General Certificate of Ordinary Level Examination

Science
Biology

Grade 10

Unit 1

Chemical Basis
of Life

Hirosh Mendis

www.seventeachers.com
 Contents
Mind map ............................................................. 3
Introduction .......................................................... 4
Elements ............................................................... 4
Macro elements........................................ 4
Trace elements ......................................... 4
Compounds........................................................... 4
Organic compounds.......................................... 5
Carbohydrates .............................................. 5
Monosaccharides...................................... 5
Glucose ................................................. 5
Fructose ................................................ 5
Galactose .............................................. 5
Disaccharides ............................................ 5
Maltose ................................................. 6
Lactose .................................................. 6
Sucrose ................................................. 6
Reducing sugars ................................ 6
Polysaccharides ........................................ 6
Starch .................................................... 7
Glycogen ............................................... 7
Cellulose ............................................... 7
Significance of Carbohydrates .................. 7
Proteins......................................................... 8
Amino acid ............................................... 8
Biuret test ................................................ 8
Significance of Proteins............................ 8
Enzymes ................................................... 8
Lipids ............................................................ 8
Significance of Lipids ................................ 9
Sudan III test ............................................ 9
Nucleic Acids ................................................ 9
Nucleotides .............................................. 9
Significance of Nucleic acid.................... 10
Vitamins ..................................................... 10
Inorganic compounds .................................... 11
Water ......................................................... 11
Water as a Solvent ............................. 11
Act as a respiratory medium.............. 11
Helps to regulate body temperature. 11
As a transport medium ...................... 11
As a living environment for organisms
........................................................... 11
Minerals ..................................................... 11
Questions ....................................................... 14
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Biology

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Percent of
Elements Symbol the Body by
Cells, tissues and organs are composed of Weight
chemicals, many of which are identical with those Oxygen O 65.0
found in non-living matter. Others are unique to Carbon C 18.5
living organisms. The study of chemical Hydrogen H 9.5
compounds found in living systems, and the Nitrogen N 3.3
reactions in which they take part is known as Calcium Ca 1.5
Phosphorus P 1.0
biochemistry. Studies on the structure and
Potassium K 0.4
behavior of individual molecules constitute
Sulfur S 0.3
molecular biology, a subject in which spectacular
Sodium Na 0.2
advances have been made in recent years. If the Chlorine Cl 0.2
‘secret of life’ is to be found anywhere it is in these Magnesium Mg 0.1
molecules. Iron Fe 0.1

The Earth’s crust contains 92 natural chemical
elements and only about 20 of these are essential
for life. The six most common elements in living
organisms are, in order, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur. These account for
more than 99% of the mass and numbers of atoms
found in all living organisms. The four most
common elements in the Earth’s crust, however,
are oxygen, silicon, aluminium, and sodium.
Some of them are needed in bulk and others are
required in relatively small amounts.
Macro elements
Necessary in large amounts (more than 0.01 %
in dry weight)
In plants H, C, O, N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg
In Animals H, C, O, N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Fe
and Cl
Trace elements
Biology
The chemicals that make up the body may be
divided into two major categories: inorganic
and organic.
Inorganic chemicals are usually simple
molecules made of one or two elements other
than carbon (with a few exceptions). Examples
of inorganic chemicals are water (H2O);
oxygen (O2); one of the exceptions, carbon
dioxide (CO2); and minerals such as iron (Fe),
calcium (Ca), and sodium (Na).
Organic chemicals are often very complex and
always contain the elements carbon and
hydrogen
Both are found in living things.
Organic compounds make up a goodly
proportion of the average cell, comprising
about 30 % of the total; second only to water.
Substance Percentage
Water 65

Protein 18
Needed in relatively low (less than 0.01 % in
Fat 10
dry weight) amounts but are essential. Carbohydrate 5
In plants Na, Fe, Cl, B, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, Al, Other organic 1
Si, V, Inorganic 1
In Animals B, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, Al, Si, V

