Facunla, Lyra Camille
BIOMOLECULES
All living organisms are made up of different
elements known as the simplest forms of substance that
cannot be simplified into another form
Seven major elements that make up 98-99 percent of the
weight of all living systems.
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur,
and Calcium
Carbon
o Makes up 18% of the mass of the human body
o Helps in cellular respiration by which the body
releases energy stored in glucose
o Main components of organic compounds
Hydrogen
o Accounts for 10% of the mass of the human body
o Essential in energy production
o H+ ion can be used as a proton pump to produce ATP
to regulate numerous chemical reactions
Oxygen
o The most abundant element in the body
o Makes up 61-65% of the mass of the human body
o Used for cellular respiration
Nitrogen
o Approximately makes up 3% of the mass of the
human body
o Key element for proteins, nucleic acids, and other
organic molecules
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Phosphorus
o About 1.2% of 1.5% of the mass of the human body
o Important for bone structure
o Primary energy molecule in the body
o Major components of nucleic acids
Sulfur
o About 0.20% to 0.25%of the mass of the human
body
o Important component of amino acids and proteins
o Allows cells to use oxygen
Calcium
o Accounts for 1.5% of human body weight
o Gives skeletal system its rigidity and strength
o Found in bones and teeth
o Important for muscle function
Minerals
o Elements found in little amounts in living organisms:
Silicon, Chlorine, Manganese, Cobalt, Copper, Zinc
o Essential for the growth and maintenance of the
body.
o Some are found in soil, while some may be dissolved
in water that can be absorbed by plants
Element
o Is a substance that cannot be broken down to other
substances by ordinary chemical reaction.
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o Trace elements - chemical elements required only gases, and collection of waste products all over the
in minute amounts by living organisms for normal body
growth.

Compound
Acids
o Substance composed of two or more elements that
o Inorganic compounds that taste sour, change color
are chemically combined together.
of certain indicators, react with some metals and
Can be classified into two: bases, and promote chemical reactions in a water
solution. pH (2 – 4).
1. Inorganic compounds  Acetic acid (vinegar)
Water, Acids, Bases, Electrolytes, Carbon dioxide  Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
 Citric acid (citrus fruits)
Water  Carbonic acid (softdrinks)
 Hydrochloric acid (stomach)
o The universal and Versatile solvent
o Dissolves an enormous variety of solutes necessary Bases
for living.
o Type of inorganic compound that accept hydrogen
o Exhibits unique properties
ions.
Characteristics & functions of water in a living system: o Has bitter taste, is slippery, and turns litmus paper
into blue
o Biological solvent – ability to dissolve many
 Sodium hydroxide (soap)
substances including essential molecules in the body.  Potassium hydroxide
o High heat capacity – a large amount of heat is  Ammonium hydroxide
needed to increases in temperature; thus, it helps in  Some antacids
maintaining a constant body temperature
o High heat of vaporization- helps in preventing pH scale
dehydration in an organism
o High heat of fusion – helps organism from freezing
at low temperature
o Medium for chemical and physical processes-
can serve as a place for exchanging gases and
nutrients and elimination of wastes.
o Means of transport – can serve as a
transporter/vehicle in the distribution of nutrients,
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o A by-product in the production of ethanol through

the process called fermentation and the combustion
of fossil fuels.

2. Organic compounds
o Contain carbon
o Also known as macromolecules
o Macromolecules- made up of hundreds or
thousands of atoms.

Monomers- individual units of macromolecules.

o To control the pH in living organisms, there is a Biological polymers are chains of repeating units of
biological fluid that can resist changes in pH by monomers linked together.
having a mixture of weak acid and its corresponding
base known as buffer. Building up Polymers

Electrolytes Condensation polymerization (aka as

dehydration synthesis) removes an OH and
o Inorganic compounds that can conduct electricity H during
within the body also known as salts and ions. synthesis of a
new molecule.
Ions – classified as either cations (+) or anions (-)
Polymerization Diagram- Water is
o Important in maintaining voltages across the cell
formed and ATP is required
membranes and it sends electrical impulses in nerve
cells and muscle cells during muscle contraction.. Breaking down Polymers

