BOTANY
DNA
IMPORTANT OF PLANTS
Word Botany comes from the Greek word for Plant.
Photosynthesis – is the process by which plants
and certain other organisms use solar energy to
make their own food by transforming carbon
dioxide and water into sugars that store chemical
energy.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS SUPPORTS LIFE IN THREE WAYS.
1. Producing oxygen, which most organism need to
release energy stored in food.
2. Providing energy plants directly to plants and
therefore indirectly to other organism in food
chains.
3. Producing sugars and other molecules which are
the building blocks of life.
As organism that make their own food, plants and
other photosynthetic organism are known as
PRIMARY PRODUCERS.
Plants are the primary products and terrestrial food
chains, while algae and photosynthetic bacteria are
the primary producers in aquatic food chains.
Plants are our fundamental source of foods.
MEDICINES FROM PLANTS
Plants served as medicines for centuries. Modern
chemistry has made available more plants extracts
containing alkaloids and other useful compounds.
About 25% of all prescription in US use plants
product. Ancient times alleviate symptoms of many
medical conditions.
Plants provide fuels, shelters, and paper products.
Woods containing mostly of dead cells from trunks,
is the world's main source of fuel for cooking and
heating. Woods provides construction materials
(houses or buildings); pulp- fir and pine for paper.
Conservation Biology is a critical area of research.
Conservation biology studies ways to maintain
biological resources. Half of the world's original
forests are gone and recent distractions of rain
forest may cause extinction of thousands of useful
species.
Conservation Biology science that study to
encounter widespread extinction of species and
loss critical habitats.
Biotechnology seeks to develop new plant product.
Technique used to improve plants to better need is
called Plant Biotechnology – which includes
genetic engineering methods of improving plants
by moving and modifying genes. Ex.
(deoxyribonucleic acid)
Genetically Modified (GM) plants provide sources
of nutrition and vaccines and are resistant to pest,
toxic, and minerals and herbicides.
PLANTS, CHARACTERISTICS AND DIVERSITY.
A set of characteristics distinguishes plants from
other organisms.
Plants are multicellular eukaryotes that have cells
composed mainly of cellulose; are almost all
capable of photosynthesis; have a spore-producing
adult form and an adult form that produces eggs
and sperms; and have a multicellular embryo
protected within the female parent. Together, this
characteristic helped distinguish plants from
animals, fungi, algae, and bacteria.
Mosses – are among the simplest types plants.
Ferns – are example of seedless vascular plants,
which are plants with vascular tissue- tubes of cell
that transport water and nutrients.
Pine trees and other conifers- are example of non-
flowering seed plants.
Most plants are flowering plants with seeds
protected in fruits.
Flowering seed plants known as angiosperm, are
the most common type plant. Angiosperm. Are
more adaptable to many environment because of
their more rapid system of water transport and the
protection of seed within fruits. There are four
main evolutionary There are four main evolutionary
development implants, the establishment of plants
on the land, origin of vascular tissue, origin of
seeds and origin of flower and fruits.
Botanist also study algae, fungi, and disease -
causing microorganism studying algae and other
photosynthetic organism help botanists learn more
about photosynthesis. Button list study how fungi
help and harm plants and animals, and how
microorganisms and viruses cause diseases in
plants and humans.
Cell structure and cell cycle
CELLS-are microscopic, enabling adequate
absorption of oxygen, water and nutrients through
the cells surface to meet the needs of internal
regions.

Microscopic reveal the world of cells
Light microscope bend light to produce magnified
images. Electron microscope focus electrons with
magnetic lenses to produce images by two types of
microscope.
1. TEM – (Transmission Electron Microscope)
posses electrons through a specimen to produce
television images
2. SEM – (Scanning Electron Microscope) bounces
electrons off a specimen to yield a 3D image.
Pioneers Of Microscope
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek - discovered a single
lens microscope which resembled tiny violins,
magnified up to 500 times.
Robert Hooks was a scientific virtuoso, making
discoveries in such divers fields as biology, physics
and astronomy. His microscope made by London
instrument maker Christopher Cock, were large
tubular structure with illumination provided by an
oil lamp.
Matthias Schleiden – a German Botanist confirmed
that all plants parts are composed of cells.
Theodor Schwan – a German Biologist confirmed
that animals are indeed also composed of cells.
Rudolf Virchow – a German Biologist, made a
conclusion- that new cells cold only arise from
existing cells.
Together, these observation become known as CELL
THEORY
Cell Theory states that all organisms are made up of
one or more cells, that the cells is the basic
structure unit and that all cells arise from existing
cells.
All cells are either Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic
Prokaryote terms (from latin word meaning
“before the nucleus”) and Eukaryote (from latin
word meaning “true nucleus”)
Eukaryotic cells evolve from prokaryotic cells and
are generally larger and more complex.
Most prokaryotes are bacteria, which are single-
celled but most are multicellular.
Cellular functions in eukaryotes are handled by
organells.
Endosymbiotic Theory – states that some
organelles evolved as a result pf prokaryotic cells
ingesting other prokaryotic cells.
Cells produce nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates
and lipids.
Nucleic acids (DNA-(deoxyribonucleic acid) and
RNA- (ribonucleic acid) – contains genes. Genetic
instructions in RNA direct synthesis of proteins,
which are composed of amino acids and define an
organism’s physical characteristics.
Some proteins are structural components, while
other enzymes regulate chemical reactions.
Proteins (Greek word proteios means “holding
first place”) – are also involved in transport and
response to stimuli.
Carbohydrates such as sugars and starch are
sources of energy and structural building blocks.
Lipids such as fats store energy and phospholipids
serve as building blocks and productive layers.
MAJOR PLANT ORGANELLES
The cells of plants, algae, fungi and animals have
essentially the same types of organelles.
Protoplast – the interior of plants cell (everything
inside the cell wall) consists of two parts: the
nucleus and cytoplasm.
The Nucleus provide DNA “Blueprints” for making
proteins.
The DNA in the nucleus is organized into complex
threadlike chromosomes. A chromosome (from the
Greek word Croma means “color” Soma means
“body”) consist of many genes, each coding for a
specific protein.
Nucleoli (singular-nucleolus) are round structures
in some chromosomes that synthesize subunits of
ribosomes.
Ribosomes build proteins
Ribosomes are tiny particles that are use RNA to
synthesize proteins. Unlike other organelles,
ribosomes lack a membranes and are also present
in prokaryotic cells.
The endoplasmic reticulum is the site of most
protein ad lipid synthesis – the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER), a network of membrane attached to
the nuclear membrane, is an assembly site for
making and exporting lipids (in the smooth ER) and
proteins (in the ER)/