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The principal organic compounds found in General formula is (CH2O)n, n=3-7

organisms are carbohydrates, fats, proteins and All reducing sugars
nucleic acids. They are classified according to the chemical
Of the inorganic constituents acids, bases, salts groups associated with it and the number of
and water are amongst the more important. carbon atoms.
The approximate percentage composition of The best known monosaccharides are the
the human body. hexoses, of which glucose is the most common
in the mammalian body.
Glucose
Organic compounds
C6H12O6
Found in ripen fruits, bee
honey.
The elements present in a carbohydrate are End products of starchy
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen food digestion, which
General formula Cx(H2O)y, where x and y are absorbed to the blood.
variable numbers; their name (hydrate of End product of photosynthesis.
carbon) is derived from the fact that hydrogen Respiratory substrate of cellular respiration.
and oxygen are present in the same
Fructose
proportions as in water, namely two hydrogen
atoms to one oxygen atom. C6H12O6
All are aldehydes or ketones Found in ripen fruits, bee
All contain several hydroxyl groups honey, pumpkin, carrots.
Aldehydes are very easily oxidised and hence Known as fruit sugar.
are powerful reducing agents. Sweetest sugar.
On combustion they yield energy
Galactose
Principal functions are composition of
important structures, and storage. C6H12O6
Carbohydrates are divided into three main Found in dairy products.
classes. End product of lactose
➢ Monosaccharides hydrolysis.
➢ Disaccharides and Less sweet in taste.
➢ Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides Disaccharides

Single sugar units which can’t further Made by joining two monosaccharides
hydrolysis to obtain carbohydrates, Simple Sweet
molecules Readily soluble in water
Biology

Sweet Crystalline
Readily soluble in water Name always end in-ose
Crystalline General formula is (CnH2n-2On-1)- two hexoses
Name always end in-ose

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Some reducing sugars, some non reducing It is also relatively unreactive chemically.
sugars. This means it tends not to enter into general
They are formed when two monosaccharides, metabolism on its way from one place to
usually hexoses, combine by means of a another.
chemical reaction known as a condensation. It is sometimes stored for the same reasons.
This means removal of water. It is obtained commercially from sugar cane
and sugar beet and is the ‘sugar’ we normally
C6H12O6+ C6H12O6 C12H22O11+H2O buy in shops.
Red uci n g s ug a rs
The bond formed between two
monosaccharides as a result of condensation is All monosaccharides and some disaccharides,
called a glycosidic bond. including maltose and lactose, are reducing
The most common disaccharides are maltose, sugars, meaning that they can carry out a type
lactose and sucrose: of chemical reaction known as reduction.
➢ maltose → glucose + glucose Sucrose is the only common non-reducing
➢ lactose → glucose + galactose sugar.
➢ sucrose → glucose + fructose Common test for reducing sugars is Benedict’s
test, make use of the ability of these sugars to
Maltose
reduce copper from a valency of 2 to a valency
Molt sugar, occurs mainly as a breakdown of 1.
product during digestion of starch by enzymes Both tests involve use of an alkaline solution of
called amylases. copper(II)sulphate (CuSO4) which is reduced
This commonly occurs in animals and in to insoluble copper(I)oxide (Cu2O).
germinating seeds.
Cu2++ e → Cu+
Lactose
blue solution brick-red
Milk sugar is found exclusively in milk and is precipitate
an important energy source for young Polysaccharides
mammals.
It can only be digested slowly, so gives a slow Macromolecules, polymers of
steady release of energy. monosaccharides
Not found in plants. Not sweet
Not sweet as sucrose. Insoluble or slightly soluble in water
Non-crystalline
Sucrose
General formula is (Cx(H2O)y)
Cane sugar is the most abundant disaccharide Non reducing
in nature. They function mainly as food and energy stores
It is most commonly found in plants, where it (for example starch and glycogen) and as
Biology

is transported in large quantities through structural materials (for example cellulose).

phloem tissue, They are convenient storage molecules for
It makes a good transport sugar because it is several reasons:
very soluble, and can therefore he moved
efficiently in high concentrations.

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➢ their large size makes them more or less
insoluble in water, so they exert no osmotic
or chemical influence in the cell:
➢ they fold into compact shapes and they are
easily converted to sugars by hydrolysis
when required.
Starch
metabolic activity, where it provides a useful
energy reserve.
Its conversion back to glucose is controlled by
hormones, particularly glucogan.
It forms tiny granules inside cells which are
usually associated with smooth endoplasmic
reticulum.
Cellulose

Polymer of a glucose. Polymer of glucose.