NaCl, HCO3-, PO42-, SO42-, Mg2+ Hydrolysis breaks a covalent bond by

adding OH and H from a water molecule
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrolysis Diagram- Water is required
o Essential for plants to perform photosynthesis
o Raw material needed in the manufacturing of 4 types of macromolecules found in
glucose. the living system:
o In animals, it is a waste product from the breakdown
Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids, Nucleic acids
of organic food substance such as glucose.
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Proteins
o Most abundant living compounds
found in any living organism
o Greek word “proteos” – “first place”
o A biological polymer constructed
from amino acids as its monomer.
o C,H,O,N and some have S
Important in the structure of the
cells:
Gene activators, Membrane receptors,
clotting factors, Etc.
7 MAJOR CLASSES OF PROTEINS
1. Structural protein – found in the hair of mammals;
fibers that make up the tendons and ligaments
2. Contractile protein- protein that provide muscular
movement
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3. Storage protein – such as ovalbumin, main
substance of egg white
4. Defensive proteins – includes antibodies that
promote protection against foreign bodies.
5. Transport proteins- includes hemoglobin.
o Hemoglobin- Iron-containing protein in the
blood that transports oxygen from the lungs
to the other parts of the body.
6. Signal proteins- such as hormone which help
coordinate body activities
7. Enzyme- serves as the chemical catalyst that
changes the rate of chemical reaction
o Lipase- enzyme that hydrolyses glycerides
 There are 20 amino acids that are essential in the
human body
 We are capable of making 12 of these amino acids,
the other 9 must be consumed
 The 9 amino acids are called essential amino
acids.
Histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.
 20 different amino acids encoded by the DNA
 R-groups determine the properties
of individual amino acids.
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 Amino acids are JOINED together by

 PEPTIDE BONDS also called AMIDE BONDS
 Following a sequence dictated by the DNA
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Four structures of proteins: o Can be simple monomers like glucose

o Can be complex polymers like cellulose
1. Primary Structure
2. Secondary Structure Groups of Carbohydrates
3. Tertiary Structure
4. Quaternary Structure

Monosaccharide

o Simple sugars consisting of one sugar unit

o Building blocks for more complex form of sugar
o Also serve as construction materials for other organic
molecules like fats
o Highly soluble in water and can pass freely through
membranes
o Fructose – “corn sugar”
o Galactose
o Glucose – “dextrose/ blood sugar”

Importance:

o Energy source: used as a reactant in respiration

o Monomer Unit: used to form:

Dimers (disaccharides) and Polymers (polysaccharides)

Carbohydrates
Disaccharide
o Organic compounds that serve as the main
o Complex sugars made up of two molecules
source of energy in all organisms
chemically joined together
o Carbohydrate means “hydrated” carbon
o Lactose  milk
o Composing elements C, H, O
o Maltose  malted cereals and sprouting grains
o Hydrogen and Oxygen are in a ratio of 2:1
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o Sucrose  common table sugar
o Lactose: glucose + galactose
o Maltose: glucose + glucose
o Sucrose: glucose + fructose
Condensation to form Disaccharides
Importance:
o Energy storage: sucrose is a store of energy in
sugarcane and sugar beets
o Energy transport: carbohydrate is transported in
plants as sucrose
Polysaccharide
o Complex sugars made up of chains and/or branches
of monosaccharide
o Acts as storage and as a structural molecules
Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, and chitin
Starch- plant carbohydrate storage, composed entirely of
glucose molecules. Found in potato tubers, cassava, corn,
and cereals.
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Glycogen – serves as animal carbohydrate storage and can
be easily broken down into glucose molecules when needed.
Insoluble in water and forms a highly compact shape.
Cellulose – found in the cell wall of plants and highly
insoluble. Functions for support and protection of plants
o Cellulase is needed by the organism to digest
cellulose
Structural Carbohydrates
Chitin – arthropod exoskeleton and fungal cell wall
o modified form of cellulose
Lipids
o Composing elements C, H, O
o Lipids are loosely defined as groups of organic
molecules that are insoluble in water. Their chemical
formula vary considerably.
o Greek word “lipos” = fat
o Include:
o Fats, oils, Waxes, Phospholipids, steroids: sex
hormones and cholesterol, some vitamins, and
glycolipids (lipids with carbohydrates attached)
Lipid structure
Most lipids are
composed of a of glycerol
molecule with attached
fatty acids and are
connected by ester bond.
o Some lipids have a
four ringed structure
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o Eg. Cholesterol and other lipids that are derived from o have some carbon atoms that are double bonded(not
fully hydrogenated)
o Kinked in shape
o Healthy
o From plant sources
o Liquid at room temperature (20°C)
cholesterol