The golgi apparatus completes and ships cell
poducts – also known as the Golgi Complex, this
organelle consist of stacks of membrane-bound
sacs called “cisternae”, which store and modify
products from ER before exporting them from the
cell through transport vesicles
Chloroplasts in green plant cells converts solar
energy into stored chemical energy – Chloroplasts
are photosynthetic organelles in cells of green parts
of plants.
Solar energy is converted to chemical energy in
thylakoids, while sugar production and storage
occurs in the surrounding fluid called the “stroma”.
Chloroplasts are a type of plastid, an organelle that
makes and stores food or pigments for plant cells.
Colorless plastids, called “leukoplasts” often
contains starch, and chromoplast contain yellow,
orange, or red pigments.
Mitochondria converts toward energy to power the cell
– the mitochondria are organelles that are the cell’s
“power plant”, converting stored chemical energy into
ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the organic molecule that
fuels the cell activities.
Microbodies aid in chemical reactions
Microbodies are small, spherical organelles containing
enzymes.
Peroxisomes – are microbodies that confine the
processing of hydrogen peroxide for chemical reactions.
Plants also have microbodies call “glyoxysomes” which
contain enzymes to convert fats for sugar.
Vacuoles play a variety of roles in cell metabolism and
cell shape – most of mature plant cells volume consist of
large central vacuole, which stores water and waste
products, regulates slat concentrations and help
maintain cell shape.
The vacuole’s membrane called a Tonoplast -facilitate
uphill transport of many ions and other materials,
making their concentration higher in vacuole than
cytoplasm; provides protection to the cell.
THE CYTOSKELETONE: CONTROLLING CELL SHAPE AND
MOVEMENT
The Cytoskeletone (“cell skeletone”) maintains cell
shape and keeps organelles from floating freely. The
cytoskeletone has three types of threadlike proteins:
1. microtubules
2. microfilaments
3. Intermediate filaments
which extends like tracks throughout the cytoplasm fluid
Microtubules plays an important role in cell movement
– microtubules, the longest protein threads in the
cytoskeleton, direct movement of molecules, organelles,
and chromosomes within the cell. Microtubules cam
also be components of cilia and flagella, the propelling
appendages found in many animals cells and in mobile
reproductive cells in plants.
Microfilaments help living cell change shape –
microfilaments are the thinnest protein threads in the
cytoskeleton. Composed of protein actin, they cause
movement or changes in shape. In plants, they move
cell contents around the central vacuole in a circular
motion call cytoplasmic streaming (cyclosis).
Motor proteins or “walking molecules” cause movement
– microtubules and microfilaments provide tracks that
guide motor proteins (“walking molecules”), which
attach to structures to move them to destination within
the cell.
Intermediate filaments help determine the permanent
structure of cells – intere filaments
are thicker than microfilament but thinner than
microtubules.
THE CYTOSKELETON
* Interactions of motor proteins and the cytoskeleton
circulates materials circulates materials within the cell.
* The cytoskeleton may transmit mechanical signals that
rearrange the nucleoli and other structures.
* Motor molecules also carry vesicles or organelles to
various destinations provided by the cytoskeleton.
Membranes and Cell Walls
Membrane are gatekeeping barriers around and within
cells-Cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane that
contains what enters or leaves the cells.
Cell walls protect plant cells and define cell shape –
plants, unlike animals, have a cell wall external to the
plasma membrane. Plants cell wall are composed mainly
of long cellulose molecules. Rigid molecules called
lignins strengthen cell walls in vascular plants. A thin
layer called the middle lamella joined cell walls of
adjacent cells.
Plasmodesmata are channels that connect plant cells – BASIC TYPES OF PLANTS CELLS
Plasmodesmata allows molecules to pass between cells
section review.