It is a major fuel store in plants, but is absent It has a structural role.
from animals where the equivalent is glycogen. About 50% of the carbon found in plants is in
It can easily be converted back to glucose for cellulose.
use in respiration. It is the most abundant organic molecule on
A suspension of starch in water gives a blue- Earth.
black colour with iodine-potassium iodide It is a structural component of all plant cell
solution. walls, making up about 20-40% of the wall.
Starch molecules accumulate to form starch It is found in plants, alga.
grains. These are visible in many plant cells, in The enzyme need to hydrolyze cellulose is
the chloroplasts of leaves, in storage organs Cellulase, but no animal can produce cellulase,
such as the potato tuber, and in seeds of cereals even some bacteria and some fungi can.
and legumes. Significance of Carbohydrates
Glycogen
As an energy Source
Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch, As storage compound
being a storage polysaccharide made from As a structural component in organism
glucose; many fungi also store it. As a constituent of Nucleic acid
In vertebrates, glycogen is stored chiefly in the
liver and muscles, both centers of high
Monosaccharides
C6H1206 Glucose+ Glucose +
 Glucose  Glucose Glucose
Sweet Fructose Galactose
Soluble
crystalline
Disaccharides
C12H22O11 Maltose Sucrose Lactose
Cellobiose
Sweet
malt sugar cane sugar milk sugar
Soluble
Biology

crystalline
Polysaccharides
(C6H10O5 )n Glycogen
Starch Cellulose
Unsweet animal starch
insoluble
non-crystalline

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No heating is required.
A mauve or purple color develops slowly
Contain atoms of C, H, O, and N: sometime S
indicate the presence of Protein
and P.
Proteins are macromolecules, hetero polymers Essential amino Nonessential
made up of thousands of amino acids. acids amino acids
Most abundant organic compound in the body. Isoleucine Alanine
(17% of dry mass) Leucine Asparagine
Amino acid Lysine Aspartate
Methionine Cysteine
Four different groups connected to a middle C Phenylalanine Glutamate
atom. Threonine Glutamine
➢ - COOH - carboxyl acid group Tryptophan Glycine
➢ - NH2 - amino group Valine Proline

➢ -H - H atom Serine
Tyrosine
➢ -R - variable group which
Arginine
make 20 different amino acids
Histidine

H H O

Significance of Proteins
H N C C OH

R As an energy source
Simplest is Glycine, which –R group is also H As enzymes
As hormones
As antibodies
Enzymes

The special proteins (organic catalysts) that are

Glycine
produced within the organism to increase the
Plants are able to make all the amino acids they
rate of bio- chemical reactions are known as
require from simpler substances.
enzymes.
But animals are unable to synthesize all that
For example to convert sucrose into Glucose,
they need, and therefore must obtain some
sucrose has to be heated with a dilute acid.
‘ready-made’ amino acids directly from their
But the enzymes present in the digestive system
diet.
do the same reaction at a low temperature.
These are termed essential amino acids.
Therefore the activity of enzyme is to catalyze
Animals can make the other amino acids they
the bio- chemical reactions.
require from these.
Biuret test
Biology

Add 2 cm3of unknown solution to a test-tube. Consist of C, H and O but HO ratio is greater
Add an equal volume of 5% potassium than 21 (Sometimes P and N can found)
hydroxide solution and mix. Lipids are a diverse group of chemicals, so
Add two drops of 1% copper sulphate solution. cannot be define precisely.

