of the digestive
that fill spaces between tract
digestive tract and
epidermis
Gives rise to nervous system Plays a role in digestion and
absorption
Gives rise to excretory
organs

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Annelida
Segmented worms
- Excretory system: nephridia (excretes nitrogen wastes)

Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

Gives rise to: glandular Gives rise to muscles Forms the inner lining of the
epidermis digestive tract
A cuticle blood vessels
The nervous system. excretory organs

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 Arthropoda
- have jointed appendages that are used for movement and feeding

Prevents diffusion of gases The arthropod is vulnerable

across its waterproof surface; during regrowth of the
arthropods have therefore exoskeleton because it is
developed gaseous exchange weaker and requires a lot of
organs energy.

The Exoskeleton

Does not grow as the

arthropod grows and it must Protects the arthropod
be shed regularly (ecdysis) from drying out
and regrown.

Chordata
Animals grouped into Chordata also share the following unique features during fetal
development:
• Notochord – rod-like support that may persist throughout life but in most cases, it is
replaced by a vertebral column
• Hollow, dorsal, tubular nerve cord that persists through life in most Chordates and usually
forms a brain at its anterior end.
• Pharyngeal (gill) slits appear during the development of all Chordata but in terrestrial forms
they disappear in adult animals
• Post-anal-tail – body extends past the anal opening

Common characteristics of Vertebrates:

1. Endoskeleton of cartilage or bone, which together with the muscular system,
is responsible for movement and locomotion.
2. Notochord that during embryonic development becomes incorporated into
the vertebral column that is made up of cartilaginous or bony vertebrae.
3. Two pairs of appendages (fins or limbs) attached to girdles
4. Extra-cellular digestion in a complex GI-tract – highly specialised regions with
specific functions are distinguished throughout the length of the digestive
system.
5. Closed circulatory system – vertebrates have hearts as a pump and blood is
restricted in the blood vessels.
6. Gaseous exchange organs E.g. Glands in fish and lungs in amphibians, reptiles,
birds and mammals.
7. Ectotherms or endotherms

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 KEY DEFINITION
Photosynthesis a process whereby light is converted into chemical energy of sugars and
their organic compounds.
ATP ATP is a form of stored energy (potential energy). It stands for
Adenosine Tri Phosphate. Each phosphate is bonded by means of a
chemical process - this process stores energy. When a phosphate is
broken/removed from the molecule, energy is released.
Greenhouse A structure with a glass or plastic roof and/or walls, where plants are
cultivated.

Photosynthesis
• Consists of a series of chemical reactions that require CO2 and H2O
• Occurs in the chloroplast, is an anabolic reaction and requires enzymes.

Requirements

REQUIREMENT #1: Radiant Energy

flat with a large surface

area to ensure maximum thin, to ensure quick easy
strategically positioned
sunlight can be absorbed. access to the palisade
to be exposed to the
mesophyll layer of cells,
maximum amount of
where the chloroplasts are
sunlight.
situated.

chloroplasts are situated just

underneath the epidermal layer cuticle and the epidermal
to ensure the radiant energy is layer are transparent,
quickly absorbed by the which allows easy access
chlorophyll. of the radiant energy.

numerous chloroplasts placed

longitudinally in the mesophyll layer -
this ensures they can be packed in
tightly and offers a bigger surface area
for the absorption of the radiant energy.

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 REQUIREMENT #2: Water

Water needs to be moved from the ground to the root hairs, to the xylem,
up to the leaf, to the mesophyll layer and finally into the chloroplast.

Finally, the water moves

into the chloroplast by
means of osmosis.

The water then moves from

the xylem in the leaf to the
mesophyll cells by means of
diffusion

This water then travels via

the xylem to the lead by
means of transpiration pull

Water moves out of the ground

into the xylem of the root hairs
by means of osmosis

REQUIREMENT NO. 3: Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through the stomata of the leaf.

1. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf through the stomata, which in turn are
opened and closed by means of their guard cells.
2. The carbon dioxide moves from the stomata, through the intercellular air spaces
in the spongy mesophyll and dissolves in the moisture in these air spaces.
3. The carbon dioxide then diffuses into the chloroplasts which are situated in the
palisade mesophyll layer.
4. The stomata therefore regulate the amount of carbon dioxide that the plant takes
in by opening and closing.

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Light phase

The light phase takes place in the GRANA

of the chloroplasts.

Radiant energy from the sun is absorbed by the chlorophyll

molecules of the thylakoids. This energy now undergoes a chemical
process to change it into chemical energy.

This chemical energy is now used to split the water molecule up (by means of PHOTOLYSIS)
into:
1. energy - rich Hydrogen atoms - these are used in the dark phase
2. oxygen atoms - these are released into the atmosphere for us to breathe.

An end result of this process is the formation of the energy carrier ATP,
which is also used in the dark phase. So energy is formed in the light
phase but carried by ATP to the dark phase to be used there

N Nicotinamide
A Adenine
D Dinucleotide
P Phosphate
H Hydrogen

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Dark phase

The dark phase takes place in the STROMA of

the chloroplast.

Carbon dioxide (from the atmosphere), combines with the energy-

rich Hydrogen atoms (made in the light phase) by using the energy
that is released from ATP (energy was made in the light phase).

This results in energy-rich carbohydrates (GLUCOSE) being

formed. Any excess glucose is converted to starch for storage.

One molecule of glucose contains SIX carbon

molecules, so this cycle has to be repeated SIX times
in order to make one molecule of glucose.

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 The importance of photosynthesis

1. Photosynthesis keeps the oxygen levels 2. Photosynthesis keeps the carbon

in the atmosphere constant, as it is dioxide levels in the atmosphere
released during photosynthesis and can constant, as the carbon dioxide that
then be used for cellular respiration. is released during cellular respiration
is absorbed during photosynthesis.

4. Photosynthesis provides food for 3. Photosynthesis makes chemical

heterotrophic organisms. energy available for cell function

Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis

1. Light Intensity
An increase in light intensity - increase in the rate of photosynthesis.
HOWEVER, at a certain level, if the light intensity becomes too high,
the stomata will close, and carbon dioxide then becomes a LIMITING
FACTOR, as it is no longer available.

2. Temperature
Plants photosynthesize best at a temperature of 25°C. At lower
temperatures, the enzymes involved in photosynthesis become
inactive. At a temperature that is too high, the enzymes denature
and the stomata close. Carbon dioxide becomes a LIMITING FACTOR.

3. Carbon Dioxide
An increase in carbon dioxide levels - increase in the rate of
photosynthesis and vice versa.

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Greenhouses
The objective of a greenhouse is to produce ideal conditions for maximum
photosynthesis of plants to occur.

Optimal levels of carbon dioxide, light and temperature are

provided for the growing plants. These ideal conditions are
regulated in the following ways:

2. A photometer can be used to 1. If temperatures are too high,

determine the light intensity.
Necessary changes can then be
made to the levels of transparency
of the roof and walls.
improved ventilation will need to
be affected e.g., a large door, fans
etc. If temperatures are too low, a
heating system needs to be put in
place.

3. Carbon dioxide levels can be increased by pumping

this gas into the greenhouse. Alternatively, the
addition of sodium bicarbonate, or the addition of
organic materials to the soil, will increase the carbon
dioxide levels. Decomposers will become more
active and therefore more carbon dioxide will be
released.

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KEY DEFINITION
Cellular respiration is the breaking down of organic compounds (glucose) so that
energy is gradually released which is stored in ATP molecules.
Oxygen is required and CO2 and H2O are released as waste
products
Aerobic respiration Occurs when cells or organisms break down glucose to produce
energy in the absence of oxygen.

Major Formulae
Cellular Respiration C6H12O6 + O2 → H2O + CO2
Photosynthesis H2O + CO2 → C6H12O6 + O2
(NADH, FADH2, NADPH):
Carry e- in the form of H+ ions. They drop e- either at the ETC to make ATP or the Calvin
Cycle to help bond formation.
ATP Syntha-se:
Enzyme that synthe-sizes ATP - Uses chemio-smosis in order to in order to phosph-orylate
ADP into ATP

Cellular Respiration Photosynthesis

1. Takes place at night and day 1. Takes place only during the day
2. Produces CO2, absorbs O2 2. Produces O2, absorbs CO2
3. Catabolic process 3. Anabolic process
4. Produces H20 4. Requires H20
5. Primary product is energy rich ATP 5. Primary product Is
glucose/carbohydrates

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

1. Occurs in the presence of oxygen
2. Products are C02 and H2O
3. Large amount of energy is released
because the glucose molecule is
broken down completely.
4. Takes places in the cytosol and
inside the mitochondrion.
1. Occurs in the absence of oxygen
2. Products are lactic acid, CO2 and
ethanol.
3. Small amount of energy is released
because the glucose molecule is broken
down partially.
4. Only takes place inside the cytosol.

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Mitochondrion

Activities inside the

The smooth outer
mitochondria are controlled
membrane allows easy
by the mitochondrial DNA
diffusion of substances into
and subsequent enzymes
the mitochondrion
produced by the ribosomes
Adaptations of the
mitochondrion to its
function

The cristae enlarge the surface

area to ensure effective cellular
respiration

Aerobic Respiration
GLYCOLYSIS

2 ATP + 1 Glucose → 2 pyretic acid + 4 ATP

PFK = al-los--teric enzyme inhibited by ATP

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 Takes place in the cytoplasm of
Oxygen is not the cells and requires energy in During glycolysis a glucose
necessary the form of ATP molecule gets activated by the
addition of two phosphate groups

During this process,

some energy is GLYCOLYSIS This is known as
produced in the form phosphorylation
of ATP
After a complicated series of enzyme-
controlled processes, the glucose
molecule splits into two to form two,
3-carbon pyruvate molecules

Kreb’s Cycle

Requires oxygen to
occur

The carbon dioxide is expelled The 2 pyruvate molecules

from the body and NADH which were formed in the
molecules proceed to the next cytoplasm during glycolysis,
KREB’S CYCLE
phase in aerobic respiration – enter the mitochondria
oxidative phosphorylation

Once inside the mitochondrion, the pyruvate is

broken down during a cyclic series of chemical
reactions during which carbon dioxide, ATP,
and energy-rich NADH molecules are produced

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 Oxidative phosphorylation

Takes place in the cristae

(fold of inner membrane
of the mitochondria)
Once all the energy has
been harvested, the protons The mitochondria produce
recombine with the the majority of energy
electrons and oxygen to OXIDATIVE trapped inside the energy
from water PHOSPHORYLATION rich NADH molecules

The energy of the electrons Now follows a complex series of

is used to phosphorylate events during which hydrogen
(add phosphate group) to atoms are separated into protons
ADP, to from the energy- and energy-rich electrons
rich ATP molecule

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 Anaerobic Respiration

Glucose molecules are only

partially broken down in
When plants respire the cytoplasm
Yields only 2
anaerobically, ethanol and molecules of ATP
carbon dioxide are (potential energy)
produced. This is called
alcohol fermentation. ANAEROBIC
RESPIRATION Many micro-
organisms can only
respire anaerobically
Process is different
for plants and When animals respire
animals anaerobically, lactic acid is
produced. This is called
lactic acid fermentation

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 - The surface to volume ratio of an organism is important. The surface area
indicates how much oxygen the organism can absorb through its surface and
the volume indicates how much oxygen will be needed by the organism
- smaller organisms and unicellular organisms have a larger surface area in
comparison to their volume.
- Larger organisms have a smaller surface area than volume so they do not
absorb through their surface. Therefore, they are modified in other ways to
absorb oxygen.

