Environmental Research 213 (2022) 113619

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environmental Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envres

Innovation designs of industry 4.0 based solid waste management:

Machinery and digital circular economy
Chor Gene Cheah a, Wen Yi Chia b, Shuet Fen Lai c, Kit Wayne Chew c, d, *, Shir Reen Chia e,
Pau Loke Show b
a
Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing (M3) Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Jalan Broga,
43500, Semenyih, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
b
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Jalan Broga, 43500, Semenyih,
Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
c
School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University Malaysia, Jalan Sunsuria, Bandar Sunsuria, 43900, Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia
d
College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, Fujian, China
e
Institute of Sustainable Energy, Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Jalan IKRAM-UNITEN, 43000, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Industrial Revolution 4.0 (IR 4.0) holds the opportunity to improve the efficiency of managing solid waste
Industrial revolution 4.0 through digital and machinery applications, effectively eliminating, recovering, and repurposing waste. This
Solid waste management research aims to discover and review the potential of current technologies encompassing innovative Industry 4.0
Artificial intelligence (AI)
designs for solid waste management. Machinery and processes emphasizing on circular economy were sum­
Machine learning (ML)
Internet of things (IoT)
marized and evaluated. The application of IR 4.0 technologies shows promising opportunities in improving the
management and efficiency in view of solid waste. Machine learning (ML), artificial intelligence (AI), and image
recognition can be used to automate the segregation of waste, reducing the risk of exposing labour workers to
harmful waste. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and wireless communications enable the traceability in
materials to better understand the opportunities in circular economy. Additionally, the interconnectivity of
systems and automatic transfer of data enable the creation of more complex system that houses a larger solution
space that was previously not possible such as centralised cloud computing to reduce the cost by eliminating the
need for individual computing systems. Through this comprehensive review-based work, innovative Industry 4.0
components of machinery and processes involving waste management which focuses on circular economy are
identified with the critical ones evaluated briefly. It was found that the current research and work done is based
on applying Industry 4.0 technologies on individual waste management systems, which lacks the coherency
needed to capitalise on technologies such as cloud computing, interconnectivity, big data, etc on a larger scale.
Therefore, a real world comprehensive end-to-end integration aimed to optimize every process within the solid
waste management chain should be explored.

1. Introduction could lead to environmental pollution and unsanitary conditions. This

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines
solid waste as any form of rubbish and discarded material, or sludge
produced from water treatments or air pollution control facilities as a
by-product produced through processes and activities. Solid waste
management (SWM) is the process of collecting, disposing, and treating
of solid materials that are no longer useful. A proper implementation of
SWM preserves sustainability whereas a poor implementation of one
promotes the development and outbreak of vector-borne diseases (De
and Debnath, 2016), which causes a detrimental effect on the health of
the people in its area. According to Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata (2012), a
SWM system serves as the prerequisite for other municipal services,
stating that “A city that cannot effectively manage its waste is rarely able
to manage more complex services such as health, education, or trans­
portation”, therefore emphasizing its relative importance.
In the early stages of civilization, crude methods of waste disposal

* Corresponding author. School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University Malaysia, Jalan Sunsuria, Bandar Sunsuria, 43900, Sepang, Selangor,
Malaysia.
E-mail address: kitwayne.chew@xmu.edu.my (K.W. Chew).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113619
Received 10 March 2022; Received in revised form 23 May 2022; Accepted 3 June 2022
Available online 11 June 2022
0013-9351/© 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
C.G. Cheah et al.
such as throwing waste onto unpaved streets and roadways were used
(Nathanson, 2020). But over the decades as technology have integrated
itself into SWM, improvements were made. One of the challenges the
current generation facing today in managing our solid wastes is the
devastating growth rate in our waste production which are influenced
by industrialization, the increase in human population and the urbani­
zation of municipals (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012; Kaza et al.,
2018). A country’s waste generation rate is affected by factors such as its
geology, economic development, public habits, and local climate. It is
deduced that the high rate of urbanization resulted in developed coun­
tries contributing the most to global waste (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata,
2012; Das et al., 2019). Table 1 shows the comparison of projected urban
municipal solid waste (MSW) generation for 2025 among different in­
come levels.
Governments began introducing recycle bins for people to separate
waste in efforts to improve waste segregation and promote recycling
with a later report showing that there was an increase in the quantity of
waste collected (Michaelis, 1995).
In the wake of a connected and data-driven era, technological ad­
vancements in electronics, software and communications have provided
greater and more accurate measurements of solid waste production. This
has led to better awareness and the perception of the crippling issues
faced due to the surge in waste generation catalysed by the rapid growth
in the human population and the urbanization of municipals. Therefore,
huge attention has been placed on the need to reduce pollution and
mitigate the ramifications while preserving the sustainability of our
environment for the future generation. With the transformation of the
world through the IR 4.0, promising technologies are emerging such as
smart automation, Artificial Intelligence (AI) and cyber-physical sys­
tems which are enabled by big data and the Internet of Things (IoT) and,
leading to systems that can communicate with each other (Ślusarczyk,
2018). As a result, these powerful technologies contributed to revolu­
tionizing the solid waste industry.
The IR 4.0 holds the opportunity to improve the efficiency of man­
aging solid waste through digital and machinery applications, effec­
tively eliminating, recovering, and repurposing waste (Roy, 2019).
However, creating and incorporating new technologies to tackle solid
waste problems alone is not enough. Reduction in waste generation
deserves significant emphasis. The automation of certain processes and
the combination of data with IoT supports remote monitoring and
control which eliminates the risks and hazards associated with solid
waste labour workers. With big data and AI, advanced analytics can be
synthesized to provide a deeper understanding and reveal underlying
relations within them. Technologies like machine learning (ML) can be
used to train algorithms in image recognition to automate some of the
waste segregation processes (Raju and Thiagarajan, 2021). Large scale
manufacturers can use data harnessed through IoT to gain a clearer
picture on how their products are used and track disposal patterns to
nurture future designs for a truly circular economy.