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Water insoluble, but soluble in organic Sudan III test

solvents.
Less dense than water.
The most common type is the triglycerides,
which are usually known as fats and oils.
The main difference between them is that, at
the room temperature, fats are solid whereas
oils are liquid.
Fatty acids & glycerol react to form Lipids.
Fatty acids + glycerol → Lipids + Water
Some fatty acids-oleic, have double bonds
between adjacent carbon atoms.
Such fatty acids are described as unsaturated,
as they do not contain the maximum possible
amount of hydrogen, and form unsaturated
lipids.
Double bonds make fatty acids and lipids melt
more easily, for example most oils are
unsaturated.
Animal lipids are often saturated and occur as
fats, whereas plant lipids are often unsaturated
and occur as oils, such as olive oil and
sunflower oil.
Significance of Lipids
Add 2 cm3of unknown solution to a test-tube.
Add sudan III reagent into it.
Appearance of red fat globules indicates the
presence of lipid in that food.
The two macromolecules that control the
nature of all living things are DNA and RNA –
the information macromolecules or the
software of the cell.
Contain atoms of C, H, O, N and P.
Nucleic acids are macromolecules, polymers
made up of millions of Nucleotides.
Transport genetic materials through
generations, controls all cellular functions.
Nucleotides
Made up of three sub parts
Sugar Pentose Ribose or
Deoxyribose
Bases nitrogenous Purine or Pyrimidine
Phosphoric acid -PO4-3

As an energy source
To form different structural components
For conservation of water
To maintain the body temperature
To protect internal body organs
To synthesize some hormones
DNA RNA
double- stranded macromolecule single-stranded macromolecule
polymer of deoxyribonucleotide polymer of ribonucleotide
transfers genetic characteristics from generation to
Protein synthesis
generation & controls all the cellular activiries
Three types
Biology

transfer RNA (tRNA)

Only one type
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
messenger RNA (mRNA)
Found in the nucleus Found in nucleus, cytoplasm

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Significance of Nucleic acid

Important in storage of genetic information of
organisms.
Important in transferring genetic information
from generation to generation.
Important in protein synthesis process.
Important in controlling all cellular activities
in a cell. The information to
Control cellular activities is present in DNA.
RNA is important in storing genetic
information of some viruses.
The variations occur in DNA due to mutations
are important in evolution.
They are organic compounds important in bio
chemical reaction.
Vitamins can be classified into 2 groups
according to the solubility in water.
Vitamin B & C are water soluble and
A, D, E, & K are insoluble in water, but these
are fat soluble.
The vitamins are needed for activities of
human body, Their uses and deficiency
symptoms are given in the table below.

Vitamin Functions Deficiency Symptoms

Vitamin A

Vitamin B

Vitamin C

Vitamin D

Vitamin E

Vitamin K
Biology

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Inorganic compounds
Water is by far the most abundant component
of organisms.
An individual human cell contains
approximately 8o % water, and the whole body
is made up of over 6o %.
Life originated in water, and today numerous
organisms make their home in it.
Water provides the medium in which all
biochemical reactions take place and has
played a major role in the evolution of
biological systems.
Water as a Solvent
Provides a medium for bio-chemical reactions
in the cells of organisms.
The main constituent in the extra-cellular
fluids of organisms.
Facilitates removal of excretory material &
fecal matter of animals.
Act as a respiratory medium
Important in respiration of aquatic organisms
as Oxygen (O2) is soluble in water.
Helps to regulate body tem perature.
Due to high specific heat capacity the body
temperature does not fluctuate quickly with
changes in the environment.
As a transport medium
Being the main constituent of blood, it helps to
transport nutrients, vitamins & hormones to
relevant locations.
Transports water to the upper parts of the
plant due to high cohesive & adhesive force of
water molecules
As a living environment for organisms
Density of water is higher than density of ice.
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When ice is formed they come to top layers of
water keeping water as it is in the bottom.
This provides living environment for aquatic
organisms.
Finally and except those………
Structure — high water content of cells (70—
95% typical)
Solvent and medium for diffusion
Reagent in hydrolysis
Support for aquatic organisms
Fertilization by swimming gametes
Dispersal of seeds, gametes and larval stages of
aquatic organisms, and seeds of some
terrestrial species e.g. coconut
Osmosis and turgidity
Reagent in photosynthesis
Transpiration
Translocation of inorganic ions and organic
compounds
Germination of seeds — swelling and breaking
open of the testa and further development
Osmoregulation
Cooling by evaporation, such as sweating
Lubrication, as in joints
Support — hydrostatic skeleton of e.g. annelid
worms
Protection, for example lachrymal fluid (tears),
mucus
Migration in ocean currents
Minerals are important as a nutrient
constituent to maintain the life processes of
organisms.
They are absorbed as trace or macro elements
into the body.
Biology
The elements needed in higher amounts are
known as macro elements and the elements
needed in small amounts are known as trace
elements.
Most common mineral are Calcium and
Phosphorous.
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Other than that Potassium, Iron, Magnesium,