Requirement Why it is important

Surface area of the gaseous exchange organ Allows sufficient oxygen to diffuse in and
must be large sufficient carbon dioxide to diffuse out

Surface area must be moist To prevent desiccation of the gaseous

exchange tissue

Surface must be thin To allow for rapid diffusion of gases across it

Transport system must be available To transport gases to and from the gaseous
exchange surfaces

Adequate ventilating mechanism must be To ensure that oxygen-laden air is brought

present in and carbon dioxide-laden air is brought
out

Gaseous exchange surface must be The gaseous exchange system is thin and
protected delicate

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Different Types
Earthworms

Insects

- Insects have a tough exoskeleton that protects the animal from drying out.
- It cannot be used as the exchange surface.
- There are small holes called spiracles in the exoskeleton, and it is through these
that the gases move in and out of the body.

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Bony Fish

The gills are good gas exchange surfaces because:

- A large surface area is provided by the many gills that are folded.
- They are very thin. There is only one layer of cells through which the gases
need to diffuse.
- They are moist as they are in the water in which the fish lives.
- They are inside the body and are protected by the operculum. Gill rakers
prevent any food or foreign material from damaging the delicate gills.
- They have good ventilation provided by the opening and closing of the mouth
and the changing of the volume of the buccal cavity.
- There is a good internal transport system.
- Each gill is provided with many blood capillaries that bring carbon dioxide to
the surface of the gills and take oxygen from the surface of the gills to the
tissues.

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 Mammals

Dicotyledon Plants

- Dicotyledonous plants live in the sun so

that they can photosynthesise.
- They therefore have a problem of losing
much water vapour.
- The stomatal pores, through which the
gases move, are found mainly
underneath the leaves.
- The guard cells protect these openings.
- The cells, which act as the gas exchange
surface, are found above the pores.
- The gas exchange surface provided by
the spongy mesophyll cells is well suited
to the function of gas exchange.

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 Human Airways

NASAL CAVITY
Filters and warms air,
making it moist before
PHARYNX
entering the lungs
Receives air from
nasal cavities

LARYNX
EPIGLOTTIS Produces vocal sound
Prevents food and Prevents the passage of food
drinks from entering into lower respiratory tracts
the windpipe

BRONCHUS
Carries air PLEURA
into lungs Protects and
cushion the lungs

RIBS
Holds and protects
the lungs

DIAPHRAGM
Contraction creates a
PLEURAL SPACE vacuum which pulls air into
Aids optimal lungs
functioning of the lungs Exhalation relaxes and
during breathing pushes air out of lungs

CAPILLARIES

PULMONARY ARTERY
Collects oxygenated blood
ALVEOLUS and carries it from the lungs
Where the lung and to the heart.
blood exchange O2 and
CO2 during breathing

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INHALATION
The lung volume expands as a result of the
contraction of the diaphragm and
intercoastal muscles (muscles connected to
the ribcage) thus expanding the thoracic
cavity. Due to this increased volume,
pressure decreases, and the air flows into
the lungs.
EXHALATION
The lung volume contracts as a result of the
intercoastal muscles and diaphragm relaxing
and returning to a dome-shaped position,
thus contracting the thoracic cavity. Due to
this decreased volume, pressure increases,
and air flows out of the lungs.

Gas % Inhaled air % Exhaled air

Oxygen 21 16
Carbon dioxide 0.04 4
Nitrogen 79 79

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Alveoli
alveoli are structurally suited for efficient gaseous exchange:
Large surface area Millions of alveoli
Very thin one layer of squamous epithelium cells lining the alveoli and the
lining of the blood capillary is also one layer of squamous
epithelium
Moisture supplied by tissue fluid that leaks out from the blood to line the
alveoli
Well ventilated the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles contract and relax
changing the volume and pressure of the chest cavity. This draws
air in and pushes air out.
Well protected the sternum in the front; the rib cage surrounding the chest. The
alveoli are inside the body to prevent dehydration.
Richly supplied with to transport O2 away from the lungs and CO2 towards the lungs.
blood capillaries

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Transport of gases
Oxygen is carried in the blood:
- as oxyhaemoglobin in the
red blood cells,
- a small amount of oxygen
dissolves in the plasma.
The oxygen rich blood is pumped
around the body to the various
organs and tissues.
Carbon dioxide is transported from the tissues and
organs in the blood in the following ways:
- most of it as bicarbonate ions dissolved in the
blood plasma
- a small amount combines with haemoglobin in
the red blood cells to form
carbaminohaemoglobin, a small amount
dissolves in the plasma.
The carbon dioxide-rich blood is transported back to
the lungs

BREATHING CENTRE
The levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide need to be kept at the necessary constant levels to ensure
the correct functioning of the metabolism in the body.

This is carried out by a negative feedback mechanism.

- The levels of carbon dioxide in the blood are monitored by sensory cells in the blood vessels
near the heart.
- When the carbon dioxide levels are high a nervous impulse is sent to the breathing centre in
the brain.
- Nervous impulses are sent to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to bring about faster and
deeper breathing to breathe out the carbon dioxide at a faster rate thus reducing the levels of
carbon dioxide back to normal.

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Diseases
DISEASE CAUSE
Tuberculosis Contagious disease spread
by inhaling moisture
droplets in the air
containing the bacterium
Mycobacterium
Tuberculosis
Asthma Triggers may be allergens,
substances that cause
allergens, pollutants in the
air, exercise, varying
weather conditions,
respiratory tract infections
Bronchitis Obstructive pulmonary
disease (OPD). Inflammation
of the bronchial tubes.
Lining of the trachea and
bronchial tubes become
inflamed and secretes and
excess amount of mucus.
Emphysema Smoking cigarettes. Tar in
cigarettes causes airflow
obstruction because it
destroys lung tissue and
causes irritation and
inflammation of the airway.
Lung cancer Inhaling carcinogenic
substances. Exposure to
second-hand smoke can
damage cells so cancer can
form. Closely associated
with cigarette smoking.
Hay fever It is an allergic response that
may be caused by pollen
grains and spores of moulds
that irritate the mucus
membrane of the nasal
passage.The immune
system then produces
histamines which are
C.J.I. 2021
SYMPTOMS TREATMENT
Feels tired and weak’ Drug treatment
Has a persistent cough is a 6-month
Loses weight antibiotic regime
Is feverish with night sweats known as DOTS
(Directly
Observed
Treatment, Short
course).
During an asthma attack, the Controlled by
involuntary muscles of the medication
walls of the bronchi contract in (bronchodilators)
spasm, narrowing the airway to relax the
and causing shortness of bronchial
breath or wheezing. Expiration muscles and by
is difficult as the air is trapped avoiding the
in the alveoli. Respiratory ‘triggers’
distress occur and the level of
oxygen in the blood decreases
resulting in death if untreated.
Bronchi becomes infected with Acute bronchitis
bacteria, which causes can be treated
coughing and the production with antibiotics.
of infected sputum.
Shortness of breath due to Bronchodilators,
overinflation of the alveoli. inhaled steroids
Caused by damage of the and antibiotics.
tissue that hold the
bronchioles open, causing
them to collapse – traps air in
alveoli – prevents exhalation.
Out of control cell growth in Surgery,
one or both lungs so that chemotherapy
lumps of tissue are formed, and radiation
called tumours.
-runny nose,
-sneezing
-blocked nose
-itchy watery eyes
-itchy nose.
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 supposed to protect the
body.

Altitude and Smoking

Effects of altitude
1. The air becomes less dense and contains less oxygen molecules as the
altitude increases.
2. This means that one needs to take more breaths at a higher altitude, in
order to get the same amount of oxygen obtained at a lower altitude.
3. The higher the elevation, the more difficult breathing becomes and that
is why mountain climbers who climb to great heights often carry a supply
of oxygen with them.
4. Research also confirms that people who live in high altitudes breathe
more deeply and quickly. They also have a higher quantity of red blood
cells, thus increasing their oxygen-carrying capacity.

Effects of tobacco
- Reduces the amount of oxygen available to different parts of the body.
- Blood vessels become narrower thus reducing blood and oxygen supply to the
tissues.
- Smoking releases carbon monoxide which competes with oxygen that
combines with haemoglobin - causes the heart to work harder to increase
oxygen supply in the body.
- Nicotine in cigarettes is addictive and causes an increase in blood pressure,
leading to heart disease.
- Tar is a carcinogen that may cause lung cancer.
- Ammonia and Cyanide irritate the air passages causing smokers to cough and is
a primary cause of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
- Non-smokers (Passive Smokers) who live around smokers are also at risk of
getting diseases associated with smoking tobacco.
- Pregnant women who smoke cause a decrease in the amount of oxygen
supplied to the developing baby leading to stunted growth and low birth
weight of the baby.

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Artificial respiration
- is necessary to keep the lungs working when breathing
suddenly stops, until medical assistance arrives.
- Mouth-to-Mouth resuscitation / CPR is one of the most
popular methods.
- Ventilators are used to keep the lungs working in supplying
the body with oxygen.
- Endotracheal tube – goes through the patients mouth into the
windpipe.
- Nasogastric tube – goes through the patients nose and into
the stomach

Possible causes
Electric shock, Drug overdose, Strangulation, Asphyxiation,
Accidents, Drowning, Diseases e.g. Poliomyelitis and Covid-19

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TERM EXPLANATION
Digestion During this process, food is broken down into smaller particles. The
smaller food particles have a larger surface area for digestive
enzyme action to break them down further into simple molecules.
Simple molecules can then be absorbed into the bloodstream.
Balanced diet contains all the necessary nutrients in the correct quantities.

Teeth
TYPE OF TEETH STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
INCISORS - Chisel shapes
- Used for biting or cutting of food

CANINES - Pointed
- Used for catching, holding, tearing and/or killing prey.
PREMOLARS - Flat and uneven.
- Used for grinding and crushing of food.
MOLARS - Flat and uneven
- Used for grinding and crushing of food.
CARNASSIAL - Specialized morals and premolars with jagged, triangular edges.
TEETH - Used for cutting meat.