In this paper, a comprehensive literature review is done on the
technologies of Industry 4.0 along with the discovery and potential of
innovative design for waste management, using keywords such as
Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Internet of Things, Cloud
Computing, and IR 4.0 to obtain peer-reviewed journals and books
related to this review topic in the online databases from various sources
Table 1
Projected urban MSW generation for 2025 among different income levels
(Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012).
Income level Projections for 2025
Per capita (kg/capita/day)
Lower Income 0.86
Lower Middle Income 1.26
Upper Middle Income 1.59
High Income 2.06
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Environmental Research 213 (2022) 113619
(i.e., Scopus, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, Taylor & Francis Online, and
Wiley online library). Several processes throughout the SWM are eval­
uated along with the utilization of the technologies that support sus­
tainable development with regards to circular economy include IoT, AI,
ML, system integration, smart automation and cyber-physical systems.
These cover the waste classification, landfilling, composting, recycling,
and energy conversion stage which transform the unrecyclable solid
wastes into useful products. The usage and advantages of the technol­
ogies in these specified applications are summarized. Optimization of
the waste collection system with smart bins in particular is mentioned
while pelleting method used in the recycling process is specified. Sub­
sequently, three types of energy conversion technologies which are
pyrolysis, gasification and anaerobic digestion are reviewed.
2. Waste management
2.1. Current state of waste management
In 1999, the World Bank projected that the rate of waste produced in
Asia would increase to 1.8 million tonnes per day (Hoornweg and
Bhada-Tata, 2012). In 2012, that projection was verified to be accurate
and on track which indicated a lack of improvement over the decade.
The global volume of solid waste per year is estimated to increase to 2.2
billion tonnes annually by 2025 and the global impacts caused by solid
waste is encroaching (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). This is espe­
cially concerning as solid wastes accounts for high and concentrated
emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) in developing countries such as
methane and carbon dioxide which contribute to global warming.
Furthermore, open burning releases harmful pollutants and toxic agents
into the atmosphere, jeopardizing the air quality and subsequently the
health of a country’s population (Ghosh et al., 2019; Magazzino et al.,
2020).
As many parts of the world continue to experience an increase in
population and develop urbanized communities, the solid wastes
generated is growing faster than the rate of urbanization (Hoornweg and
Bhada-Tata, 2012), Developed and urbanized community produces
more waste per capita due to their higher consumption (Das et al., 2019;
Kaza et al., 2018). Therefore, it is a great deal of responsibility to
improve SWM by implementing and making effective use of the ad­
vancements with the technology of the IR 4.0 to eliminate the risk of
diseases, reduce harmful emissions and pollution. A common method of
disposing solid waste is by burying them at landfills due to its high cost
of operation (Williams, 2013). It is key that solid wastes must be treated
and disposed appropriately as the inappropriate processing of waste will
bring about negative consequences. Uncontrolled landfills may lead to
air pollution due to the harmful gasses produced by organic wastes. The
dumped and buried organic wastes will undergo hydrolysis, acido­
genesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis to produce methane and
carbon dioxide (El-Fadel et al., 1997) which generally known as two of
the main contributors to global warming (Forster et al., 2007; Shakun
et al., 2012). In addition to that, the landfill leachate produced is
extremely harmful to the environment which causes land and water
pollution (Bodzek et al., 2006). By improving upon the methods of SWM,
it becomes easier to alleviate and eliminate these issues before they
develop into more complex problems that are significantly more difficult
and expensive to solve down the line. Fig. 1 shows the main stages of
SWM.
2.2. Circular economy
The development and advancement of computational power at
breakneck speeds have resulted in a device that fits into pockets which
contains virtually all the information in the scope of human knowledge.
Overall, this has allowed us to become more perceptive and knowl­
edgeable due to the ease of distributing and accessing information. By
combining sensors with computational power, scientists and engineers
C.G. Cheah et al. Environmental Research 213 (2022) 113619

Fig. 1. Stages of waste management.

possess the ability to collect, process, and analyse data that have led us
to perceive the global challenges in our current generation such as
climate change and overconsumption. A compelling thought is that the
advancements in technology seem to have a somewhat linear relation­
ship with the negative effects on our environmental health. For example,
deforestation which carried out to support our consumption of products
is ultimately reduces our ability to capture carbon from the atmosphere
(De Villiers et al., 2014). Natural resources are extracted and processed
to build and power our vehicles to drive humanity’s progress but
introduce carbon emissions into the atmosphere. Since the 2nd indus­
trial revolution, widescale farming of livestock has been adopted which
contributes to about 14.5% of global GHG (Quinton, 2019). Even as­
tronomers look for extra-terrestrial pollution in space as a sign of life and
extra-terrestrial technology (Kopparapu et al., 2021).
With these issues, our generation is driving tremendous efforts to­
wards sustainability as we do not have the capacity to keep up with the
growth of consumption. According to Jessica et al. (2019), the global
human population is consuming 75% more resources than the Earth is
regenerating on a yearly basis even with the improvements in efficiency
of extracting resources. This means that radical changes must be made to
preserve sustainability whereby more environmentally friendly and
economical methods of waste management should be investigated and
implemented. Principles revolving around reducing the consumption,
recycling, and reusing resources which are commonly known as the 3R’s
Fig. 2. Concept of circular economy.
to attenuate the environmentally damaging effects must be practiced, to
reduce the potential negative effects.
unsustainability was initiated in 185 years with consumption level of 3
Preceding the idea of recycling and reusing our resources, the linear
whereas the unsustainability was started in 200 years with constant
economy model was practiced (Sorensen, 2018). This model exercises
circulation fraction of 0.17. Similar trend is observed with consumption
the extraction of natural resources, producing products, consuming
level of 6 and 10.