The Cell-Cycle and Cell Division

At the end of their life cycle cells either divide or die.
Dead cells often provide structural support and conduct
water. Growth and reproduction of multicellular
organisms depend on cell division.

The cell cycle describes the phase of cells life – the cell
cycle has two main; periodic interphase and miotic
phase. Interface consists of 90% of the cell cycle,
compromising the G1 phase. DNA replication (5phase),
and G2 phase. The mitotic phase or M phase, consists
Plant growth with meristems, groups of
of cell division, during which the chromatids become
undifferentiated cells that can divide indefinitely,
separate chromosomes and the molecules and
allowing a plant to continue growing its whole life.
cytoplasm divide to form separate cells.
3 Basic types pf differential cells
Mitosis and cell division are involved in growth and
1. Parenchyma
reproduction – Mitosis is involved in growth,
2. Collenchyma
replacements of cells in adult organisms, sexual
3. Sclerenchyma
reproduction in plants, and asexual reproduction.
Parenchyma cells are the most common type living
With us says produces two daughter nuclie,
differentiated cell
chromosomes number as the original cell -Mitosis
Usually spherical, cubical, or elongated parenchyma
consist of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
cells are alive at maturity, with thin primary walls
and cytokinesis.
typically no secondary wall. Parenchyma cells serve for
photosynthesis and storage.
Prophase – appearance of each chromosomes as a pair
of sister chromatids and the beginning of the formation
Collenchyma cells provide flexible support
of a spindle of microtubles, breakup of the nuclear
alive at maturity and lacking secondary walls,
envelope, and movement of chromatins toward the
collenchyma cells can attain a variety of shapes and
center of the cell.
have thicker primary walls than parenchyma cells.
Parenchyma and Collenchyma cells must be filled with
Metaphase - In which cromatids align across the centre
water to become turgid enough for support.
between the two poles of the spindle.
Anaphase – separation of chromatids to form individual
Sclerenchyma cells provide rigid support
chromosomes, which move to the opposite poles.
Sclerenchyma cells are usually dead at maturity and
Telophase – the reverse of prophase, with nuclear
have secondary walls often hardened with lingins. They
membranes reforming around each daughter cell.
can support without being filled with water.
Cytokinesis – usually starts during late anaphase or
early telophase.
There are 2 main types
In plant cells cytokinase. A cell plate extends to divide
1. Fibers
the cell into two daughter cells.
2. Sclereids

New cells typically become specialized – cell division

divides available cellular space but does not produce
growth.
Tissue of Vascular Plants Stem support leaves and reproductive structures
transport water and nutrients and protect the plants
A tissue
- a group of cells that performs a function Leaves functions in both photosynthesis and
- may be simple (one cell type) or complex (multiple cell transportation
type). leaves are the main photosynthesis organ.

The dermal tissue system is replaced during the second
year growth of by periderm, mainly composed of
nonliving cell. Dermal cells can be modified into hairlike
trichomes. The aboveground dermal tissue often a waxy
protective layer called a cuticle.
Roots anchor the plant and absorb water and minerals
AN OVERVIEW OF PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
A plant has a root system (usually below ground) and a
shoot system (usually above ground) consisting of all
stems, leaves and reproductive structures.

The vascular tissue system conducts water, mineral, and

food
The vascular system consist of two complex tissue xylem
(for transporting water and mineral) and phloem (for Meristems enable plants to continue growing
transporting food). All xylem contains tracheid. throughout their lives

Animals have determinate growth, basically stopping

growth at adulthood. Meristem enable plants to grow
throughout their lives, a pattern called indeterminate
growth

Ground tissue usually forms between dermal and

vascular tissue
Ground tissue fills up space not occupied by vascular o
dermal tissue, carries out photosynthesis and stores
nutrients.

An organ is a group of several types of tissues that

together perform certain functions. Plants organs are
stems, leaves, and roots.
Apical meristem initiate primary growth that make Some plants live for one growing season, while others
roots and shoots longer live for two season or longer.

Primary growth (growth in length) comes from apical
meristem at tips of roots and shoots. Leaves originate in
shoot apical meristem stems as leaf primordia (early
stage of development). Each mature leaf is attached to a
stem by a petiole at a point called a NODE. Internodes
are stem section between leaves. Auxin suppresses
axillary bud growth near the apical meristem. Apical
meristem can generate reproductive structures.
Annuals live for one growing season, biennials for two
seasons and perennials for many years. Annuals and
biennials are typically herbaceous (nonwoody) plants,
while perennials are typically woody but also include
many herbaceous plants.

Botanist are discovering how genes control the

formation of apical meristems.

Gene mutation can increase, reduce, or prevent the

growth of ground tissue, vascular tissue, apical
meristem, and organs.

Apical meristem give rise to primary meristem which

produce primary tissue.

The protoderm produces thermal tissue, the

procambium produces vascular tissue, and the
ground meristem produces ground tissue.