HUMAN DENTAL FORMULA

- One half of the upper jaw has two incisors, one canine, two premolars
and three molars.
𝟐. 𝟏. 𝟐. 𝟑. - The corresponding lower jaw has the same teeth.
- The complete upper jaw therefore has 8 x 2 = 16 teeth, while the
𝟐. 𝟏. 𝟐. 𝟑. complete lower jaw also has 16 teeth.
- The complete permanent set therefore consists of 32 teeth.

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 Process in nutrition

1. Ingestion
Food is taken into
the alimentary
canal 2. Digestion
Large insoluble
molecules of food
are broken down to
small molecules
through physical
and chemical
3. Absorption
digestion
The end products
of digestion are
absorbed into the
bloodstream
4. Assimilation
The body cells
absorb the nutrients
from the blood and
5. Defecation use it to build new
Indigestible food residues cell structures and
are removed/eliminated compounds
from the body in the form
of feces

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 Structures and functions

MOUTH ESOPHAGUS
ingestion Transports material from the
mouth to the stomach
Undergoes peristalsis
PANCREAS
Secretes pancreatic juice
with enzymes which play a
role in digestion LIVER
Secretes insulin and Bile production and
glucagon which control the excretion
blood glucose levels in the Metabolism of fats,
body proteins and
carbohydrates
Enzyme activation
GALL BLADDER Storage of glycogen,
Stores bile until vitamins and minerals
its needed for
digestion STOMACH
Stores food
Mixes food and grinds it
into chyme which
LARGE INTESTINE increases surface area of
Secretes mucus to aid the food in preparation
egestion for digestion
Water and useful Peristalsis
substances are absorbed Mixes with gastric juices
from the semi-solid waste in and enzymes
the colon
Undigested waste is stored
SMALL INTESTINE
temporarily in the colon
Maximizes absorption of
before its is egested
nutrients
Breaks down food
APPENDIX RECTUM Not unnecessary
Protects good Stores faeces components
bacteria in the gut
ANUS
Controls defecation

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Digestion
MECHANICAL DIGESTION CHEMICAL DIGESTION
1. Chewing process (mastication) - food is Chemical digestion is the breaking down of
broken down into smaller particles by large insoluble food compounds into smaller
the teeth and tongue soluble food compounds using the addition
2. Bolus formation - the chewed food is of water and digestive enzymes.
mixed with saliva and rolled into a ball of
food (bolus) using the tongue. The The role of water in the process of chemical
swallowing process starts with the digestion includes:
tongue pushing the bolus through the
pharynx, from where it enters the - It acts as a lubricant and facilitates
oesophagus. chewing and swallowing.
3. Churning movements - these take place - It acts as a solvent for digested food.
by contraction and relaxation of the - It transports digested food.
muscles of the stomach wall. Food - It is the medium in which digestive
particles are broken down further for reactions occur.
effective enzyme action and thoroughly - It is the reagent for hydrolysis.
mixed with gastric juice.
4. Peristaltic movements - this is the
rhythmic contraction and relaxation of
the muscles in the wall of the alimentary
canal. It helps move the food particles
forward through the entire length of the
alimentary canal.

ENZYMES
GROUP OF CARBOHYDRASE PROTEASE LIPASE
ENZYMES
Where they are Saliva, pancreatic Saliva, pancreatic Pancreatic juices,
produced juices, intestinal juices, intestinal intestinal juices
juices juices
Substrate Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids (fats and oils)
Preferred pH Slightly alkaline Saliva, pancreatic Slightly alkaline
juices, intestinal
juices
End product of Glucose Amino acids Glycerol & fatty
digestion acids

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 Absorption
The small intestine is structurally adapted for maximum absorption:
- The small intestine is approximately 6 m long; this ensures that food remains in the small
intestine for long periods, allowing enough time for maximum absorption.
- The walls of the small intestine contain transverse folds with millions of finger-like projections
called villi. The surface of the villi is covered with cells with extremely tiny projections called
microvilli which further increase the surface area for absorption.

The villus is a very efficient organ of nutrient absorption for the following reasons:

1. EPITHELIUM CELLS:
- Single-layer thick, so nutrients can move
through quickly and easily.
- Mitochondria-rich cells to produce enough
energy for active transport of nutrients.
- Secretes mucus (from the goblet cells) that
acts and a medium in which nutrients can
dissolve and serves as a carrier fluid for
nutrients.
- Microvilli that increase the surface area

2. Rich supply of BLOOD AND LYMPH vessels to take up nutrients and transport them away.
- The villus is richly supplied with capillaries for the absorption of glucose, amino acids, vitamins,
mineral salts and water.
- The villus has a central lacteal for the absorption of fats.

How and where the end products of digestion are absorbed.

ABSORPTION ACTIVE OR PASSIVE WHERE ABSORPTION

TRANSPORT TAKES PLACE
Glucose Active Blood capillary
Amino acids Active Blood capillary
Glycerol and fatty acids Passive (diffusion) Lacteal
Vitamins Active & passive Blood capillary
Minerals Active & passive Blood capillary
Water Passive (osmosis) Blood capillary

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Transport and absorption of nutrients

Glucose, amino acids, water soluble vitamins, minerals and water

are absorbed from the small intestine and transported in the blood
circulatory system
Glucose, amino acids, water soluble vitamins, minerals and water
are absorbed into blood capillaries of the villi in the small intestine

Capillaries join together to form large venules to form the hepatic portal
vein which transports these nutrients to the liver

• The liver converts excess glucose to glycogen and stores it.

• Excess amino acids are deaminated by the liver to form urea
(waste product) and are removed from the body to the kidneys.

The remaining nutrients leave the liver via he hepatic veins and are transported
in the inferior vena cava to the heart and to the rest of the body

Fats and oils are absorbed by the lacteal of the villi as

shown in the flow diagram below.

Fatty acids and glycerol in the thoracic duct enter the blood system of the left
subclavian vein and are transported to the rest of the body via the heart.

The lacteal unite and form larger lymphatic vessels that eventually
open into the thoracic duct.

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 Assimilation
Assimilation of glucose:
- GLUCOSE can enter body cells with the help of the hormone INSULIN secreted by the
pancreas.
- Glucose is absorbed into the blood stream (blood sugar levels rise)
- Increase in the blood sugar level stimulates the pancreas to secrete insulin into the
bloodstream.
- Insulin aids in the transport of glucose from the bloodstream into body cells which lower
the blood sugar level back to normal.

Glucose INSIDE a cell can be used in the following ways:

1. Cellular respiration to produce ATP energy.
2. Glycogenesis - The conversion of excess glucose molecules into glycogen in the
liver cells with can later then be converted back into glucose if the body needs
glucose.
3. Stored as fat - Excess glucose can be changed into fat that is stored in adipose
tissue.

These proteins can then be used to

form:
Assimilation of amino acids:
- Enzymes
Amino acids in ALL cells in the body can be used - Muscles
to synthesise new proteins through the process - Hormones
of protein synthesis. - Blood plasma proteins
- Excess amino acids in the body
The type of proteins made in each cell is cannot be stored and have to be
determined by the DNA of that cell. broken down through the process
of DEAMINATION in the liver.

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 During the process of deamination, amino acids are
converted into urea and glucose in the following way:
1. The amino group (NH2) is broken off from the amino
acid.
2. NH2 binds to CO2 to form urea
3. Urea is excreted from the kidneys as part of the urine.
4. Non-nitrogenous part forms glucose which is converted
into glycogen.

Homeostasis

The following is a general sequence of events in a

negative feedback mechanism:
Step 1: An imbalance is detected.
Step 2: A control centre is stimulated.
Step 3: Control centre responds.
Step 4: Message is sent to target organ/s.
Step 5: The target organ responds.
Step 6: It opposes / reverses the imbalance.
Step 7: Balance is restored.

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Control of blood glucose

Diabetes
TYPE 1 TYPE 2
Autoimmune disease or other cause Caused by unhealthy diet and lifestyle
The pancreas stops/unable to produce Can be developed later in life
insulin
Cannot be prevented or cured Insulin is secreted by pancreas but insulin
receptors in cells are resistant to insulin
An affected person NEEDS insulin injections Treatment plan involves a healthy diet,
to live exercise and medications

Warning signs of untreated diabetes:

- Feeling tired and sleepy
- Confusion, passing out
- Stomach pain, feeling or being sick
- Needing to pee more often, high ketones
- Blurred vision
- Being very thirsty, sweet-smelling breath
- High blood sugar levels

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Diet

It should include the following:

- energy foods, such as carbohydrates and lipids
(fats).
- building materials, such as proteins.
- protective nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals.

DIET EXPLANATION
Vegetarian No meat, chicken, fish or any animal products are eaten
Vegan A strict vegetarian diet where only plant food and plant products, such as soy
milk and tofu, are eaten.
Halaal A diet followed by people who belong to the Islamic faith. Certain foods such
as pork, pork products, shellfish and alcohol are prohibited.
Kosher A diet followed by people who belong to the Jewish faith. Pork, shellfish and
rabbit are prohibited. Meat and dairy products should not be eaten together.
Meat and dairy products are also prepared entirely separately

ENERGY

1 Calorie = 4.2 kilojoules

Human energy requirements vary according to their age, gender and level of activity.
- growing children need more protein than adults.
- men need more food than women because they have a higher basal metabolic
rate than woman.
- active people need more energy food because they burn more calories during
exercise.
- pregnant women need more calcium because their baby uses their calcium
stores to build new tissue and bone.
- older people need less food because as you get older, your metabolic rate
declines.

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SUPPLEMENTS

A nutritional supplement enhances/adds to the

They can be taken for health,
amount of vitamins, minerals, proteins (amino
sports or beauty/anti-ageing
acids) and fats (fatty acids) in the diet.

MALNUTRITION

DISORDER CAUSE SYMPTOM

Kwashiorkor Lack of protein Swollen stomach and liver, sores
Occurs mainly in children on skin, stunted growth
Marasmus Lack of energy in foods such as carbs Thin muscles, no fat deposits,
and fats lack of energy, sunken eyes
Anorexia Psychological condition where a Excessive weight-loss, can be
nervosa person refuses to eat in fear of fatal
gaining weight
Bulimia Psychological condition where a Dehydration, tooth decay, tears
person regularly overeats and in the esophagus, electrolyte
induces vomiting to avoid weight imbalance
gain in a fear of gaining weight
Coronary heart A diet too high in fats and sugars, Plaque, cholesterol build up in
disease obesity, high blood pressure, blood vessels going to heart,
smoking, lack of exercise heart failure, heart attack
Diabetes Poor diet (high in sugar) and lack of Tiredness, heart attack, stroke,
exercise kidney disease, blindness,
numbness in fingers and toes –
amputations
Obesity A diet too high in energy foods, such Excessive deposits of body fat,
as sugars and fats increased risk of heart disease,
type 2 diabetes, hypertension,
arthritis

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 FOOD ALLERGY

A food allergy is an abnormal immune response. This occurs when the body considers a
substance in food (usually a protein) harmful and develops a defence mechanism against it.
The body produces antibodies to attack and destroy the harmful substance.