them, and throwing away the product once it is no longer used. With
this, comes a new idea relative to the linear economy model. Commonly
known as the Circular Economy (CE), its importance is driven by 3. Industry 4.0 based solid waste management
explosive growth in developing countries and the realization of unsus­
tainable methods (Winans et al., 2017). CE in contrast to linear economy Since the invention of the computers, humans have further devel­
revolves around the principles of 3Rs and the 6Rs (reuse, recycle, oped this technology which led to the surge of technological advance­
redesign, remanufacture, reduce, recover) which essentially aims to ments through the 3rd Industrial Revolution to create automated
optimize the system by minimising the waste of natural resources that systems, technologies, and electronics. Although these systems were
have been used in making a product by reusing/repurposing, recycling, powerful, to create more dynamic and advanced systems, they needed to
remanufacturing, redesigning, recovering used products and reducing communicate with each other by transferring and receiving data.
the waste produced, adding value, and expanding its lifespan. Fig. 2 IR 4.0 focuses on the interconnectivity of computer devices, to drive
summarizes the concept of CE. In China, the CE model is currently smart automation enabled through emerging technologies like AI and
implemented as the national policy in effort to increase sustainable ML. It is the era of which systems are designed to make decisions without
development (Geng et al., 2012). An efficacy analysis was carried out in human intervention with cyber-physical systems that heavily rely on the
2014 with results indicating that sustainable development was achieved IoT. This powerful concept of systems creating and sharing information
as the Circular Economy Efficiency has seen an overall upwards trend wirelessly leads to the true potential of IR 4.0. This revolutionary
within regions of the country from 2005 to 2010 (Wu et al., 2014). Other technology is now incorporated within industries such as agriculture
studies have shown that through simulative models, the implementation with automated farms and the global communications industry (Ali
of CE shows sizeable benefits in sustainable development and may delay et al., 2017; Muangprathub et al., 2019). This does not stop there, with
the collapse of the integrated socio-economic system due to the over­ newer technologies being introduced such as virtual reality and
consumption of natural resources when compared to a model without CE self-driving vehicles (Maier, 2016; Simiscuka et al., 2019). Overall, the
(Hanumante et al., 2019). For instance, in non-CE case, the benefits of IR 4.0 aim to automate, improve, and optimize processes.
Real time data can be used to gain better insights which leads to

3
C.G. Cheah et al.
improved management and decision making. These benefits can be in­
tegrated into many if not all applications of SWM to increase its efficacy.
The IoT is a relatively new paradigm which consists of a network of
interconnected devices that are equipped with electronic sensors and
components that allow them to process data and communicate between
each other on a framework, transferring information through the
internet. Advancements in communications technology and electronic
engineering have led to the development of the infrastructure needed to
sustain the existence of IoT (WiFi, Bluetooth, microcontroller, etc). First
coined by Kevin Ashton in 1999 to describe the connection of devices to
the internet (Pradyumna et al., 2018), IoT has developed itself into
various industries such as healthcare, transportation and agriculture
(Elijah et al., 2018; Singh et al., 2021; Zantalis et al., 2019). In the
development of smart transportations for instance, mobile phones
function as an IoT device and can provide real-time geographical loca­
tion to predict traffic to calculate an optimized route to save time, while
reducing carbon emissions and energy use (Rito et al., 2021; Yang et al.,
2020). In recent developments, additive manufacturing is an emerging
IR 4.0 technology. Therefore, the application of IoT can be beneficial in
managing solid waste. While IoT seems to be a promising technology, it
comes with its drawbacks if insufficient attention is paid to the security
and privacy challenges that come along with it (Brous et al., 2020;
Dlamini and Johnston, 2016). On top of that, IoT serves as a platform for
real-time monitoring applications as shown in Vijayakumar and Ramya
(2015); Ward et al. (2011). The application of IoT can be beneficial in
managing solid waste. As information is automatically collected and
shared wirelessly, governments and municipals have easier access to a
richer dataset, drawing a clearer picture of their entire waste manage­
ment supply chain. This allows for underlying issues to be pinpointed
easily and aids the planning and decision making for future projects.
AI is defined as the development of computers that adopts the ability
to learn, make decisions without human interruption, and correct itself
similar to human intelligence (Kok et al., 2009). This useful tool can be
used in the management of solid waste by optimizing garbage collection
routes based on the available data collected in real time. ML is a subset of
AI. It is a computer algorithm that can predict outcomes based on a data
set that it has been learning from without requiring external human
instructions and was previously described by scientists as an IoT tool for
predictive generation (Messaoud et al., 2020). ML works by parsing data
through an algorithm, training it to recognize patterns (El Naqa and
Murphy, 2015). This data set can be in the form of audio or images. A
larger training data set will yield in a more accurate prediction algo­
rithm and may further enable decision making (Farzana et al., 2020). A
review showed that ML was applied in agriculture to aid in detecting the
quality of crops and in some cases, even capable of recognizing species
(Liakos et al., 2018). It is integrated almost everywhere, from smart­
phones for enhanced imaging and processing (Lézoray et al., 2008), to
facial detection using deep learning neural networks (Manik, 2017).
Since ML works well with a large set of data to train upon, more ap­
plications of this technology can be enabled by producing abundant data
Fig. 3. Comparison between IoT and AI.
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Environmental Research 213 (2022) 113619
through the implementation of IoT equipped items, where collected data
from sensors of products are sent to a central network to be processed
and analysed. This could pave a path for new areas of research due to the
increase in different types of data that can be collected and improve
upon the data of existing ones. ML can be used in tandem with image
recognition to automatically classify and sort waste. Fig. 3 shows the
comparison between IoT and AI.
In recent developments, one of the prominent and emerging tech­
nologies of IR 4.0 is the use of additive manufacturing. Additive
manufacturing (also known as 3D Printing), is a computerized process of
creating 3D products by depositing material layer by layer. This unique
method allows for the ability to create complex shapes that were pre­
viously too difficult manufacture. There are multiple technologies
developed in additive manufacturing such as Stereolithography (SLA),
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM),
Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) and many more (Ashima et al.,
2021). The adoption of this technology in manufacturing can bring
about benefits such as the ability to manufacture highly complex
products and improve productivity by reducing human errors during
fabrication. Additive manufacturing can also be configured towards a
more environmentally friendly process by reducing wastage due to the
ability to print the products on site without the need for transportation,
hence reducing emissions and energy use (Haleem and Javaid, 2019).
