Biological Molecules – Chapter 4
All LIVING things are mostly composed of 4 types
of molecules.
Biomolecules are very large molecules of many
atoms covalently bonded and contain carbon (c).
They play important roles as components of
membranes and other cellular structures.
Phospholipid Bilayer – biomolecule that composes
the plasma membrane.
Carbohydrate Chains
Cholesterol - inserted between the hydrophobic
tails
Chromosomes – in the nucleus of the cell,
biomolecules found here are the DNA and RNA
(nucleic acids).
Monomer – “building block” basic unit of
biomolecules.
Nucleic Acid – nucleotide (should be chemically
bonded)
* RNA (single stranded) – linkage or chain of
several nucleotides bonded together by
hydrogen bonds.
* DNA (double stranded) – upon a single strand,
another strand will have to attach the two
strands together to form a double helix DNA.
Carbohydrate
* Monosaccharide – represented by three units
joined together by the glycocidic bond –
connects one monosaccharide to the next.
Lipid
* Fats and oils - made up of glycerol which
serves as a backbone to where the three fatty
acid tails are attached to.
Glycerol and Fatty Acid = triglycerite
Protein
* Amino acids – linked next to one another by
peptide bonds.
Small organic molecules can combine into large
macromolecules.
Macromolecules are polymers consisting of many
small repeating molecules.
The smaller molecules are called monomers.
4 groups of biomolecules (lower-most part
contains the elements – CHO)
Carbohydrates (CHO) – carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen (ratio – 1:2:1) “C6H12O6” glucose-simplest
Lipid (CHO) – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Nucleic Acid (CHONP) – Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen, Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Proteins (CHON) – Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen
Types of Biomolecules
Carbohydrates
 Polysaccharides – most complex group of
carbohydrates. Ex. Starches-plants, chitin,
glycogen-animals, cellulose – major
component in plant cell wall
o Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose
o Glucose + Glucose = Maltose
o Glucose + Galactose = Lactose
 Disaccharides – composed of two
monosaccharaides. Ex. Sucrose(table sugar),
Maltose(malted sugar), Lactose(milk sugar)
 Monosaccharide – simplest group of
carbohydrates. Ex. Glucose(blood sugar),
Fructose(fruit sugar), Galactose, Dextrose
Proteins – made up of amino acids
- have 20 different kinds of amino
acids joined together
Two Groups of Amino Acids:
1. Essential(9) – the body do not synthesize
them therefore they should be obtained
from the food we eat
2. Non-Essential(11) – one’s that are already
present in the body; does not need to be
procured by the body
Lipids
 Fats – solid at room temp. Ex. Butter
 Oil – liquid at room temp. Ex. Olive oil
 Waxes – can be found in plants and animals.
Ex. Humans(earwax or serumen),
plants(found in the outer layer of leaves),
bees wax, birds(feathers)
Nucleic Acids
 DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acid (within the
nucleus)
 RNA – Ribonucleic Acid (floating in the
cytoplasm and some in nucleus); Three main
types of RNA are involved in protein
synthesis. They are messenger RNA
(mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and
ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
4 Nitrogenous Bases in Nucleotides:
o DNA – Adenine, Guanine, Thymine,
Cytosine
o RNA – Adenine, Guanine, Uracil,
Cytosine
Purines: A, G
Pyrimidines: C, T(U)
Energy is stored in the Covalent Bonds of these
macromolecules. When we eat, we get energy as
chemical reactions occur within our bodies
Our bodies can then use the parts of these large
molecules to build new molecules that build our
bodies.
Carbohydrates & Lipids
Carbohydrates
 Most abundant organic compounds
 Are important for structure and as energy
sources and storage.
Plants – starch
Animals - glycogen
 Structural components of cells
 Consist of C, H, and O with the formula
 (CH2O)n
 chitin (the major substance in the exoskeleton
of arthropods & mollusks)

Bad carbs – low fiber content; low nutrients

Good carbs – high mineral content; glycemic
Lipids
index is low
Energy storage
 Primary components of membranes
 Insulative barriers to avoid thermal, electrical,
physical shock,
 Lipoproteins that facilitate transport of lipids in
blood,
 As waterproof coatings,
 Chemical messenger (steroid hormone)
 Can provide double amounts