SYMPTOMS
- abdominal pain, cramps and nausea
- itchy red rash, eczema
- swelling of the lips, mouth and tongue
- itchy eyes
- shortness of breath, wheezing and coughing

DRUGS AND ALCOHOL

Unconsciousness Lack of coordination

and death

Blurred vision
Liver cirrhosis Effects of alcohol
Slurred speech
Anxiety/depression

nausea Loss of memory

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 anxiety
Death if overdosed paranoia

Effects of tremors
Changes in appetite Drug Abuse

sleeplessness

Depression
Mood swings

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TERM DEFINITION
Organ of excretion an organ that separates waste substances from the blood and
discharges them
Dialysis the separation of particles in a liquid on the basis of differences in
their ability to pass through a membrane
Urinalysis Involves checking the physical aspects (colour, appearance, odour,
volume) as well as the chemical aspects (concentration of content)
of urine.

Organs of excretion

LIVER

The liver is an excretory organ This means that it The excess amino
because it is responsible for the breaks down the acids are broken
deamination of the amino acids excess amino acids down into urea

The urea is then carried by the blood to Urea is an example of

the kidneys where it forms a part of urine nitrogenous waste

LUNGS

During the process of

Remember that cellular Therefore carbon
cellular respiration carbon
respiration is an example dioxide is an example
dioxide is released as a by
of a metabolic reaction of a metabolic waste
product at the cells

Through gaseous exchange in the The carbon dioxide enters

lungs the carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood capillaries around
the blood capillaries into the alveoli the cell by diffusion

Carbon dioxide then The lung is therefore an example of an excretory

leaves the body through organ because it rid the body of carbon dioxide
exhalation which is an example of excretory waste

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 SKIN

When the body The sweat or perspiration

temperature increases we
perspire in order to lower
our body temperature
These pores carry
reaches the surface of
the sweat from
the skin through pores
the sweat glands
on the skin

Since these substances are example Sweat is made up of

of metabolic waste, the skin is also water, salt and urea
an example of an excretory organ

KIDNEYS

The kidneys are an example of an Metabolic wastes from

excretory organ because they are all over the body come to
involved in the production of urine the kidneys

Therefore, the metabolic In the kidneys, the blood is

waste leaves the body filtered and all the metabolic
through urine waste forms urine

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 AORTA

VENA CAVA - Carries oxygen-rich blood

from the left ventricle of the
- Carries blood to the heart into the kidney and
heart from other other parts of the body
areas of the body

RENAL ARTERIES
RENAL VEIN
- Deliver to the kidneys of a
- Carries blood from the
normal person at rest 1,2
kidney and ureter to
liters of blood per minute,
the inferior vena cava
a volume equivalent to
approximately one-quarter
of the heart

URETER
KIDNEY
- Carry urine from the kidneys to
the bladder. Muscles in the - Removes waste products from
ureter walls continually tighten the body
and relax forcing urine - Remove drugs from the body
downward, away from the - Balance the body’s fluids
kidney

URETHRA
- Allows urine to pass outside
the body
- Brain signals the bladder
muscles to tighten, which
squeezes urine out of the
bladder
BLADDER
- Walls relax and expand to store
urine, and contract and flatten
to empty urine through the
urethra

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 PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE
EFFERENT ARTERIOLE GLOMERULUS
- Reabsorbs most of the filters
- Supply the blood - Filters Na+ ions in order to deliver only
for the your blood a small quantity of Na+ ions to
peritubular downstream sites
capillary network

DISTAL CONVOLUTED
TUBULE
AFFERENT ARTERIOLE - Regulates
extracellular fluid
- Regulation of
volume and
blood pressures as
electrolyte
a part of the
homeostasis
tubuloglomerular
feedback

COLLECTING DUCT
- Collects urine
from the
nephrons and
moves it into the
DESCENDING LIMB OF HENLE renal pelvis and
ureter
- Is a primary site of
water absorption (highly
permeable to water)

LOOP OF HENLE
- Creates a concentration
gradient – re-absorbs
water and sodium chloride
ASCENDING LOOP OF HENLE
from the filtrate
- Drains urine into the distal
convoluted tubule

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Nephron
Malpighian Body
The Malpighian body is made up of 2 parts.

• glomerulus
• The Bowman's capsule

Glomerulus:
- The glomerulus lies within a cup-shaped structure. - Bowman’s
capsule - has an inner and outer wall- space between them
called the capsular space.
- The wall is lined by squamous epithelial cells.
- The inner wall is made up of specialized cells called podocytes.

Podocytes:
- The podocytes are arranged so that tiny pores are formed between the
cells.
- These pores are called slit pores.
- The capillaries of the glomerulus re-join to form a single vein.
- This vein is called the efferent vessel.
- The efferent vessel is narrower than the afferent vessel.
- The efferent vessel becomes the second capillaries network.

The Malpighian body is adapted for its function in the following ways:

The afferent vessel is wider than the efferent vessel creating pressure in the glomerulus
allowing for glomerular filtration.

The slit pores between the podocytes acts as a selective filter allowing only the very small
substances to pass through.

The cup-shaped Bowman’s capsule allows for close contact with the capillaries of the
glomerulus.

The endothelial wall of the capillaries and the single layer of podocytes allow for an
extremely thin surface to allow for easy filtration.

The endothelium has pores to allow for passageway of substances during filtration.

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The capillaries of the glomerulus provide a large surface area for filtration.

The tubules are long and convoluted allowing the filtrate to remain in the tubules for a
long time to ensure maximum re-absorption and tubular excretion.

Presence of the second capillary network to allow for tubular re-absorption and tubular
excretion.

The cells lining the tubules have a large number of mitochondria, which provides the
energy required for active re-absorption.

The sodium pump in the loop of Henle ensures that the medulla always has a higher
concentration of salts than the tubules, this allows water to be saved.

The Renal Tubules

Proximal convoluted The Loop of Henle: The collecting duct:
tubule:
leads from the Bowman’s descending limb, start in the renal cortex and
capsule. the hairpin bend and continue into the medulla.
the ascending limb.

is long and twisted, this The ascending limb of the join to form the ducts of
creates a large surface area. loop of Henle opens into the Bellini.
distal convoluted tubule.

lined on the inside by
cuboidal epithelial cells
with brush borders.
leads to the loop of Henle.
last part of the renal tubule. The ducts of Bellini are
found in the pyramids.
long and convoluted. The ducts open into the
calyxes of the pyramid.

lined by the cuboidal

epithelium with a brush
border.

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The Blood Vessels
Renal artery
a branch of the aorta
carries blood to the kidney
blood is rich in nitrogenous waste
branches to form the afferent arteriole
afferent arteriole enters the Malpighian
body - branches to form the capillaries of
the glomerulus
Renal vein
capillaries of glomerulus then re-join to
form the efferent vessel -then leaves the
Bowman’s capsule
efferent vessel then divides to form the
capillaries of the second capillary network
capillaries re-join to form small veins called
venules - venules unite to form the renal
vein
renal vein leaves the kidney
carries blood that has no nitrogenous waste
joins the inferior vena cava, which carries
this blood to the heart

The blood in the glomerulus contains:

- Water
- Salts
- Useful substances for example glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol.
- Waste substances such as urea and uric acid
- The normal components of blood which is the blood plasma, blood cells and plasma
proteins.

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Function of Kidney

Glomerular Filtration Tubular Tubular Excretion

Reabsorption
The afferent arteriole is wider The glomerular filtrate now waste substances from the
than the efferent arteriole. enters the proximal second capillary network enter
This sets up a pressure within convoluted tubule. the tubules and leaves the
the capillaries of the body with the urine.
glomerulus.

The pressure causes Tubular re-absorption is the - Ammonia

substances to be forced out of
capillaries into the capsular
space.
But before they enter the
capsular space they must first
pass through the podocytes.
process during which
important substances are re-
absorbed from the renal
tubules into the second
capillary network or renal
medulla.
these important substances do
not leave the body with the
waste.
- Creatine
- Potassium, hydrogen,
sodium and bicarbonate
ions
- Some drugs e.g. penicillin
The hydrogen and bicarbonate
ions affect the pH of the blood

The slit pores between the
podocytes acts as a selective
filter, allowing only the very
small substances to pass
through.
The liquid is now in the
capsular space of the
Bowman’s capsule.
This fluid is called the
glomerular filtrate
The glomerular filtrate now
enters the renal tubule, where
it would undergo tubular
absorption and tubular
excretion.
Tubular re-absorption begins Hydrogen ions lower the pH of
in the proximal convoluted the blood making it acidic.
tubule.
Here all the glucose and most While bicarbonate ions
of the water is re-absorbed by increase the pH of the blood
the second capillary network. making it more alkaline
these substances leave the
proximal convoluted tubule
and enters the second
capillary network.
The filtrate now enters the
loop of Henle.
At this point the filtrate is
called dilute urine.
The loop of Henle ensures that
the medulla always has a high
concentration of solutes.
This ensures that water is
always saved.

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 Substances that are small enough
to pass through slit pores are:
- Water
- Glucose
- Amino acids
- Urea
- Uric acids

The actual amount of water Sodium ions are pumped out of

saved is controlled by the the loop of Henle into the
hormone ADH surrounding renal medulla

Ensures that the medulla always

Urine that enters the
collecting duct is highly
concentrated urine
has a higher concentration of
Loop of Henle sodium ions and the loop of Henle
has a high concentration of water

Water leaves the renal

Water will always leave the
tubules by osmosis
loop of Henle, distal
Water leaves these convoluted tubule and
renal tubules by collecting tubule and enter the
osmosis medulla

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Blood Ph Regulation
The amount of hydrogen and bicarbonate ions secreted can be regulated as follows:
If the blood is too acidic:
- This means that the pH is too low, then
- Hydrogen ions leave the blood and enter the renal tubules.
- This means that the hydrogen ions are excreted into the renal tubules.
- More bicarbonate ions leave the tubules and enter the blood.
- In other words more bicarbonate ions are re-absorbed.
- In this way the pH of the blood increases back to normal.