Additionally, this technique of manufacturing products will effectively
reduce waste by obviating the need to process the raw materials prior to
traditional manufacturing methods such as cutting, milling, drilling, etc.
and a result, reducing the volume of waste generated.
3.1. Waste classification
3.1.1. Optimization of solid waste collection (smart bins)
As mentioned previously, a challenging component of a city’s waste
management system is the surge in solid waste production from
households due to the rapid urbanization of municipals. The growth in
population translates to a need for a cost efficient and environmentally
friendly solution. A well-known traditional solid waste collection
method is the scheduled truck pickups. These scheduled pickup trucks
follow a regular route with no information on whether unfilled bins in
certain routes are not needed to be collected yet. This method is found to
be inefficient, expensive to operate, and contributes to emissions as well
(Sheng et al., 2020). By using integrated IoT technologies, a better
management of waste collection are in reach.
A smart waste compacting bin powered by solar was worked on by H.
N. Saha et al. (2017). It is a flexible container compatibility and is fitted
with sensors to detect the level of waste within the bin. The data is then
transmitted to a cloud server in which users can take advantage of the
data provided to create smarter and more efficient collection routes and
schedules. A more thorough implementation of this was proposed by
Banyai et al. (2019) in efforts to produce an effective waste collection
system by leveraging further integration with waste management sites
C.G. Cheah et al.
(sorting, recycling, incineration, and composting). Automatic routes are
computed on the server. It also gives more control for the users as it
suggests the implementation of a customer support where trouble­
shooting, scheduling, and planning can be performed. In the smart bin
proposed in a work by Dugdhe et al. (2016), an additional gas sensor was
added to detect the levels of methane emissions to prevent fire accidents
during high temperatures. Overall, these works aim to utilize IoT tech­
nology by integrating sensors within the trucks and bins to collect
real-time information about the status of each bin, including its location,
waste level and emissions of harmful gas. As time passes by, historical
data can be collected, and used to further optimize the collection process
and may provide improved estimations and new insights to patterns in
solid waste generation for future research. However, despite all the
reduction in emissions and improvement in energy savings, further
investigation and real-world experiments are needed to determine the
financial feasibility for this system.
3.1.2. Automated and intelligent segregation of waste collection systems
Even with the optimized scheduling and routing of garbage collec­
tion, improper sorting and classification of waste will lead to the loss of
resources within an economy due to improper treatment of waste where
recyclable materials may be incinerated or buried in the ground to
decompose. Innovations in electronics and software have led to the
production of accurate systems dealing with image recognition and
automated decision making. As ML can learn how to recognize objects
and patterns, it can be used to classify and sort waste, reducing the need
for human labour. A system leveraging on image processing and ML was
proposed which was able to accurately identify and sort the waste
products into various materials such as metal, plastic, and glass
(Hulyalkar et al., 2018). This automates the process which does not
require human labour to be functional.
In another work, Farzana et al. (2020) trained their computer to
recognize and classify waste into biodegradable and non-biodegradable
categories with accuracy up to 84%. Segregation of waste is an impor­
tant task as useful energy can be extracted and redirected back into the
economy (Sudha et al., 2016). A more developed implementation of
automatic waste segregation using artificial based robotics had been
carried out by Wilts et al. (2021). The robot was installed on a full-scale
waste treatment plant in Barcelona. The robot consists of an array of
sensors, robotic arms, and a camera along with a metal detector above
the conveyor belt. The camera functions as the eyes of the system to
recognize and identify the types of waste while the sensors and robotic
arms physically sorts the waste. Once the 1st phase of training was
completed, the system was able to recognize and sort up to 13 different
materials such as ferrous and non-ferrous metals, cardboard, wood,
paper, mixed plastics, green wastes, etc. Over the course of 4 months of
training, the accuracy of the machine was recorded and averaged to a
purity of 90% for all the materials. However, the high accuracy of the
system was only obtainable with a single layer of waste. Results showed
that the system struggled to appropriately identify and sort wastes that
were overlapping. This could prove beneficial in creating automated
waste sorting systems and with adequate training and development, may
result in robust and quicker systems which can be scaled linearly and
implemented to cope with the explosive growth in solid waste produc­
tion while reducing the overall operational cost due to reduced labour
and higher operating flexibility. Consequently, the reduction in need for
a worker to carry out these tasks will yield a decline in health-related
issues. The frequency of waste collection and type of disposal methods
are influenced by multiple factors included community’s culture, eco­
nomic development as well as climate. Therefore, it is critical that sys­
tems should be constantly updated to keep up with the changes in
volumes of waste produced.
3.2. Landfilling
A standard waste disposal method practiced today is landfilling.
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Environmental Research 213 (2022) 113619
Solid waste is disposed and usually buried to fill up excavated pits. It is a
common method used worldwide due to its relatively low cost of oper­
ations (Williams, 2013). Modern landfills are well-engineered and
well-managed in developed countries and are strategically located on
ground that are resistant to hazardous waste. In developing countries,
landfills lack of proper treatment needed before disposal are sometimes
considered as open dumping (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). When
waste is brought and buried at landfills, the decomposition of waste
produces harmful emissions (carbon dioxide, methane) (Gardner et al.,
1993) and leachate that will result in land and water pollution (Bodzek
et al., 2006). Therefore, researchers have placed efforts to automate and
improve the monitoring of harmful emission.
Govindan et al. (2020) developed a gas emission monitoring system
for a food waste lab scaled model. It utilized sensors that detects the
levels of methane and carbon dioxide and sends the data through the
cloud that allows for the remote monitoring of landfill emissions without
the need to access the site. Mehrdad et al. (2021) used ML models’
techniques to predict the methane production released from landfills.