Copper & Chlorine are also included.
The elements are required in small amounts.
But when they are not present in correct
amounts, plants and animals show deficiency
symptoms.
Functions of minarals in human body and
deficency symptoms of them

Mineral Functions Deficiency Symptoms

Potassium

Sodium

Magnesium

Calcium

Phosphorous

Iron
Biology

Iodine

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Functions of minerals in plants & deficiency

symptoms of them

Mineral Functions Deficiency Symptoms

Nitrogen

Phosphorous

Potassium

Sulfur

Iron

Calcium

Zinc

Biology

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Questions

1. Which kind of molecule could be an enzyme?

(1) fat (2) glucose (3) protein (4) starch

2. The roots of green plants take up nitrates from the soil. What are the nitrates used to make?
Which kind of molecule could be an enzyme?
(1) fat (2) glucose (3) protein (4) starch

3. The roots of green plants take up nitrates from the soil. What are the nitrates used to make?
(1) fat (2) glucose (3) protein (4) starch

4. Which substance contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen?

(1) collagen (2) glycogen (3) glucose (4) starch

5. Which symptom is caused by a deficiency of vitamin D?

(1) anaemia (3) constipation
(2) bones breaking easily (4) gums bleeding

6. Which chemical test shows the presence of an enzyme in a biological washing powder?
(1) Benedict’s (2) biuret (3) ethanol emulsion (4) iodine solution

7. A lack of which nutrient causes gums to bleed?

(1) calcium (2) iron (3) vitamin C (4) vitamin D

8. The table shows the mass of some nutrients found in 100 g of four different foods.
food carbohydrate/ g fat/ g protein/g vit C/mg vit D/mg
beans 10.0 0.4 5.0 3.0 0.0
bread 48.0 1.5 9.0 0.0 0.0
cheese 0.0 34.0 25.0 0.0 0.4
eggs 0.0 11.0 13.0 0.0 1.5
Which foods would best prevent rickets and scurvy?
rickets scurvy
(1) beans bread
(2) bread cheese
(3) cheese eggs
(4) eggs beans
Biology

9. Which element in the molecule of urea shows that it is formed from amino acids and not from
glucose?
(1) carbon (2) hydrogen (3) nitrogen (4) oxygen

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10. Two samples of food are tested. The results are shown in the table.
test used
iodine solution Benedict’s test biuret test
sample 1 brown orange blue
sample 2 blue / black blue violet
What do these results show?
(1) Sample 1 contains starch and sugars.
(2) Sample 1 contains starch only.
(3) Sample 2 contains starch and protein.
(4) Sample 2 contains protein only.

11. Milk produces a red precipitate when heated with Benedict’s solution. A purple colour develops when
the biuret test is used on milk. Using these results only, which nutrients does milk contain?
(1) fat and protein
(2) fat and starch
(3) reducing sugar and protein
(4) reducing sugar and starch

12. what is the general formula of carbohydrate

(1) C6H12O6 (2) Cx(H2O)y (3) CxHx+2Oy (4) CnH2nOn

13. Which one is not a mono saccharide

(1) Glucose (2) Maltose (3) Galactose (4) Fructose

14. Which sugar is found in germination seeds

(1) Glucose (2) Maltose (3) Galactose (4) Fructose

15. Hormones are

(1) All Proteins (2) All Lipids (3) Proteins or Lipids (4) All carbohydrates

16. Which dietary imbalance does not lead to the health problem stated?
dietary imbalance health problem
(1) lack of fresh fruit constipation and scurvy
(2) lack of milk and cod liver oil rickets and diarrhoea
(3) too many sweets and cakes anaemia and rickets
(4) too much full-fat cheese and fried food chronic heart disease

17. Tennis players often eat bananas during long matches.

Biology

Which nutrient in a banana is important during the match?

(1) carbohydrate (2) fibre (3) iron (4) vitamin C

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