Homeostatic Control Of Water: Role Of ADH

ADH affects the permeability of the renal tubules.
- If the levels of ADH in the blood is high, then the permeability of the renal tubules
increases.
- the levels of ADH in the blood is low, then the permeability of the renal tubules
decreases.

There are special cells in the hypothalamus called osmoreceptors.

Osmoreceptors are special cells that can pick up changes the volume of water in the
blood. They send messages to the pituitary gland about the water levels in the body.

How the ADH controls the water levels in the body.

HOT DAY – WATER LOSS COLD DAY – WATER INCREASES

The volume of water in the blood
decreases.
Osmoreceptors become stimulated.
They send a nerve message (impulse) to the
pituitary gland.
The pituitary gland increases the secretion
of ADH.
The permeability of the distal convoluted
tubules and the collecting tubules
increases.
More water leaves the tubules, by osmosis,
and enters the medulla.
This water is then re-absorbed at a faster
rate by the blood capillaries in the medulla.
The amount of water in the blood therefore
returns to normal.
-
The osmoreceptors become stimulated.
They send an impulse to the pituitary gland.
The pituitary gland reduces the secretion of
ADH.
The reduced levels of ADH, decreases the
permeability of the distal convoluted
tubules and the collecting tubule.
less water leaves the distal convoluted
tubules and collecting tubule.
less water enters the medulla by osmosis.
And less water is re-absorbed by the blood
capillaries of the medulla.

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The urine in the collecting tubules is This makes the urine in the collecting
concentrated. tubule dilute.

Therefore, less water is excreted from the the excess water leaves the body with the
body. urine
The volume of water in the blood returns to
normal.

Homeostatic Control Of Salts: Role Of Aldosterone

Sodium ions in the blood

SHORTAGE TOO MUCH

The adrenal cortex secretes more
aldosterone.
This causes more sodium to be reabsorbed
by the blood capillaries in the distal
convoluted tubules and the collecting
ducts.
This ensures that the levels of sodium in
the blood is raised to normal.
Less aldosterone is secreted
Less sodium is reabsorbed by the blood
capillaries.
More sodium is excreted by the renal
tubules.

the amount of sodium in the body

decreases to normal.

Composition And Volume Of Urine

Urine output is influenced by:

- Diet
- Health
- Water consumption

PHYSICAL ASPECTS
Color - normal is a light straw colour.
- Variations of the straw colour is influenced by water
concentration (%) in the urine. Lighter is higher % of water;
darker is lower % of water thus could be dehydration.
- Different colours could be influenced by foods eaten,
medications taken or a medical condition/infection.
Odor - Normal varies & not very strong
- Food like asparagus can change the smell.
- Dehydration results in a stronger smell.

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 - Diabetes results in a fruity, sweet smell.
Appearance - normally clear.
- Cloudy - infection (either urinary tract or possible liver)
Volume - Normal: 1 to 2 litres in 24 hours.
- 2,5 litres or more in 24 hours
- Increased water intake, some drugs (diuretics), IV
solutions.
- Diabetes
- Less than 800 ml in 24 hours
- High salt intake, low water intake, dehydration
- Renal insufficiency/failure.

Chemical analysis involves a testing strip that measures aspects such as:
- pH
- protein concentration
- blood content
- glucose concentration
- ketone concentration

Dialysis
Kidney dialysis is a treatment that filters and purifies the blood using a machine. This
helps keep your fluids and electrolytes in balance when the kidneys can’t do their job.
The usual treatment for a person with kidney failure is to have several sessions a week
using a dialysis unit (a kidney machine), to maintain the glucose and protein
concentration in blood diffusion of urea from blood to dialysis fluid.

A patient with kidney failure needs to have toxic chemicals removed from the blood to
stay alive.
- Blood is removed from a vein in the arm, and is kept moving through dialysis
tubing in the dialysis machine using a pump.
- The tubing is very long to provide a large surface area.
- The dialysis fluid has a composition similar to blood plasma, but with no urea or
uric acid.
- Urea or uric acid and excess mineral salts are removed from the blood, by
diffusion, into the dialysis fluid.
- The cleaned blood is then passed through a bubble trap to remove any air
bubbles, before being returned to the patient’s vein.
- The dialysis fluid is constantly being "refreshed" to maintain the concentration
gradient to allow the waste products to move by diffusion from the blood into
the dialysis fluid.
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 TERM DEFINITION
Ecological the gradual growth and change of an ecosystem over time.
succession
Ecological An ecological niche is the role an individual plays within a community,
niches or its natural habitat.
Predation where one organism (predator) will hunt and kill another organism
(prey) for food; or the flow of energy from prey to predator.
Population a bar graph showing the population composition, by age and sex, of a
pyramids country. Population pyramids can also be referred to as an age-sex
pyramid.
Population size the total number of individuals in a population.
Social is the pattern of the relationships the individuals within a population
organization will have.

Factors that influence population size:

Natality the birth rate in animals or the production of seeds in plants
Immigration individuals move into a population and stay
Mortality the death rate
Emigration individuals leave a population and do not return

For humans:
- the birth rate is the number of births per 1000 people per year
- the death rate is the number of deaths per 1000 people per year

ESTIMATING POPULATION SIZE

A. DIRECT METHODS
An example of a direct method is a census,
during which every single individual in a
population is counted.
The distribution of individuals may not be
the same everywhere, therefore it is
important to sample different parts of the
total area. This is known as random
sampling.
B. INDIRECT METHODS
Indirect methods involve counting a sample
number of the population and then using
simple calculations to estimate the total
size of the population. Two such methods
are the quadrat method and mark-
recapture method.

This method can only be used when: 1. Quadrat method

• organisms are large enough to be The number of individuals in small
seen measured areas (quadrats) are counted,
• the area in which the animals are then the following formula is used to
being counted is not too large estimate the population size:

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Direct methods can be used for individuals
that are:
• slow-moving, e.g. snails, tortoises,
or
• stationary, e.g. plants, or
• usually stay in a fixed position, e.g.
barnacles, mussels.
If the area is too large to count every
individual at one time:
• aerial photographs can be taken of
the whole area, e.g. penguins, seals
or a species of a large tree.
• helicopters can be used to count
larger animals, e.g. elephant.
• census forms can be filled in by
humans, accounting for everyone in
a household on a particular day.
Method:
• Measure the size of the total area.
• Use a wooden frame with known
diameters (usually about 1 sq
meter) as a quadrat. The same
C.J.I. 2021
2. Mark-recapture method
This method is used for organisms that are:
mobile, e.g. butterflies, birds, antelope
not easily visible, e.g. fish in a dam.
Method:
• Mark out a well-defined area.
• Capture as many individuals as
possible and mark them (see
examples in the image).
• Release the marked individuals back
into the environment.
• Allow enough time to mix with the
unmarked individuals, but not too
much time for too many deaths and
births to occur (this depends on the
species).
• Recapture as many individuals as
possible.
• Count the total number and count
the number of those which have
been marked.
• Calculate the total population size
by using the Petersen index as
below:
P = estimated Population size
M = total number of Marked animals
C = total number of animals Caught in the
second sample
R = total number of marked animals in the
second sample, i.e. Recaptured.
Note: Sometimes different letters are used
but the calculation stays the same.
How do we ensure a reliable result?
No immigration or emigration is allowed,
i.e. the population must be closed.
The marking must not damage the
individual or affect its movement or
behaviour.
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 quadrat size must be used for each
sample.
• Distribute quadrats at random in
the area.
• Count the individuals in each
quadrat. Several samples should be
taken and the number of individuals
per quadrat calculated. This is the
‘number in sample’ in the formula.
• Using the above formula, calculate
the size of the population.
The marked animal must have enough time
to mix freely with the rest of the population
before a new sample is taken.
Yet, only a short enough time should pass
between the first and second sampling so
that no significant number of births and
deaths can occur.
Sampling should be repeated several times
and an average population calculated.

Population growth forms

The exponential growth pattern:

Known as the J curve
Occurs in an ideal, and unlimited
environment (unrestricted growth)

The logistic growth pattern

Known as the S curve
Occurs when the environemtnal
conditions slow down the growth rate
of the population (restricted growth)

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Interactions in the environment
Populations and communities within an ecosystem will depend on these interactions for
their survival in terms of reproduction and growth rate. These interactions will determine
the composition and structure of communities within natural environments.

Interspective

Competition Predation
Introspective
Interactions

Mutualism Symbiosis Commensalism

Parasitism

PREDATION

Role of predators
- They regulate the population size of prey,
- Prevent a single species from becoming the dominant species, and thus increasing the
biodiversity of communities,
- By preying on the weaker individuals of the prey population predators help keep the
prey species genetically fit.

The population sizes of both predators and prey depend on each other. If one population
increases in size, this will influence and determine the population size of the other.

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COMPETITION
Ecological niches will include what the individual eats, how it interacts with its physical
environment, as well as other individuals within the community.

An ecological niche = the ‘occupation’ of an individual,

A habitat = the ‘address’ of an individual.

When there is a limited supply of resources, or space, an individual will have to compete to
acquire these resources to survive.

Intraspecific competition Interspecific competition

This type of competition occurs This type of competition occurs between individuals of
between individual of the SAME two or more species within similar habitats.
species. These individuals are in competition for specialisation.

TERM EXPLANATION
Competitive this principle states that if two species are competing for the same,
exclusion scarce resource one of the species will out-compete and displace the
principle other species. This will lead to the displaced species facing extinction,
either by migrating to a new habitat (changing their physical address), or
death.
Resource competing species will partition the similar resources that both species
partitioning use. The species will evolve specialized traits to use the resources in a
different way to minimize interspecific competition.

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 MUTUALISM
Mutualism is a relationship
between two individuals
where both individuals will
benefit. A common example
is the mutualistic
relationship between plants
and their pollinators (with
the exception of a few
devious plants, for example
orchids that allure their
pollinators and provide no
sweet nectar as a reward).
Facultative mutualism –
both species can benefit
from each other, but they
can also both survive with
out the other.
Obligate mutualism –
neither of the two species
can survive with out the
other.
COMMENSALISM
During this type of
interaction, only one
individual will benefit
from the interaction. The
other individual will gain
nothing, nor will they be
harmed or be impacted
negatively from the
relationship.
An example of
commensalism includes
barnacles that will take
safe shelter on a whale,
while the whale will
receive nothing in return.
PARASITISM
Parasitism is a symbiotic
relationship between
individuals of two different
species where one individual
(the parasite) will live on or in
the other individual (the host),
causing harm to the host.
Although parasites can
eventually kill their host, it is
in the parasite’s best interest
to not kill the host as they are
dependent on the host for
their survival.
Ectoparasites are parasites
that attach themselves to the
outside of the host. For
example, lice, ticks, and fleas.
Endoparasites are parasites
that are highly specialized to
take advantage and live inside
their hosts, for example
tapeworms and liver flukes.
The parasite will help
themselves to the host’s
shelter, food, and other
resources for their own
survival.