The temperature and leachate leakage were monitored and three ML
models such as support vector machine, neuro-fuzzy interface system,
and artificial neural network (ANN) were used. In another study,
Bagheri et al. (2017) investigated the application of fuzzy logic and ANN
in managing the penetration of leachate from landfills. The developed
models showed precise accuracy in determining the concentration of
contaminants. It was also discovered that the performance of a
multi-layer perceptron ANN is more accurate than the radial basis
function ANN within the context of this research. Similarly, Abunama
et al. (2019) developed an ANN – Multi-linear perceptron (MLP) to
predict the rate of leachate generation in MSW landfills. In attempt to
treat harmful leachate, Spagni and Marsili-Libelli (2010) successfully
identified and controlled various process conditions accurately with the
use of AI to remove nitrogen via nitrite. These implementation and ap­
plications of data analysis through ML and AI has helped to automate
some of the processes that would usually require a great deal of
drudgery.
Aside from methane and carbon dioxide, a harmful gas known as
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) can be released from landfills due to the
biodegradation of municipal solid waste (Ko et al., 2015). Exposure to
H2S can cause rapid central nervous system and respiratory depressions.
Autonomous robots can potentially be utilized to mitigate the risks
associated with the labour work within landfills. As robots are
non-biological, they can replace humans in hazardous conditions with
high concentrations of poisonous gases. Bennetts et al. (2013) presented
a robotic and mobile instrument to measure the concentration of gases in
a landfill. The robot utilizes a TDLAS sensor to remotely measure the gas
concentrations by emitting a beam. The robot is fitted with electrical
motors and wheels to allow it to navigate the landfill terrain with the
help of odometry and GPS modules. The TDLAS sensor was tuned to
detect CH4 gases within the landfill. The data is then collected and
compiled to produce a gas leak distribution mapping of a designated
area. Results from the study shows that the robot was reliable in
determining the source location of the gases. This innovative technology
pushes the development of automation in managing solid waste in
landfills.
3.3. Composting
Composting waste is a form of recycling organic matter through
biological decomposition under aerobic conditions. In controlled con­
ditions, composting will produce heat caused by the microbial break­
down of organic material (Epstein, 2017). Due to its complexity and
human supervision is required, researchers have been motivated to
automate this process to a varying degree. Prior to the incorporation of
IR 4.0 technologies within this field, Casas et al. (2014), proposed a
monitoring compost system equipped with sensors which collecting data
and sending it to a wireless sensor network (WSN). As this data
C.G. Cheah et al. Environmental Research 213 (2022) 113619

collection is automated, the need for human intervention which could and recycle waste generated from another environment. This is made
expose harmful pathogens is negated. In a study by Rahane (2011), an possible thanks to the physical system containing three separate
additional dimension on the compost system process was added through controlled environments. The uppermost environment is the vegetation
a contoured time control scheme to monitor and control temperatures to layer where sunlight provides for the growth of flora. The middle layer
increase the efficacy of composting. A more advanced systems inte­ houses poultry which feeds on the vegetation grown above it. The bot­
grating multiple sensors (temperature, humidity, ultrasonic, and light tom layer contains a fish tank that depends on the waste produced by the
dependent resistor (LDR)) and circuitry was proposed by Vivien Arief poultry. This comprehensive system is equipped with sensors to monitor
Wardhany et al. (2019). This household compost monitoring system multiple variables (Table 2). The impressive collection of various sen­
doubles as a smart chopper, where the input is organic waste. The sors creates a stream of rich information from the system. These data
organic waste is then shredded into smaller pieces to improve the vol­ coupled with image recognition technology to detect ill poultry and
ume to surface area ratio for more efficient composting. It also comes crops and will be sent to the cloud for offsite computing. When the
equipped with an alert system consisting of LED lights and sound system detects anomalies within the environments such as a low mois­
buzzers to help indicate that the composting phase has been completed. ture reading, the system automatically activates the motorized valve
A work published by Bhoir et al. (2020) showed an automated IoT allowing for water to flow in. This is also automated for many other
enabled monitoring compost system that combines an aquaponic system sections such as the humidity and temperature.
equipped with moisture sensors with the organic waste bin. The aqua­ In addition, Raj et al. (2020) proposed an IoT enabled waste segre­
ponic system switches on the water pump when it detects low levels of gator capable of separating waste into metal, bio-degradable, and
moisture to obtain a consistent level of composting. It was highlighted non-biodegradable types. Metal is separated from the input waste
that this method is inexpensive and relatively safe in mitigating pollu­ through magnets. Waste with low density such as paper are filtered out
tion by reducing the amount of organic matter being sent to the landfills using a blower and separated into a non-biodegradable bin while the rest
which may contribute to methane emissions. Another study (Jo et al., of the waste are considered as biodegradable waste. The monitoring and
2019) describes the physical design and implementation of an IoT control are handled through the cloud where data is stored. It is noted
compost monitoring system in a farm based in Sarawak, Malaysia that that this system possesses high accuracy at filtering out metal and paper
produces compost and organic matter. It leverages humidity and tem­ waste, however, it is not an ideal option for real world use as the waste
perature sensors near the compost pile and communicates the data generated would be of high complexity.
