CARBOHYDRATES provide the cells with carbon atoms for

building molecules of protein, lipids, and

Carbohydrates nucleic acids.
hydrates of carbon: general formula Cn(H2O)n  In plants, a polymer of glucose called
Plants: photosynthesis cellulose builds the structural framework
6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2 .
Polymers: large molecules made up of repeating Basic Chemical Formula:
smaller units (monomer) (CH2O)n
Biopolymers: C-carbon
carbohydrates H-hydrogen
peptides and proteins O-oxygen
nucleic acids
Monomer units: Biomedical Importance
monosaccharides  Carbohydrates have important structural and
amino acids metabolic roles.
nucleotides  Glucose is the most important carbohydrate
 most dietary carbohydrate is absorbed into
the blood stream as glucose.
 Glucose is the major metabolic fuel of
mammals
 a universal fuel of the fetus.

1. Energy source for plants and animals

Carbohydrates
 The largest fraction of biomolecules in the
biosphere in terms of mass
 Are organic compounds made up of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen
 It is the basic fuel biological molecules of the
cell
 In plants, energy from the Sun is used to
convert carbon dioxide and water into the
carbohydrate glucose.
 Many of the glucose molecules are made
into long-chain polymers of starch that store
energy.
 About 65% of the foods in our diet consist of
carbohydrates.
 Each day we utilize carbohydrates in foods
such as bread, pasta, potatoes, and rice.
 Other carbohydrates called disaccharides
include sucrose (table sugar) and lactose in
milk.
 During digestion and cellular metabolism,
carbohydrates are converted into glucose,
which is oxidized further in our cells to
provide our bodies with energy and to
(glucose).
75% of energy in cell comes from CHO.
25% from others (fats)
1 g CHO =4 K.calories
1 g protein =4 K.calories.
1 g lipid =9K.calories.
 Why body not use lipid as major energy
source instead of CHO?
2. Cell membrane components:
eg. Glycolipid and glycoprotein
3. Form structural tissues in plants and in
microorganisms
eg. (cellulose, chitin,)
4. Glucose is the precursor for synthesis of all
other carbohydrates in the body, including
Galactose in lactose of milk.
5. Associated with Pathological Conditions
(Diabetes Mellitus, Lactose Intolerance).
Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are mainly classified into four
different groups:
 Monosachharides
 Disaccharides
 Oligosaccharides
 Polysaccharides

Sugars are simple carbohydrates...

 A ‘saccharide’ is simply a sugar or a Monosaccharides are further classified on the
substance made from sugar. They are basis of:
classified as ‘monosaccharides’ (simple Aldehyde or Ketone Group:
sugars including glucose) or ‘disaccharides’  Aldomonosaccharides (Aldoses).
(two monosaccharides bonded together).  Ketomonosaccharides (Ketoses).
 Granulated sugar (table sugar), brown sugar, Carbon Chain Length.
and confectioners sugar (powdered sugar) are  Trioses.
made from sugar cane or sugar beets. These  Tetroses.
are examples of the disaccharide sucrose.  Pentoses.
 Maltose, the sugar from grains, and lactose,  Hexoses.
the sugar from milk, are also disaccharides.  Heptoses.
 The monosaccharide fructose is found in
fruit; glucose is found in corn syrup, honey,
and tree sap (maple syrup)

Carbohydrates categorized into:

1. Monosaccharides
 are the simplest form of sugars
 in appearance, they tend to be colorless and
crystalline, and dissolve easily in water.
 some , but not all, are sweet-tasting.
 (glucose, dextrose, fructose, galactose, ribose,
formaldehyde)
 at room temperature, these are crystalline
solids that are white in color.
 chemical formula of GLUCOSE found in the
blood
 C6(H2O)6 chemical formula of
FRUCTOSE.

Carbonyl Group
  may be purified from plant sources into
brown, white and powdered sugars.
 used in baking and the creation of many
different types or processed sweets
Maltose
 Often used in the reaction of soft candies,
such as chocolates and fruit-based treats.
 While glucose molecules are still present,
they tend to create less of a spike in blood
sugar levels and are usually absorbed into the
body easier than the carbohydrates that
compose regular table sugar.

b. Glucose + Galactose =LACTOSE

the primary sugar in milk and milk
products.
many people have problems digesting large
amounts of lactose(lactose intolerance)

c. Glucose + Glucose = MALTOSE

produced when starch breaks down.
used naturally in fermentation reactions of
alcohol and beer manufacturing