 Monosaccharides are simple sugars with 3 to

7 carbon atoms.
 Disaccharides are formed when two
monosaccharides are joined in a dehydration
synthesis. Disaccharides can be broken down
by hydrolysis.
 Oligosaccharides consist of 2 to 10
monosaccharides linked by glycocidic bonds.
Raffinose & Stachyose are naturally found in
plants e.g. onions, beans, asparagus, cabbage,
broccoli
 Polysaccharides consist of tens or hundreds
of monosaccharides joined through
dehydration synthesis. Starch (carbohydrate
storage in plants), glycogen (main
carbohydrate storage in animals), cellulose
(the most abundant molecule in nature) and
Simple Lipids
  Called fats or triglycerides contain glycerol and
fatty acids; formed by dehydration synthesis.
 Unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds
in the fatty acids
Two can be saturated while the 3rd one is
unsaturated.
The first two in the illustration don’t have double
bonds linking carbons - Saturated
If there is one or more than one double bonds
linking together then it becomes Unsaturated.
o Saturated
 no double bonds and all single bonds
 Bad fats
 meats, butter and dairy products
 solid at room temperature
 increase levels of “bad” cholesterol (low-
density lipoprotein)
 low-density lipoprotein clogs arteries
o Unsaturated
 one or more double bonds linking carbons
together
 Good fats
 Vegetable oils
 liquid at room temperature
 -increase levels of “good” cholesterol
 High-density lipoprotein (HDL) “grabs” LDL
and escorts it to the liver where the LDL is
broken down and eventually removed from
the body.
Phospholipids
 Contain C, H, and O + P, N, or S.
 Membranes are made of phospholipids
Head part – hydrophilic (phosphate group &
glycerol)
Tail part – hydrophobic (saturated &
unsaturated)

Proteins
Steroids
 Consist of four carbon rings, with an –OH group
attached to one ring.
 Are part of membranes.
 Sterols like cholesterol, androgens(male
hormone), estrogens(female hormones)
 Terpenes are primary constituent of essential
oils of many plants and flowers(smell);
Vitamins A,D,E,K; found in carotene &
lycopene
Proteins and Nucleic Acids
 Are essential in cell structure and function.
 Enzymes are proteins that speed chemical
reactions.
 Transporter proteins move chemicals across
membranes.
 Flagella are made of proteins.
 Some bacterial toxins are proteins.
 Consist of subunits called AMINO ACIDS.
 Peptide bonds between amino acids are formed
by dehydration synthesis.
Primary structure – linear

Secondary structure – coiled helix

Tertiary structure – globial formation
Quaternary structure – contains 4 globules

Types of Proteins acdg to Function

 Structural proteins e.g. collagen
 Transport proteins e.g. hemoglobin
 Regulatory proteins e.g. troponin &
tropomyosin
 Enzymes e.g. ptyalin, lipase, cellulase
 Antibodies/Immunoglobulins e.g. IgA, IgG,
IgM, IgE
 Hormones e.g. estrogen, testosterone, insulin
 Contractile proteins e.g. actin, myosin
 * Proteins decrease when getting older

Nucleotide components: Phosphate group, Carbon

sugar, Nitrogenous base

Nucleic Acid
 Carry the “code of life” or instructions both for
characteristics passed on to offspring and for
translating the hereditary message into proteins
that will be built into organismal structures
 DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) – double
helix
 RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) – single helix
 Nucleotides – monomers
Adenine-Thymine (2 hydrogen bonds)
Guanine-Cytosine (3 hydrogen bonds)
Thymine-Adenine
Cytosine-Guanine
Hydrogen Bonds - connects the two strands
Chargaff’s Rule: A to T, T to A;
G to C, C to G
Backbone of DNA – Phosphate group and Carbon
sugar
Proofreading – check for errors in base pairing (G1
checkpoint)

DNA molecule is located in the nucleus specifically

in the chromosomes. DNA Replication: double strands will unwind
Types of RNA because they are joined by hydrogen bonds which
are weak causing the strands to break or separate.
 The main job of all RNA types is protein Helicase – unwinds the helix and separates the two
synthesis (creation) strands.
 Protein – produced in the ribosome
 3 Types: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

* Messenger RNA – copy of gene from DNA;

made in nucleus and move out to ribosome;
holds codes for amino acids to make protein. Transcription: one of the strands of DNA will serve
mRNA transfers info from inside the nucleus as a template
into the ribosome where protein synthesis is as it Duplicate: A A T G T C
is located in the cytoplasm which is outside the TTACAG
nucleus of the cell. Transcribe: A A U G U C
* Ribosomal RNA – helps form ribosomes
* Transfer RNA – transfers appropriate amino Codon - sequence of three bases along the mRNA
acids to the ribosome for building protein - Found along the mRNA
Anti-codon found in tRNA
Start codon is always A U G – methionine
STOP - U G A, U A G, U A A

Lesson 3 – Water
 High heat of vaporization
 High specific heat
 High ionizing power
 High surface tension
 Expand from 4 to 0 degrees Celsius
 Water is an excellent solvent
 Sweating is the form of regulating the body’s
temperature