through 4G network into a nearby home where the farmer can monitor According to Simic (2013), the automotive industry contributes to
the ambient surroundings of the compost. The results show it being a about 5% of the global industrial waste, indicating that end-of-life ve­
feasible solution to monitor a large variety of crops and livestock. hicles are categorized as an environmental issue. As electric vehicles
Nikoloudakis et al. (2016) introduced a complex cloud service that seem promising in replacing the internal combustion vehicles in the
supports composting without any human intervention. A customized future, the increase of waste generated by end-of-life vehicles are
mobile enclosure was introduced to facilitate the automation of pro­ impending. Therefore, the waste management of end-of-life vehicles are
cesses needed to sustain high quality composting. It houses of paramount importance (Karagoz et al., 2020). In 2015, Yi and Park
cyber-physical systems consisting of multiple monitoring sensors (hu­ (2015) proposed the design and implementation of an IoT enabled
midity, temperature, light, etc), actuators, and a ventilation system to End-of-Life vehicle Recycling centre. This design mainly focuses on the
manipulate the variables affecting the yield quality of the compost. The monitoring of vehicles and aims to improve the efficiency within the
full architecture of this system contains multiple composting setups. dismantling process with a mix of an improved data dashboard and
Each system is connected through the internet through an Arduino cyber-physical systems. By incorporating RFID technology, the system
board which serves as the medium between the sensors and the cloud. identifies the type and various information about the vehicle. This in­
The system autonomously carries out scheduled task such as stirring and formation is then used to search up a database to obtain dismantling
ventilation. The system is also developed with the capability to perform instructions from the manufacturer. This reduces the amount of time
dynamic actions to achieve the optimum conditions for composting
variables when the sensors detect an undesired level. An example of
Table 2
these actions is that the fan system turns on when the sensors detect an Sensors used to measure the variables in the end-to-end system (Gnanaraj and
outdoor night temperature of 28 ◦ C or less. Upon a field analysis, the Jayanthi, 2017).
automated cloud service fares up to a substantial increase in composting
Sensors Variable Remark
speed as opposed to a human supervised setup.
NFC, RFID, Motion, Bird Monitoring Track animals and collect
Temperature, information about movements and
3.4. Recycling Weight other behaviours
Motion, Size, Camera Fish Monitoring
Recycling is a prominent method to reduce the negative impacts of Temperature, Environment Monitoring sensors are
solid waste. In recycling, recyclable materials such as plastic, metal, Humidity, Air- supplemented by model
composition calculations to meet the
glass, paper, and electronics are collected and converted back into
requirements from the local
reusable materials which increases energy savings, reduces pollution, population
and conserves natural resources (2021b; Yang et al., 2012). This form of Camera, Poultry and fish Track animals’ behaviours or
CE aims to reduce the amount of waste that is to be fully disposed Accelerometer consumption habits attached to animals to quantify fine-
(landfilling, incineration, decomposition). While it is a widely adopted scale movements
Soil sensor, Camera Soil attribute Characterize soil through soil
method, the development of recycling technology is limited, and it re­ colour information, moisture
quires energy to recycle which produces side streams of waste. The content, organic matter, etc
problems of solid waste should be tackled at the root by reducing the Temperature, Time, Fertilizer and Examine the microbial activity as
waste generated instead. (Bartl, 2014). In addition, Yang et al. (2012) Humidity compost decomposing organisms are
included in compost fertilizer
mentioned that with the current level of technology, recycling of com­
Camera Segregation of ill Detect crop diseases with
posite materials is difficult, and hence more research and development is crops/poultry appropriate electromagnetic
needed to produce better material separation technology. spectrum wavelength.
In 2017, Gnanaraj and Jayanthi (2017) proposed an IoT based Monitor the abnormal trajectory of
end-to-end waste management. The system utilizes sensors and actua­ the poultries to access their stress
level
tors to monitor and manipulate the environment with the ability to reuse

6
C.G. Cheah et al.
spent by workers to figure out the dismantling process. Furthermore, the
data collected can be used to improve management and pinpoint errors
within the chain process.
In 2018, Reuter et al. (2018) carried out an extensive analysis on a
modular design phone, built around the circular economy. It was found
that this approach allowed for greater environmental advantages such as
the ease of recycling by having the ability to dismantle the phone before
the recycling process, allowing for the maximum recovery of precious
metals. The authors mentioned that simulations with consistent data are
required for a successful design towards recycling needs, most of which
are technologically not available on a commercial scale.
3.4.1. Pelleting
Pelleting is an effective method used in the recycling industry to
reduce the density and size of biodegradable waste such as plastic. In the
pelleting process, loose waste material is fed into a pelleting machine
which compresses the material through mechanical work (Sharvin Vikas
et al., 2021). The smaller bulk size yields the ability to transport and
store waste more efficiently (Härdtle et al., 1987; Sharvin Vikas et al.,
2021). Aside from plastic applications, increasing waste fuel density
through pelleting results in positive combustion characteristics such as
increased fuel density (Härdtle et al., 1987).
Deo et al. (2021) proposed a real-time analysis of iron ore pellets
with the use of ML. The system is equipped with a camera setup and
various Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) based models such as
Mobilenet, VGG16, and Restnet50 which were trained with a fixed data
set. Results shows that the system is fairly accurate and capable of
identifying the sizes of pellets successfully. Further optimization of the
pelleting process through ML was explored by de Abreu. T. N et al. (de
Abreu et al., 2021) whereby an algorithm was trained to perform
real-time performance analysis of the roller press system within the
pelleting machine. Data is collected from the sensors in the pelleting
machine over time. Then, the predictive algorithm is trained to auto­
matically map the real-time data of the system to the influential vari­
ables that affects the roller press’s performance such as the motor
torque, humidity, and roller misalignment. This creates a powerful
real-time diagnosis of the current state of the roller press which previ­
ously required a tedious process of manual collection and correlation of
data which is only available post processing. These implementations
could potentially be applied in the pelleting of waste fuel to automate
the segregation of pellets based on the optimum shape and size for
effective energy recovery. It could also be used in improving the oper­
ational uptime of the pelleting equipment by reducing the workload
needed to diagnose it.
In a 2021 study, Yang et al. (2021) criticized the low compressive
strength of pellets in an ironmaking blast furnace. An algorithm was
then developed that intelligently predicts and recommends the optimum
composition of each raw materials to maximize the compressive
strength of the pellet. This process can be applied similarly to the pro­
duction of waste fuel pellets which increases the particle density and
may positively influence the combustion properties (Garcia-Maraver
and Carpio, 2015).
3.5. Energy conversion technologies
According to the Department of Environmental Quality in Oregon,
USA, conversion technology is the transformation of solid wastes that
cannot be recycled, into useful products like fuel, heat, electricity, and
steam. Wastes such as organic food, manure, grease, and oil may un­
dergo mechanical, thermal, or biological processes to achieve this
output. There are various types of energy conversion processes of which
they are anaerobic digestion, pyrolysis, and gasification.
