BIOLOGY  This chemical element is represented with
the symbol C.
WATER & CARBON
 Water - A chemical substance, with chemical
formulaH2O,that is a clear, colorless, odorless,
andtastelessliquidthat may also occur in various
forms suchasgas(water vapor) and solid (ice). An
aqueoussolutionofa substance, for example,
ammonia water, wastewater.
IMPORTANCE OF WATER
 Water could be in liquid form, not just
solidandgas.
 Water has a neutral pH.
 Water is good conductor of heat andenergy.
 Water has high specific heat.
 Water is a universal solvent.
The Earth's surface is extremely uneven.
 Only 3% (2.5%) of water on the surface is
freshwater;
o 69% (68.9%) resides in glaciers,
o 30% (30.8%) underground, and
o less than 1% (0.3%) is located in lakes,
rivers and swamps.
 the remaining 97.5% resides in the
ocean/saltwater.
 CARBON - a nonmetallic chemical element
withatomic number 6 that readily forms
compoundswithmany other elements and is a
constituentoforganiccompounds in all known
living tissues.
Characteristics of Carbon
 Carbon makes 4 electrons to form a
covalent bond.
 It has a number of allotropes and other
forms of existence.
 These include diamond and graphite with
distinctive properties.
 Carbon is highly unreactive under
conditions that are normal.
 It contains 6 protons in the nucleus and
thus has the atomic number6.
 Carbon is both nonmetallic and
tetravalent.
 It is available in various shapes.
 The chemical element has the ability to
bond with multiple elements.
Uses of Carbon in daily life
 It makes up for 18% of the human
body. Sugar, glucose, proteins etc. are
all made of it. The food we eat
contains an important source of
energy which we call carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are nothing but
elements of carbon itself.
 Carbon in its diamond form is used in
jewellery. But diamonds are also used
for industrial purposes. It is the
hardest substance known to man and
so has many uses in manufacturing
processes.
 Amorphous carbon is used to make
inks and paints. It is also used in
batteries.
 Graphite is used as the lead in your
pencils. It is also used in the
production of steel.
 One of the most important uses is
carbon dating. We can actually use
carbon to measure the age of things.
Scientists use a rare form of carbon
called Carbon-14 to measure the age
of fossils, bones etc. There lease of this
carbon-14 is recorded to estimate the
life of the said organic substance. This
is how scientists find the age and
period of dinosaur bones and fossils!
INTERESTING FACTS ABOUTCARBON • Examples:

 IT’S THE GLUE OF LIFE glucose, fructose andgalactose.

 CARBON IS ONE OF THE MOST COMMON
o Glucose – Product of photosynthesis,
ELEMENTS IN THE UNIVERSE
majorsourceof energy in our bodies
 CARBON IS NAMED AFTER COAL
o Fructose – Commonly found in fruits
 CARBON LOVES TO BOND
andusedcommercially in many beverages
 ALMOST A FIFTH OF YOUR BODY IS CARBON
o Galactose – Not normally found in nature
BIOMOLECULES alone,normally found in the disaccharide
lactose
(MACROMOLECULES)
 Glucose – Product of photosynthesis, major
• Also called biological molecule, any of numerous source of energy in our bodies .
substances that are produced by cells and living  Fructose – Commonly found in fruits and used
organisms. commercially in many beverages.
 Galactose – Not normally found in nature alone,
• Have a wide range of sizes and structures and normally found in the disaccharide lactose.
perform vast array of functions. 2. Disaccharides
Biomolecules • two molecules of simple sugar bonded together
by glycosidic bonds (a type of covalent that join sa
 Lipids
carbohydrate molecule to another)
 Nucleic Acids
 Carbohydrates  Examples:
 Proteins  lactose or milk sugar
 sucrose or table sugar
Monomer
 maltose
 A molecule that can be bonded to other
Maltose (glucose + glucose, aka malt sugar) – seldom
identical molecules to form a polymer.
found in foods, present in alcoholic beverages and
A. Carbohydrates
barley.
o the most abundant compounds
o function as energy sources Sucrose (glucose + fructose, aka table sugar) – only
andstructuralcomponents of cells made by plants.
o composed of C, H, and
O(“hydrateofcarbon”) Lactose (galactose + glucose, aka milk sugar) – primary
milk sugar.
Chemical Groupings of Carbohydrates
3. Oligosaccharides
• Monosaccharides
• 3 to 10 monossacharide units linked by glycosidic
• Disaccharides bonds.

• Oligosaccharides • found naturally in plants.

• Polysaccharides • Raffinose, a trisaccharide found in many plants,

consists of galactose and glucose and fructose.
1. Monosaccharides

•serve as the building blocks of carbohydrate polymers

 4. Polysaccharides • the number of double bonds contained (unsaturated,
monosaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids)
• hundreds of linked monomers of glucose or other
simple sugars Saturated fats are saturated with hydrogen molecules
and contain only single bonds between carbon
• Examples include:
molecules.
starch (carbohydrate storage in plants), Unsaturated fats have at least one double bond
cellulose (the most abundant biological molecule in between carbon molecules.
nature) 2. Phospholipids
chitin (the major substance in exoskeleton of • Phospholipids consist of glycerol molecule, a
arthropods and mollusks), and phosphate group, and two fatty acids.
glycogen (the main storage of carbohydrates in • The phosphate group is water soluble while the rest
animals). of the molecule is insoluble in water.
B. Lipids • The cell membranes surrounding every cell are made
• Glycerol and fatty acids are monomers of lipids of a bilayer of phospholipids.