2 types of fatty acids:

Examples of unsaturated fatty acids
Saturated fats
1. Palmitoleic acid – a monounsaturated fatty acid
that is common constituent of the glycerides of
human adipose tissue. This fatty acid present in all
tissues, but generally found to be abundant in the
liver

Their fatty acids: CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

o have no double bonds between carbon atoms(have
maximum number of hydrogen atoms)
o Straight structure
o Unhealthy fats usually from animal sources
o Solid at room temperature(20°C)
Unsaturated fats
Their fatty acids have:
2. Oleic acid – (oleic means related to, or derived from
oil or olive)
o a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid with the
formula CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH
o It is found in various animal and vegetable sources.
o These are also released during the decomposition of
a number of insects, such as bees and ants, and
trigger the instincts of living workers to remove dead
bodies from the hive
3. Linoleic acid- an unsaturated omega-6 fatty acid
which is a colorless liquid at room temperature. It is
a carboxylic acid with 18 carbon chain and two cis
double bonds; the first double bond is located at the
sixth carbon from the omega end
CH(OH)(CH2)8CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)4CH3
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4. Trans fat – unsaturated fat with trans isomer fatty

acid(s) containing one or more double bonds
between the carbon atoms. Trans fats are not
essential for the body’s function, and they do not
promote good health. Trans fats may be mono-or
poly-unsaturated but never saturated.
5. Cis fat - the two hydrogen atoms adjacent to a
double bond are on the same side. Sphingolipid – specifically found in the brain, lung, and
6. Omega-3 fatty acids – a family of unsaturated nerve tissues
fatty acids has a final carbon-carbon double bond in o Essential in terms of signal transmission and cell
the n-3 position. Health benefits of omega-3 fatty
recognition
acid include cancer prevention, cardiovascular
disease prevention, immune function, and brain Steroids- lipids with carbon skeleton of four fused rings
health
Steroid Hormones
Other examples of lipids

Waxes – solid at room temp because of high melting point;

hydrophobic

o In many plants, waxes form a protective cuticle

that retard the loss of water for all exposed
parts. It provides a waterproof coating on the
surface of leaves and fruits.
o In animals, waxes are involved in skin and fur
maintenance as well as outer coating of insects
o In human, wax is produced by glands in the outer
ear canal.

Triglyceride- function for long term energy storage.

Immiscible with water

Phospholipid – major component of all cell membranes

Importance; Biological Role

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Nucleic acids

o Organic compounds that serve as genetic information

storage molecules
o Provides information to make proteins
o Monomers = nucleotides

Nucleotide structure

DNA nucleotides

Forming a Triglyceride
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Nucleic Acids
o Composing elements: C, H , O, P, N
o Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
o Double stranded helix molecule
o Serve as pattern for duplicating the sequence of
bases
o Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
o Consist of single polynucleotide strand
o Reads DNA-encoded information to direct protein
synthesis.
Different roles of biological molecules
1. Role of nucleic acids
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o DNA & RNA are the most prominent nucleic acids in
our body
o Responsible for maintaining the cells that make up
our body
o These material are structured in a way that all the
information needed to carry out everyday cell
functions and cell repair are contained inside these
molecules.
2. Role of carbohydrates
o Carbohydrates are essential part of our diet
o The body uses carbohydrates directly from the
monosaccharide glucose
o Glucose is in the blood & extracellular fluids and can
be made from glycogen
o Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles and in
smaller amounts in other organs and tissues of the
body
o Energy is derived from glucose by the splitting of the
glucose molecules into smaller compounds and
oxidizing these to form water, which frees quite a
large amount of energy
3. Roles of proteins
o Protein is essential for humans - this is because of
the nitrogen it contains (the major source for
nitrogen in the body) and because of the particular
building blocks that make up the protein.
o Also serves to build strong structures in our body, as
a whole
o Some proteins help keep the acid-base balance in
our body in ranges that allow us to live  enzymes