3.5.1. Pyrolysis
One of the conversion techniques practiced today is pyrolysis. It is
defined as the decomposition of organic matter by high temperatures in
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an oxygen-free environment (Mandal et al., 2016). Slow pyrolysis is a
method used to produce biochar and biogas at 300 ◦ C–550 ◦ C. It pro­
duces bio-oil liquid as its by-product while fast pyrolysis is used to
produce gas of which its by-products are liquid and very low biochar at
temperatures above 600 ◦ C. Pyrolysis is important in the context of fire
debris analysis as it provides significant recovery of chemicals in the
samples during laboratory analysis (Newman, 2008).
In 2017, Kondratenko et al. (2017) leveraged a cyber-physical sys­
tem and the internet to automate the control processes in pyrolysis
complexes for municipal polymeric waste (MPW) through the use of
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) over networks like
ethernet, mobile networks, and WiFi. The system monitors the special­
ized pyrolysis complexes through connected computing devices and
sensors. The control and automation aspect are controlled through
bifurcated layers of integrated hardware and software, with actuators
involved in the manipulation of MPW utilization, to the control units
and monitoring outputs in real time. Control algorithms were also
developed to detect anomalies in the case of an emergency. A study
(Ullah et al., 2021) was done to investigate the feasibility of incorpo­
rating IoT technology in the pyrolysis of cumulating carbon
fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) waste. A central server will collect data
from the sensors and control the actuators to adjust its parameters
through a control system to recover some of the heat generated. The
results suggests that the implementation of IoT will yield benefits in
decreasing the consumption of energy and accelerate the pyrolysis
process.
Further works that implement Industry 4.0 technology were done by
Naveda et al. (2019) in attempt to optimize multiple variables in a py­
rolysis reactor that affects the quality and properties of biochar. It ide­
ates an interface to monitor various gas concentrations and
temperatures across the reactor by alerting the operators when they
exceeded the specified limit. Precious energy is wasted from the land­
filling of tyres as energy can be recovered from it through pyrolysis
(Sharma et al., 2000). A method of extracting biofuel from tyres was
proposed by Osayi et al. (2014) through thermal degradation. However,
as the characteristics of the biofuel produced varies greatly across fac­
tors like the composition of the feed, its ambient temperature and
pressure, this method consists of numerous steps that require human
supervision and knowledge. As a result, a proposal was made by Bhyri
(2020) to produce a system to automate the extraction of
bio-crude/biofuel with the use of IoT in waste tyres. It resulted in the
ability of the system to maintain optimum conditions through users’
inputs, actuators, and a microcontroller. Manipulation and control were
designed for computing devices (phones, PCs) where data is easily
accessible through communication networks. Especially in this time of
the pandemic, these works aim to create a solution for monitoring and
controlling manual pyrolysis processes on the internet to nullify the
need of physical presence.
3.5.2. Gasification
Gasification is the conversion of biomass (crops and manure) mate­
rials into syngas (Synthetic Gas) which can be used for energy recovery.
They can also be converted into useful products like detergents and
plasticizers (Zhang et al., 2019). It consists of a few general steps (dry­
ing, pyrolysis, combustion, and reduction). Gasification is of a common
topic in the recent research on biofuel production (Molino et al., 2018).
A recent proposal developed a ML based optimization system on
hydrothermal gasification (HTG) that is able to optimize the process
conditions based on the properties of the biomass (Gopirajan et al.,
2021). HTG produces hydrogen for energy recovery. As the quality of
gasification depends on a multitude of parameters such as the temper­
ature and pressure (Rizkiana et al., 2014), the automated optimization
of these parameters will save time and reduce cycle times. The dataset
used to develop the algorithm contains biomass characteristics, HTG
process parameters, and product gas yield which was collected from
over 21 previous publications. Then, the actual biomass data collected is
C.G. Cheah et al.
compared with the training dataset. Finally, an Adaptive Multivariate
Random Forest (AMVRF) function was applied to obtain the predicted
yield. In another publication, Ozbas et al. (2019) presented a ML model
to predict the concentration of hydrogen produced by gasification.
Predictive analysis models such as linear regression and decision tree
regression were incorporated. A smaller training data set that was
collected through laboratory experiments was used. From the result, the
experimental values and predicted values showed high similarities with
an r2 value of 0.99. Thus, the authors suggested that the ML models
proposed, could be used in the modelling of various gasification prod­
ucts with different model structures and experimental conditions
without further alteration.
An interesting work by Chaiwong et al. (2019) showcases the wire­
less and remote monitoring system for a gasification stove which utilizes
the syngas produced through gasification. The author notes that biomass
cooking stoves are more efficient when contrasted to the traditional
cooking stove. The system is equipped with a Raspberry Pi computer
that is connected to the internet and provides real-time tracking of the
status of the stove. The user is able to remotely control the intake airflow
for various combustion conditions through a mobile phone app that
manipulates the pulse width modulation signals.
3.5.3. Anaerobic digestion
Another effective form of waste treatment technologies is anaerobic
digestion. It is a biological process of breaking down organic waste
through microbial decomposition in an oxygen-less environment
(2021a; Khalid et al., 2011). Organic waste is generally placed in a
sealed reactor and left to be digested by microorganisms. This results in
biogas which can used to generate heat and power for energy recovery
or can be further refined into biomethane to be used in vehicle appli­
cations (Scarlat et al., 2018).
The use of ML is surfacing in works aimed to predict performances in
anaerobic digestion reactors and aids to improve the efficiency and
control of the processes. Using ML to predict the performances of
anaerobic digestion allows operators to collect valuable information to
enhance the industrial designs (Xu et al., 2021) which was previously an
extremely tedious and time-consuming method while enabling them to
optimize their operational strategy. In a study, Seo et al. (2021) imple­
mented a recurrent neural network to develop an effective prediction
model for estimating the production of biogas as a product through the
anaerobic digestion of food waste. Wang et al. (2020) applied ML al­
gorithms to accurately predict the rate of methane production in
anaerobic digestion. The accuracy of the prediction was validated by
comparing them with actual values. However, in lower production rates
of methane, it appears that the accuracy deteriorates.