• function as energy storage, as components of 3. Steroids

membranes, as insulation barriers to avoid thermal, • a biologically active organic compound with fourrings
electrical, and physical shock arranged in a specific molecular configuration.
• Composed of C, H, O • as important components of cell membranes which
• Examples: fats, oils, waxes, steroids, phospholipids alter membrane fluidity; and as signalling molecules.

Types of lipids: • Sterols and terpenes are some examples of steroids.

• Fats and Oils • Sterols such as cholesterol, androgens and estrogens

• Phospholipids (sexhormones), adrenal corticosteroids have important
• Steroids rolesin cellular structure, cellular communication, and
1. Fats and Oils metabolism.

• serve as nutrient reserves in animals and plants. • Terpenes are primary constituents of the essential
oils of many types of plants and flowers. Fat soluble
• esters of glycerol with three fatty acids(called either vitamins A,D, E, K (essential for blood clotting and
triacylglycerols or triglyceride maintenance of structural integrity).

• found in adipose tissue, butter, lard, and olive oil. C. Proteins

Fatty acids are classified based on: • Essential to building muscle mass

• the length of their carbon chain (short, medium, or • Amino acids are the monomers or building blocks of
long-chain fatty acids), proteins.

• the importance in the diet (essential or non-essential • Polypeptides – long chains of amino acids
fatty acids)
• Composed of C, H, O, and N
Levels of Protein Organization factors such as pH, temperature, and the concentration
of its substances.
• Primary Structure
• Antibodies are highly specific proteins that are
• Secondary Structure responsible for detecting a foreign substance or
• Tertiary Structure “antigen.” The body produces specific anti-body to
respond to an antigen to inactivate it.
• Quaternary Structure
• Hormones serve as chemical messengers.
Primary Structure - is simply the order of amino acids
in a polypeptide strand. The amino acid sequence is the Group of Reaction Examples
Enzyme Catalysed
main determinant of the overall structure of the protein
Oxidoreductases Transfer of Dehtdrogenases
and determines its ultimate biological function. hydrogen and Oxidases
oxygen atoms
Secondary Structure - refers to the local three-
or electrons
dimensional folding of the polypeptide chain in the from one
protein. The alpha helix (spiral) and the beta sheet (beta substrate to
strand forming an accordion-like pleated sheet) are two another.
more common secondary structure motifs. Transferases Transfer of a Transaminase
specific group (a Kinases
Tertiary Structure - is formed when the distant segment phosphate or
of a primary structure and the relationship of the side methyl etc.)
chains are bound in a three- dimensional folding of the Hydrolases Hydrolysis of a Estrases
entire polypeptide chain. substance Digestive
enzymes
Quaternary Structure - involves the fitting together of Isomerases Change of the Phospo hexo
two or more polypeptide chains, eventually forming a molecular form isomerase,
of the substance Fumarase
functional protein. Keratin and haemoglobin have
Ligases Joining of two Citric acid
quaternary structures. (Synthetases) molecules by synthetase
the formation of
Types of Proteins According to Function
new bonds.
Structural proteins like collagen form cell parts. Types and characteristics
Collagen which is the most abundant protein found in IgG – Highest opsonisation and neutralization activities.
the human body is a type of structural protein that is
fibrous in nature. It gives strength and support to o Classified into four subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3,
tissues that undergo continual wear and tear such as and IgG4).
skin and bone.
IgM – produced first upon antigen invasion, increases
Transport proteins carry other substances around cells transiently.
or from cell to cell.
IgA – Expressed in mucosal tissues. Forms dimers after
Regulatory proteins control numerous cell processes. secretion.
There are proteins that bind to segments of DNA and
bring about gene regulation. IgO – Unknown function.

Enzymes facilitate many chemical reactions. They do IgE – Involved in allergy

this by lowering the amount of energy needed to start
the reaction while not being permanently altered in the
process. Enzyme function is affected by different
 D. Nucleic Acid  RNA also contains adenine, guanine, and
o Nucleic acids are large organic molecules that cytosine, but instead of thymine it has uracil, its
carry the “code of life.” fourth base.
o They carry the instructions both for  (A-U, C-G)
characteristics passed on to the offspring and
for translating the hereditary message into
proteins that will be built into new cell
structure, cell, and organism.
o Composed of C, H, O, N and P.
2 main types of nucleic acids
o deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) –double helix
o ribonucleic acid (RNA) – single helix

Nucleotides - building blocks of nucleic acids.

Nucleotides

Each nucleotide consists of three components:

 purine or pyrimidine nucleo base (nitrogenous

base),
 pentose sugar, and
 phosphate group

Difference between Purine and Pyrimidine

Purine Pyrimidine
A purine is a heterocyclic Pyrimidine is a
aromatic organic heterocyclic aromatic
compound, consisting of a organic compound similar
pyrimidine ring fused to an to benzene and pyridine,
imidazole ring. containing two nitrogen
atoms at positions 1 and 3
of the six-member ring.
 In addition, the sugar and phosphates in nucleic
acids are linked to each other in an alternative
chain via phosphodiester linkages.
 DNA consists of two chains of nucleotides
twisted around each other in a double helix and
held together byhydrogen bonds. On the other
hand, RNA is composed of single chains fold
into complex shapes or remains stretched out
as long threads. It is the sequence of the
nucleotides in the DNA.
 Four different nitrogen-containing bases are
found in DNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and
thymine.
 ( A-T, C-G)