Social organisation

If a group of animals are socially organized, this means that there are certain tasks that will
be divided and allocated among certain individuals within the population.
Two highly specialized social groups of animals are mammals and insects.
Social organization may improve both the chances of survival (survivability rate) of the
individual as well as, by implication, the population as a whole. The group is stronger
together, than the individual on their own.

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Community change
An ecosystem is not static, it is constantly changing, especially if a disturbance occurs that
forces the ecosystem to regrow and re-establish itself.
Disturbances can include fires, floods, storms, animal, or human disturbance.

There are 2 types of succession:

1. Primary Succession,
2. Secondary Succession.
Stages in each type of succession:

• Pioneer species stage,

• Intermediate species stage,
• Climax Community.

PRIMARY Primary succession occurs on a brand-new habitat, one that has not
SUCCESSION previously been colonized by any plant species.

The pioneer species of a primary succession include lichen that will

begin to grow on the bare rocks. Lichens do not need soil to grow.
Lichens and physical weathering will break down rocks, and this will
lead to the formation of soil. As lichen decompose, they add small
amounts of organic matter to the newly forming soil.

Simple plants will follow, such as moss, followed by ferns and grasses
as the soil layers deepen. Small insects, such as mites and ants, will be
the first fauna to occupy the developing habitat. As the habitat
develops and advances, complex fauna and flora species will follow.

SECONDARY Secondary succession will occur after a disturbance has hit. However,
SUCCESSION the flora will re-establish itself and soon will develop into an ecosystem
that was similar to the one before the disturbance.

The pioneer plants of a secondary succession include grasses, herbs,

and weeds.

During the intermediate species stage the soil can retain more water
and is more fertile. As a result, small non-woody herbaceous species
will begin to grow, followed by small hardy, woody plant species. Shade
intolerant plants will begin to grow, such as pine trees. As these trees
grow higher, they will block out sunlight and the grasses will be
replaced with shade tolerant plants, leading to the climax community.
The climax community will be the end-point of succession.

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 Different biomes will have different climax communities. For example,
if a forest had been disturbed by a fire, it will develop once more into a
forest, or Acacia trees will regrow in a savannah biome.
‘

Human population
More economically developed Less economically developed
country’s (MEDC’s) countries (LEDC’s)
Slow population growth Rapid population growth
High standard of living Low standard of living
Ex. North America, Europe, and Japan. Ex. Africa, Asia, and South America.

POPULATION PYRAMIDS

RAPID GROWTH STABLE DECLINING

High birth rate,
High death rate as with the
higher age groups
Short life expectancy
Examples: Africa, Asia and
South America
Declining birth rate
Low death rate,
Longer life expectancy,
Examples: Canada and
Australia.
Low birth rate
Low death rate
Higher dependency ratio
Longer life expectancy
Examples: Japan, Norway,
and Sweden

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TERM DEFINITION
Atmosphere Layers of gases and air that surround the earth.
Acid mine drainage The seepage of acidic, contaminated water from disused mines.
Biodiversity Refers to the great variety of organisms (plants, animals and
microorganisms) on Earth and the interaction between them.
Greenhouse gasses Atmospheric gasses which are particularly effective at trapping heat energy
re-emmited from the earth’s surface.
Carbon footprint Total amount of greenhouse gases produced to directly and indirectly
support human activities, usually expressed in tons of carbon.
Deforestation the clearing of large areas of natural forest to supply timber and fuel and to
free up land for agriculture
Dumpsites Areas of land set aside by municipalities for the dumping of waste.
Drought An extended period of months or years where water availability falls below
the requirements for a region
Global warming the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s surface due to an
enhanced greenhouse effect.
GMO (genetically- An animal, plant, or microbe whose DNA has been altered using genetic
modified organism) engineering techniques.
Flood An overflow of large amounts of water over dry land
Food security All people at all times have physical & economic access to adequate
amounts of nutritious, safe, and culturally appropriate foods
Indigenous is informal, local knowledge that has been built up over the centuries by
knowledge (IK) the people who live in a particular region. It is passed on by word of mouth
from generation-to-generation
Nuclear power a clean and efficient way of boiling water to make steam, which turns
turbines to produce electricity.
Ozone a colourless gas with a harsh odor. It is an unstable form of oxygen, made
up of three oxygen atoms (O3)
Plantation Monocultures of fast-growing exotic trees which are planted to provide
timber for industrial use or pulp to make paper.
Poaching The illegal hunting or collecting of wild animals or plant species.
Recycling Recycling refers to the collection, sorting, cleaning and re use of everyday
waste materials.
Thermal pollution The discharge of heated water directly into rivers, lakes or the ocean
Wetland an area of land which is usually covered with shallow fresh or brackish
water, and which supports plants adapted to living in waterlogged soil.
Water quality The biological, chemical and physical properties of water, which determine
whether the water is able to sustain life and /or is suitable for human
consumption
Water purification Water purification is the process of removing undesired chemicals and
pathogens from raw water in purification plants.
Wster recycling treating waste water (sewage) to remove solids and impurities so that it
can be re used or discharged back into water ways. This is done at waste
water plants.

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 Atmosphere and Food security
climate change

Human impact on Solid waste

Loss of the environment disposal
biodiversity

Availability and
quality of water

SUNS ENERGY
- Ultraviolet (UV)
- Visible light (photosynthesis /
sight)
- Infrared radiation (heat)

Gases in the atmosphere →

The Greenhouse Effects

1. Solar radiation is emitted from the sun and moves

towards earth
2. Visible light and some UV light moves through the
Earth’s atmosphere
3. The Earth (air, land and water) absorbs most of the
solar energy and the earth is warmed
4. Some of the light is reflected from the earth and
back into space
5. The earth emits this heat in the form of infrared
radiation
6. Some of this heat can leave the atmosphere and
escape into space
7. Some of this heat is trapped by a blanket of
greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere.

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 CARBON FOOTPRINT
DIRECT GREENHOUSE GASS EMMISION INDIRECT GREENHOUSE GAS EMMISION
Travelling Food delivery and production
Bonfire, braaing etc. Courier services
Gas heaters/geysers Production of goods
Methane (farting ) Electrical appliances

Global Warming

CAUSES

1. Burning of fossil fuels

2. Land clearing
3. Agricultural

EFFECTS

1. Air Pressure
- Which affects the wind and ocean currents and leads to increased prevalence of
storms
- Increase occurrence of natural disasters like hurricanes, tornadoes and cyclones.

2. Rainfall Patterns
- Wet areas receive more rain leading to floods
- Dry areas receive less rain leading to long droughts, water shortage and
- desertification

3. Methane Methane gas sources on Earth

- It’s a greenhouse gas which means it absorbs the - Decaying organic waste in
Earth’s infrared radiation and, in that way, warms landfills
the Earth - Digestive processes in livestock
- By weight, it’s x21 more powerful than CO2 at (cows)
warming the atmosphere - Natural gas leaks
- Wastewater treatment
processes
- Coal mining

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Ozone Layer

- Ozone is Found in the stratosphere

(1225km above Earth)
- It Absorbs 98% of the harmful UV radiation
from the sun
- Acts as a shield, protecting life from the
harmful effects of UV radiation

CFCs cause Ozone Depletion

CONSEQUENCES

- UV radiation can destroy Phytoplankton in the ocean which causes

- Less oxygen produced into the atmosphere and carbon dioxide absorbed
from the atmosphere (phytoplankton is responsible for 50% of the worlds
oxygen)
- Less food will be produced for aquatic food chains. Therefor the biodiversity
of these ecosystems will decrease.
- More risk for skin cancers and cataracts due to excess exposure to UV
radiation

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 Availability of Water
CAUSES
ADDITIONALLY
1. A low, variable rainfall and high evaporation rate,
with climate change adding to these variable - Destruction of wetlands
conditions - Poor farming practices
2. Rapid population growth increasing the demand for - Droughts and floods
additional water supplies in direct proportion to - Exotic plantations and
increase in population growth depletion of the water table
3. Economic growth, increasing the demand for water - Boreholes and effects on
for industrial and agricultural use aquifers

POSITIVE IMPACT
Water is used for the
purposes of irrigation,
domestic and industrial water
supply and hydroelectric
power generation.
20% of water needs to remain
in rivers to support the
ecological components of the
country.
Stores water
DAMS
NEGATIVE IMPACT
Natural river ecosystem is changed from a region of
flowing water to a region of standing water. Plants and
animals may be replaced by organisms better adapted
Stratification - water cannot mix - becomes stratified
(layered). The water at the bottom Is cold and oxygen
poor; water at the top is warm and oxygen rich. Affects
plant and animal life.
Dam failure
Mitigation
Sedimentation - dam capacity is lost and land needs to be
fertilized artificially

Wetlands
INCLUDE:
- Seeps and springs
- Marshes and swamps
- River floodplains
- Lakes and pans
- Estuaries (river mouths)
- Mangrove swamps

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 IMPORTANCE

1. Help regulate waterflow by:

- Slowing it down in rainy seasons which limits Flooding
- Releasing it steadily into streams, rivers even during dry periods

2. Help prevent soil erosion

- their plant roots hold the soil in place

3. They help to purify water flowing through them

- their plants and bacteria help filter out nutrients, silt and pollutants

4. Provide a habitat for a rich biodiversity of plants,

invertebrates and vertebrates.