2. Disaccharides
 Chemical formula: n=11
 C12H2nOn

2. Disaccharides
 composed of 2 monosaccharides
 cells can make disaccharides by joining 2 3. Polysaccharides
 The linked of one or more sugar molecules
monosaccharides by biosynthesis
into a large molecules.
(condensation reactions)  One of the primary functions of
 water molecule is removed as part of the polysaccharides is energy storage or reserve.
union.  Starch, found in plants, is a polymer actually
a. Glucose + Fructose=SUCROSE made up of two more Polysaccharides are
 Table sugar chains of sugar units that form in
configuration from tens to thousands units
 found naturally in plants: sugar cane, sugar long.
beets, honey, maple syrup.  Chemical formula: (C6H10O5)n
  Plants make starches as their storage
polysaccharides, while animals store
glycogen.
 The polymeric carbohydrate structure for
glycogen and starch comprises chains of
glucose linked by glycosidic bonds.
 These are bonds in which the adjoining –OH
groups of glucose join together, forming
water as a byproduct.
 These bonds are easily broken, making starch
and glycogen ready sources of energy in the
form of glucose.
 The advantages of having glucose stored in
these polysaccharides is that individual
glucose molecules absorb water and take up a
lot of space
 These storage polymers are compact and do
not absorb water.
 They are efficient ways are storing large
amounts of glucose that can be readily
metabolized, and do not affect the cell
 Starch is found in many plants, such as
potatoes and cereal grains.
 It is the major carbohydrate that humans
consume.
 Both plants and humans produce the enzyme
amylase to degrade starch.
 When starch is broken down to glucose, it
causes blood glucose levels to increase.
 This leads to the secretion of insulin from the
pancreas. Glycogen is synthesized after
eating, when blood glucose levels increase.
 The glucose is released into the blood,
circulating to other tissues, such as the brain.
 In the muscle, the stored glycogen is used
internally and is not transferred to other cells.
 One advantage of obtaining energy from
glycogen, rather than from fatty acids, is that
the process can proceed in the absence of
oxygen
Properties of sugar: sweetness
 Some sugars are sweeter than others. In taste
tests of pure sugars, fructose is the sweetest,
and then decreasing in order of sweetness is
sucrose, glucose, maltose, and finally lactose.
 Factors such as concentration, consistency,
temperature, and pH level affect how
sweetness is judged. For example, fructose
seems sweeter when used in cold foods and
in slightly acidic drinks. Sucrose seems
sweeter when used in the same recipes as
small amounts of salt.
 When this apple is baked, it needs brown
sugar added. The fructose tastes less sweet
when warm.
 This frosting calls for 2 pounds of powdered
sugar (sucrose) and a pinch of salt. Salt
makes the sugar taste ‘sweeter’.
 Caramelization is the browning reaction that
can occur with any kind of sugar. It requires
either a low (acidic) or high (alkaline) pH.
As sugar is heated, its molecular structure is
changed, and the new molecules with a
higher concentration of carbon create the
distinctive caramel color.
 Sugars differ in the degree to which they
carmelize and the temperature at which they
react. Sucrose and glucose carmelize at
170ºC (338 ºF) , and fructose carmelizes at
(230ºF).
 Onions carmelize when cooked slowly up to
230ºF; the process brings out the sweetness
 Sugars are highly soluble in water because
they contain many hydroxyl groups, which
form hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
The solubility of sugar increases as the
temperature of the water rises.
 You can make a ‘supersaturated’ solution:
Dissolve more sugar in water than would
normally be possible…by heating the water,
changing volume, and/ or adding pressure.
Then, with absolutely no agitation, cool the
solution. This is a ‘supersaturated’ solution.
 A carbonated beverage is a supersaturated
solution of carbon dioxide gas in sugar water.
 Rock candy is made from a supersaturated
solution of sugar and water.
Derivatives of Carbohydrates
1. Deoxycarbohydrate molecule that has fewer
oxygen
2. A sugar alcohol is formed when the carbonyl
group is reduced to hydroxyl group., can be
useful as a dietary substitute.
 Candy that is sweetened with a sugar
alcohol is less likely to contribute to
tooth decay.
 An important use of sugar alcohols is
in the manufacture of diabetic-
friendly foods.
  Partially absorbed in the small
intestine resulting in smaller changes
in blood-glucose levels.

How we digest carbohydrates?

What determines speed of carbohydrates
digestion?

Digesting Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates must be digested and absorbed
How Fast Are Carbohydrates Metabolized?
in order to transform them into energy that can be
 To digest and metabolize a simple sugar such
used by the body. Food preparation often aids in the
as glucose may take less than 30 minutes.
digestion process. When starches are heated, they
Because juice would be quickly digested, it
swell and become easier for the body to break down.
may be one of the quickest to process. The
release of energy would be quick…but brief!
 The more complex structure of starches may
require as much as 2-4 hours to digest and
metabolize. The release of energy would be
slower, but last over a longer period of time.

Energy value of Carbohydrates

 Metabolize energy (ME)
 The total amount of energy in a food (TE)
can be determined by calorimetry, but ME is
less than TE because not all the energy in
food is absorbed and some is absorbed, but
lost in the urine.

Blood sugar and diabetes...

 Diabetes is a condition in which the body
cannot regulate blood glucose levels. In Type
I diabetes that affects children and young
adults, the pancreas secretes little or no
insulin. In the more common Type II
diabetes that can affect people of all ages, the
pancreas does produce insulin, but either not
enough or the insulin isn’t used effectively.
 Both types of diabetes cause abnormally
high blood sugar levels that can strain and
damage the heart and kidneys. This high
blood sugar level is called ‘hyperglycemia’.
The kidneys filter some of the glucose and
excrete it in the urine; very little actually
reaches the cells.