5. Serve as nurseries for juvenile or larvae forms of animals, and sites for breeding and
migrating birds.

6. They supply food for humans and wildlife and materials

- such as reeds which can be used for making goods

7. Recreational purposes
- like bird watching, fishing and canoeing

THREATS

1. Drained to make space available for agriculture, houses, factories or roads

2. Overgrazing especially be cattle loss of plant species and compresses the soil
3. Invasion of alien plants such as hyacinth and water lettuce

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 POOR FARMING PRACTICES LEADS TO
WATER LOSS AND SOIL EROSION

Inefficient irrigation: Soil erosion occurs when nutrient

- Water is lost by evaporation or rich topsoil is blown by wind or
seepage out of irrigation canals washed away by water

CAUSED BY
- Overgrazing
- Ploughing up and down hills
instead of contour ploughing
- Planting monocultures from year
to year rather than practicing
crop rotation

NEGATIVE IMPACT

- SEDIENTATION fills up the river, lake, or dam which reduces flow rates and blocks river
mouths
- SLITS smothers animals living on the riverbeds and destroys their habitat
- SUNLIGHT in water is REDUCED, restricting photosynthesis in aquatic plants causing
oxygen levels in water to decline
- More COSTLY and time consuming to PURIFY WATER for human use

Droughts

IN SOUTH AFRICA
- When a region constantly receives below average rainfall
- Humans using more water than is available in the area

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Floods
IN SOUTH AFRICA
- Caused by heavy rain
- Sudden release of stored water
- Human interference E.g., Deforestation, destruction of wetlands and global warming

EFFECTS

- Deaths of people and destruction of property

- Displacement of people from their home
- Outbreaks of water borne diseases such as cholera
- Ruined crops
- Disrupted transport services, such as Roads and railways

IMPORTANCE
]
- Provide water to irrigate crops
- Renew wetlands
- Replenish ground water stores
- Making soil more fertile by increasing nutrients in some soils

TYPES OF SPECIES IN A COUNTRY

Indigenous species Exotic/alien spiecies Endemic species
Species that occur Species that do not occur naturally in Species that only occur
naturally in a particular a particular country/region, but have in one country or region
country/region been brought there there from and nowhere else in the
another country by mistake or world
deliberately
Species can be both Invasive species is an alien species
indigenous and that outcompetes indigenous species
endemic and can lead to ecological problems

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Plantations

EXOTIC PLANTATIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA:

- Eucalyptus trees
- Pine trees

AFFECT ON WATER AVAILIBILITY

CAUSES OF DEPLETION ON WATER TABLE

They consume a lot more water than indigenous plants because

- Fast growing which consume water at a faster rate
- Takes up soil moisture from deeper in the soil
- Grow all year round, while grasslands are dormant in winter
- Heavy machinery used in plantations compact soil, reducing the
infiltration of water into the water table and increases water loss
through evaporation

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AQUIFER
- An aquifer is a body of porous rock or sediment
saturated with groundwater.
- Groundwater enters an aquifer as precipitation
seeps through the soil.
- It can move through the aquifer and resurface
through springs and wells Soil
- Groundwater can become depleted if we use it at
a faster rate than it can replenish itself
- Depletion of aquifers has increased primarily due Sand-
to expanding agricultural irrigation stone
- Groundwater depletion can cause the ground to
subside and form sinkholes Artesian
- If aquifers along the coastline are depleted it can aquifer
become contaminated by seawater and make the
water unusable Rock

Water wastage

HOW WATER IS WASTED

1. Agricultural accounts for 2/3 of our water usage but 20 30% of it is wasted
- Overwatering because of high pressure sprinklers
- Growing crops on sloping ground resulting in runoff
- Using old or broken water pipelines and fitting which causes leaks

2. Urban use which includes both domestic and industrial uses and can waste water by:
- Excess water usage
- Appliances used unnecessary
- Standard cheap or damaged fittings in houses that cause dripping of taps, leaks in pipes

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 Don’t leave
taps running
Fix leaks
Plant indigenous
species – consume
less water Take short showers
instead of baths
Ways to
conserve water
Install water
conserving toilets Use water efficient
appliances

Run water using

Harvest grey
appliances with full
water/rain water
loads

Water Quality

IMPACT OF DOMESTIC USE OF WATER

Urban areas

From the sewers the Here water is treated

All water use is
water is transported to a before it is released back
collected in sewers
water treatment plant into the environment

Small towns and villages

Sewage systems are Domestic waste is discharged into rivers
overloaded or dysfunctional and causes them to become polluted

Rural areas and informal settlements

There are no Most of the domestic used water is thrown outside and
sewage plants seeps into surrounding streams or ground water sources

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DISEASE CAUSE SYMPTOMS
Cholera Escherichia coli Profuse diarrhoea and vomiting leading to
severe dehydration. Can be fatal
Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi Headache, fever, abdominal pain, constipation,
bronchitis. Can be fatal
Hepatitis A Virus Fatigue, loss of appetite, tender liver,
sometimes diarrhoea, chalk white feces and
jaundice
Bilharzia Parasitic flatworm Weakness, fatigue, blood in urine
Amoeba dysentery Parasitic protist Diarrhoea containing blood, abdominal
tenderness, nausea and weightloss

IMPACTS OF INDUSTRIAL USE OF WATER

- Many industrial factories will dump toxic effluents into waterways if they are left
unregulated
- This toxic waste may contain hazardous chemicals, nutrients, high levels of salt and
increased sediment
- Toxic water can kill organisms in water sources and if drunk by humans, it can damage
organs or cause cancer

Eutrophication

Leaching of agricultural pollutants cause eutrophication

EFFECTS

- Cloudy water which restricts sunlight reaching the water plants at the bottom of the
river/dam/ocean. This causes plants to die.
- Bacteria and fungi decompose dead matter and uses all the oxygen and releases carbon
dioxide. Lack of oxygen causes death of aquatic organisms
- Algae can also release a toxin called cyanotoxins that are very poisonous and can affect
humans
- Increased vegetation can also lead to a restriction of water flow and movement of
boats.

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Mining
EFFECTS
- pH
- Salinity
- Metal content
- Sediment load

Acid mine drainage (AMD)

- When mines are abandoned, water renters the shafts
- Abandoned mines still contain mineral residues, particularly sulphur containing
substances called PYRITES which oxidizes into sulfate salts
- When sulphates come in contact with water, they form sulfuric acid
- Heavy metals and radioactive residues in the mine dissolves in acidic water, which if it
drains out into the environment, it is known as acid drainage

NEGATIVE IMPACT
Human and animal - Water becomes contaminated and undrinkable
life - can cause health problems such as birth defects, cancer, mental
disorders and kidney failure
Agriculture - Groundwater can no longer be used for irrigation as it becomes to
saline and soil becomes unsuitable for growing crops or vegetables
Ecosystems - Plant and animal life in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are
harmed

Thermal pollution

SOURCES
- Powerplants
- Iron and steel industries
- Urban runoff
- Removal of trees and plants (less shade)
- Lack of aeration in coastal areas

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 EFFECTS

1. Decrease in dissolved oxygen (DO) levels

- warm water holds less oxygen than cold water.

2. Increased Toxins
Discharged water can contain dangerous toxins like methane, carbon dioxide, arsenic, etc.
that can
- be detrimental for marine life.

3. Biodiversity Reduction
- Toxins make the marine creatures and plants vulnerable to different diseases and make it
difficult for them to thrive in their natural setting.

4. Adverse Impact on Ecology

- There are aquatic species that are highly sensitive to the rise in water temperature.

5. Impact on Reproductive Systems

- While they may still be able to mate for reproduction, the chances of defects in new-
borns will be drastically higher.
- An excessive rise in water temperature can lead to the release of immature eggs. It can
also affect the normal development of eggs.

6. Increases Metabolic Rate

- It causes an increase in certain enzyme activities that
force the species to consume more food.
- disrupts the stability of the food chain and the overall
ecological balance
7. Loss of Species
- Many species would find it difficult to survive in warm conditions. This may even lead to
their migration to a more suitable environment and the loss of marine species.

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Water purification

PROCESS:

1. Suspended particles are removed using chemicals

2. Water is filtered using sand and gravel filters to remove any remaining particles
3. Filtered water is disinfected with chlorine to kill any viruses, bacteria and other micro-
organisms
4. The purified water is tested to ensure its safety before its pumped to reservoir tanks from
which it can be piped to homes, mines and industries.

Water recycling
PROCESS:

1. Large objects are removed by wire

screens
2. Solid matter is separated from the
water in settling tanks
3. Water is disinfected with chlorine to kill
bacteria and viruses
4. Effluent (liquid waste) from sewage
works is either
- Discharged into river
- Redirected for agricultural/mining
use
- Further purified for use as drinking
water

IMPORTANCE

- Reduces the amount of water taken from natural sources, which benefits wild plants
and animals that depend on a steady water supply
- Decreases the amount of untreated discharge sent back into the water supply
- Conserves water so that a reliable, sustainable supply can be provided to the public
- Requires far less energy than desalinating salt water
- Using grey water in urban homes saves municipal water.

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 Food security
Factors affecting food security
1. Human population growth
2. Droughts and floods
3. Poor farming practices
4. Alien plants and the reduction of agricultural land
5. Loss of wild varieties: impact on gene pools
6. Genetically engineered foods
7. Wastage of water

Droughts and floods

- Disrupts crop production
- Can lead to poverty
- Lower food security

Poor farming practices

MONOCULTURE
Monoculture is the agricultural practice of growing a crop consisting of a single high-yield
species over a large area for successive years.

Pest Soil erosion

control Reduce productivity due
to overfertilizing that
No genetic variety in cause damage to soil
plants – crops are all
prone to widespread
Disadvantages
outbreak of disease and of Monoculture
Need for
infestation of pests fertilisers

Leaching of macro Pollution

and micro-nutrients Loss of in rivers
from the soil topsoil

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 PEST CONTROL

1. Accumulate in food chains , harming consumers

2. Kill the natural predators and parasites that help control pest populations
3. Cause pesticide resistant species to develop
4. Interfere with breeding of mammals and birds

Poor farming practices would include over-use of pesticides or using the wrong pesticide for
a particular crop and these will cause crop failure or result in lower yields

LOSS OF TOPSOIL:

When tracts of land is ploughed after harvesting a crop, valuable topsoil can be washed away,
causing soil erosion because of:
- Change in structure of the soil
- Lack of vegetation to bind soil

Because of a reduction in soil nutrients crops yields and grazing lands are reduced
For these soils to restore nutrients, fertilizers are necessary which can be expensive and
damaging to the environment

NEED FOR FERTILIZERS:

- Rapidly deplete soil of nutrients

- Often grown on unsuitable soils, requiring more fertilizers and irrigation
- Soil erosion removes nutrient-rich topsoil

EFFECTS

- Cause eutrophication
- Huge expense –farmers then try to use the cheapest fertilizer without studying the
effects of it on the soil or crop

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Alien plant species
Invasive alien water plants:
- HYACINTH (Eichhornia
crassipes)
EFFECT ON WATER QUALITY

- Rivers and dams become clogged, making access

difficult
- Drainage systems become blocked, causing flooding
- They cause loss of water through evapotranspiration.
- Biodiversity is threatened, as they displace
indigenous plants and animals
- When alien plants die and decompose, they increase
nutrient loads in the water, leading to eutrophication
and reduction of oxygen levels

SOLUTIONS

- Removed mechanically
- Removed chemically (herbicide)
- Controlled biologically by introducing natural enemy
- Some people have started harvesting Hyacinth plants to make feed for livestock

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 Alien plants are harmful because they:
- Reduce water supplies by absorbing water more rapidly and losing more through
evapotranspiration, decreasing streamflow and groundwater replenishment

- Cause an increase in above-ground biomass and plant litter, leading to more

frequent fires

- Reduce the capacity of the land to support livestock and wildlife, and reduce the
area availability for planting crops

- Significantly reduce local biodiversity

Agricultural land is invaded by alien plants, less food can be produced and food
security is threatened.

Loss of wild variety

IMPORTANCE OF GENETIC DIVERSITY
GENE POOL: The gene pool of a species or population is the complete set of alleles
(different forms of genes) making up the genetic material of that
species or population.
GENETIC A large gene pool means there is high genetic diversity, while a small
DIVERSITY: gene pool means there is a low genetic diversity.
Populations with high genetic diversity are more likely to survive in
unfavourable conditions, since there is a greater chance that there are
genes in the gene pool that are resistant to unfavourable conditions.

CONSEQUENCES

- Lack of genetic diversity makes food species more suspectable to disease and
unfavourable weather conditions. If there is no wild varieties to provide new genetic
material to breed stronger species, the future of food security will be threatened
- Small scale farmers go into debt because of the high cost, for example of fertilizer,
pesticides, high protein feeds and medication, which are associated with growing
crops and keeping livestock that are not suited to the local conditions.

SOLUTION

SEEDBANKS stores seeds of wild varieties and locally adapted crop species.

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GMO foods
ADVANTAGES
Higher yields and increased nutrient content
Resistance to pest and diseases
Resistance to herbicides or pesticides
Delayed ripening after picking
Drought tolerance
could provide solutions to world hunger and
malnutrition
DISADVANTAGES
Expensive to produce and develop
may interbreed with wild varieties, further
reducing the genetic diversity
may escape and become pests or
superweeds
developed to become pests may lead to
resistance in the pests
may cause allergic reactions in people

WASTAGE

How could we help limit food wastage?

- Relaxing food quality standards (much food is thrown away if it does not meet
certain cosmetic standards)
- Changing consumer attitudes regarding the appearance of food
- Changing consumer behaviour E.g., Better meal Planning
- Some shops donate to charity food that has reached sell by dates
- Food past its sell by date could be used as animal feed or made into compost
- Research is being done into extending the life of food products

Loss of biodiversity
TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
Genetic diversity The variety and variation within a species
Species diversity The number of different species found in a certain area
(community)
Ecosystem diversity the interaction within specific or between different ecosystems

The 6th extinction

CAUSES
- Habitat destruction
- Poaching
- Over harvesting of endemic plants and alien plant invasion

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Habitat destruction
- Natural habitats are destroyed by many human activities, such as
o Farming methods
o Golf estates
o Mining
o Urbanisation
o Deforestation
o Loss of wetlands / grasslands

FARMING METHODS
OVERGRAZING MONOCULTURE
Over grazing occurs if land is overstocked Monoculture causes loss of biodiversity
with livestock suck as cattle, sheep or goats because vast areas of land are planted with
a single crop species. This replaces natural
vegetation and the habitats of many animal
species

Over grazing can lead to extinction of plant Monocultures require pesticides and
species and can leave land vulnerable to soil herbicides which kill not only pest or weeds
erosion and desertification but harmless plant and animal species

HABITAT DESTRUCTION
GOLF ESTATES - Large areas of natural vegetation are destroyed or fragmented,
which threatens biodiversity
- Maintaining a golf course requires a lot of herbicides,
pesticides and fertilizers which harm indigenous species and
lead to water pollution
- Alien plant species are introduced into golf courses and
gardens
- Perimeter fences restrict the movement of animals, and
electric fences can electrocute animals

MINING - Mining threatens biodiversity through its many harmful affects

on the environment, such as:
- Direct destruction of natural habitats when mines are
constructed
- Pollution of air, soil and water with toxic heavy metals,
radioactive elements, acid mine drainage and sedimentation

URBANISATION - Urbanisation occurs when increasing numbers of people move

from rural areas to cities. This leads to many harmful
environmental effects such as:

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 - Destruction or fragmentation of natural habitats
- Increased pollution of air, land and water
- Changes to pollination and seed dispersal patterns
- Reduction in animal breeding grounds
- Disruption of migration routes

DEFORESTATION - Deforestation mostly affects tropical rainforests, the most

threatened ecosystems on Earth
- Deforestation can lead to the extinction of forest species by
the destruction of habitats
- Deforestation also affects biodiversity through pollution and
sedimentation of rivers

LOSS OF WETLANDS - Wetlands and grasslands are destroyed for agriculture and
AND GRASSLANDS housing
- Grasslands are also damaged through overgrazing, leading to
soil erosion and desertification
Loss of habitats threatens biodiversity

Poaching
CAUSES
- Traditional or alternative medicine
- Sell to collectors
- Protect crops or vegetables from herbivores
- Food

Alien plant invasion

DAMAGE of alien plants

- They do not have natural enemies in their new habitat

- So they grow and spread quickly forming dense stands
- They REDUCE BIODIVERSITY by outcompeting indigenous plan t species.
- Many animals cannot survive on alien plants so many die from lack of food. Therefore
some endemic species might become extinct.

CONTROL of alien species

Depending on the plant species and the nature of the site which has been invaded, alien
plants may be controlled by:

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 METHOD ADVANTAGES
Mechanical - Effective when no herbicides
or biological control is
available
- Does not pollute environment
- Proves employment
Chemical - Often essential follow-up to
mechanical methods
Biological - not harmful to other species of - populations of alien species not
the environment
- kills plants gradually, so it
doesn’t lead to soil erosion
- cost effective
- self sustaining
DISADVANTAGES
- Labor intensive (expensive_
- Fires used to felled plant could
pose environmental hazard
- Large cleared areas could lead to
soil erosion
- Potential harm to humans after
organisms and the environment
- Requires a high level of training
- expensive
completely destroyed
- slow, taking at least 5 years
before alien plant is significantly
damaged

Indigenous knowledge systems

IK includes:
- Farming (crops & livestock)
- Traditional healing
Applying IK can help promote sustainable use of natural resources, because it is
based on living in harmony with nature

PLANT DESCRIPTION, TRADITIONAL/MEDICINAL COMMERCIAL USES

HABITAT, ETC. USE
Devils Claw - sprawling - rheumatoid arthritis Wildly used in
herbaceous plant - fever Europe for
- aid regions of - inflammation rheumatoid arthritis
southern Africa - stimulate digestion
- protected - skin wounds
Rooibos - woody shrub - Allergies Health tea, contains
- Cederberg - Asthma antioxidants, no
mountains - Cancer caffeine and few
- WC - Depression tannins
- Extensively - Insomnia
cultivated - Skin problems
Fynbos - Shrubby fine- Buchu leaves fir stomach Many products
layered South- problem - Cut flowers
West Cape coast Saliva for respiratory - Honeybush tea
- Protected and problem - Buchu brandy
cultivated - Thatching

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African potato - Tuberous - Induce vomiting To boost immunity
(hypoxissp) perennial - Dizziness especially in
- Grassland - Mental disorders HIV/AIDS patients
- Threatened - Urinary tract and cancer patients
infections
- Allergies
- Diabetes
- Inflammation
- Prostate problems
Hoodia spp. - Succulent plant - Appetite suppressant Appetite suppressant
- Kalahari Desert
- Threatened and
cultivated

Over harvesting can lead to loss of biodiversity

SOLUTION
- People must have permits to collect/ harvest species
- Cultivation of plant species to prevent extinction of species in their natural habitat

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Solid waste disposal

Toxic, flammable,
corrosive, carcinogenic,
Medical or radioactive Containing bacteria
laboratory waste or other pathogens

Animal remains from Hazardous Heavy metals

slaughterhouses waste
Electric waste
Nuclear waste
(old tech)

Types of
solid waste

Fabric and Organic matter (food

textile offcuts and garden waste)
from factories
General
waste

Builders rubble Packaging (paper,

(concrete/bricks) cardboard, plastic,
glass and cans)

Dumpsites / landfills

They must be managed to limit short term problems such

as:
- Unsightliness, noise and odour
- Flies and vermin which can spread disease
- Fires which release harmful gasses
- Windblown litter

When the landfill or a part of it is full, it must be closed and rehabilitated by:

- Closing the site (dry tomb or bioreactor)

- Landfill mining

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 Rehabilitation:
THE “DRY TOMB” SYSTEM
1. Construct a surface drainage system
- Which needs to collect any surface runoff
- Runoff is known as leachate and usually contains both dissolved and suspended material
2. Cover site with clay/plastic lining
- This lining is placed at the bottom and sides of the landfill
- Prevents leachate to seep into surrounding environment and prevents soil and
groundwater pollution
3. Leachate collection and treatment
- Leachate drains into reservoir where it can be treated
- In some landfills the leachate is re circulated back into the waste to speed up the
decomposition process.
4. Cover with clay rich soil after its been compacted
- This ensures surface drainage and prevent water infiltrating the waste and allow growth
of vegetation
-

The “Bioreactor” system

- Bioreactor technology accelerates the biological decomposition of food, green-waste,

paper and other organic wastes in a landfill by promoting conditions necessary for the
microorganisms that degrade the waste.
- The single most important factor in promoting waste decomposition is the moisture
content (LEACHATE) of the waste.
- Methane gas produce is collected and burned to generate electricity

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Recycling

More than 70% of all waste dumped in landfills consists of paper, plastic, cans, glass and
organic waste. This waste could be RECYCLED or COMPOSTED.

IMPORTANCE

- Conserves space in landfills, landfills last longer and fewer sites have to be created
- Helps conserve natural recourses, such as oil, timber and water
- Helps to conserve energy, since less energy is required to recycle used products
- Reduce the amount of pollution of the air and water. Reducing the amount of waste and
reusing products is an even better way to lessen your impact on the environment

Nuclear Power
- Nuclear power plants use low enriched uranium fuel to produce electricity through a
process called fission, the splitting of uranium atoms in a nuclear reactor.
- Waste produced in this reaction is radioactive and must be disposed of very carefully and
responsibly.

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DISPOSAL
- Fuel assemblies (metal rods containing spent uranium fuel) are removed from the reactor

STORAGE OF FUEL ASSEMBLEIS:

- Cooling ponds, which allow radio activity to decay and provide radiation protection. After
most radiation decayed, these steel canisters are buried in a concrete container to decay
for thousands of years.
- Fuel can be reprocessed by a process called vitrification.
- In the vitrification process, radioactive waste is mixed with a substance that will crystallize
when heated and then calcined.
- Calcination removes water from the waste to enhance the stability of the waste and
reduce the volume of the waste

ADVANTAGES
Large power output vs input
Reliable source of energy
Positive economic impact
Low greenhouse gas emissions
DISADVANTAGES
Potential of nuclear accident
Expensive and takes a long time to build
Not a renewable source of energy
Waste could cause environmental impact

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