Dong et al. (2011) presented a novel automated online monitoring
system for anaerobic digestion reactors capable of producing an accu­
rate diagnosis of the reactor systems. Additionally, it housed an alert
system for potential risks such as overloading and high temperatures.
Logan et al. (2019) in turn, developed a remote monitoring system for
anaerobic digestion, and evaluated its performance on food based waste.
Through this implementation of IoT, it resulted in improved operation
and maintenance due to a more consolidated form of data which
increased the reactor operator’s ability to control the plants process
performances. However, it is not explicit if the system incorporates a
fully cyber-physical system to carry out its corrective processes to
improve the production rate. Xu et al. (2021) compared three ML models
(Random Forest, Extreme Gradient Boosting, Deep Learning) in the
prediction of a zero-valent iron-based (ZVI) anaerobic digestion reactor
and discovered that the Extreme Gradient Boosting algorithm provided
the highest accuracy and feasibility in predicting the production rate of
methane with a root mean squared error of 21.09. It was highlighted
that the methane yield is greatly influenced by the particle size and
dosages of ZVI.
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Environmental Research 213 (2022) 113619
4. Challenges and future trends
Multiple development is needed for a more thorough implementa­
tion of the technologies within solid waste management. Current
research and work done is based on applying Industry 4.0 technologies
on individual waste management systems, which lacks the coherence
needed to capitalise on technologies such as cloud computing, inter­
connectivity, big data, etc on a larger scale. Furthermore, it is expensive
to implement this kind of innovative technology due to the need for new
infrastructure. Current IT installations and systems may require some
adaptation and in the case of solid waste management, its diversity and
complexity may require the development of proprietary communication
systems to achieve a greater level of coherency. As IR 4.0 technologies
use multiple sensors, wireless communication, and computing re­
sources, it would be costly to develop, implement, and maintain. In
addition to that, a skilled workforce with a wide array of technical
knowledge needed to develop and apply these cutting-edge systems may
be difficult to obtain. Therefore, technical education will need time to
evolve to meet the current demands. Additionally, further resources
would need to be invested in the security of the IoT based system to
prevent malicious attacks from disrupting the SWM chain or manipu­
lating the data stored on the servers. A potential solution to this would
be the use of blockchain technology due to its cryptographic properties
(Javaid et al., 2021). Blockchain technology is a shared, immutable
ledger that facilitates the process of recording transactions and tracking
assets (data) in a peer-to-peer network. This means that the information
stored on a blockchain based storage is impossible to manipulate
without collusion, making it a difficult target for cyber-attacks. How­
ever, in contrast to this, Ghiro et al. (2021) argued that blockchain
technology is not appropriate in securing IoT applications.
Another challenge is that the core technologies of Industry 4.0 rely
heavily on electronics. An example of this, is in the case of using com­
puters, sensors, and wireless connectivity to track and optimize the
routes for efficient garbage collection schedules, effectively reducing
emissions and energy use. Another example is the use of RFID and
wireless communications enable the traceability in materials to better
understand the opportunities in circular economy. However, by imple­
menting these technologies, it is imperative to understand that the
electronic resources used to support these applications constitutes as e-
waste themselves. Therefore, more research is encouraged in the recy­
clability of these electronics as well as research in empirically deter­
mining the viability of this technology.
A forerunner in the digitalization industry (Rosen et al., 2015),
Digital Twins (DT) is a subset of an IR 4.0 based technology. It is a virtual
representation of an object/process in the physical world that simulates
real life behaviour. It pairs with the physical object via sensors which
allows for the virtual system to mimic its physical counterpart, enabling
the ability to simulate the physical object’s performance under various
and extreme conditions. This technology has sparked an interest in
development by companies and aims to provide a better analysis on how
processes are affected (Cimino et al., 2019, 2020; Negri et al., 2020). As
DT uses IoT sensors and devices, real-time data can be pulled and be
used to predict potential failures in the future which reduces the
maintenance cost. This has been done in the context of intelligent
manufacturing to improve the operational uptime (Zhong et al., 2017).
It is expensive to implement a comprehensive end-to-end integrated
SMW system that incorporates IR 4.0 technology aimed to improve and
optimize every process within the entire waste management chain. As a
result, Digital Twin technology can be used to perform a full scale
accelerated risk assessment simulation to identify process failures and
carry out tests to determine and improve the robustness of the system
before a real-world implementation is carried out. Future research on
this may be worth pursuing because it is a pioneering concept in the
context of SWM.
Innovative technologies are expensive to introduce especially in this
context because of the infrastructure needed to support IR 4.0
C.G. Cheah et al.
Technology. This comprehensive SWM system incorporates IR 4.0
technologies which are costly to develop, implement, and maintain
especially with a trial-and-error approach. Therefore, by exploring this
area of research, it may open opportunities to reduce the cost incurred
through traditional prototyping. Additionally, unexpected risks would
pose no loss in the virtualized environment. Finally, opportunities
discovered through the virtual environment can be applied in real life. If
successful, the full implementation of such system will result in a fully
interactive model where virtual scenarios can be created to test how the
system would operate in real life if subjected to these conditions. This
interactive model will serve as a reference model for the actual imple­
mentation of the SWM initially, and as the real-world implementation is
built, the virtual system will be paired with the physical one via sensors
to double as a real-time monitoring system. Therefore, more research is
needed for a real world comprehensive end-to-end integration aimed to
optimize every process within the solid waste management chain.
5. Conclusions
This review delved into research related to current innovative de­
signs encompassing Industry 4.0 technologies. In aims to ease and assist
future research, a survey of existing literature was carried out and the
findings were summarized. Industry 4.0 remains at the forefront of
technological research and as a result, the literature is considerably
dynamic.
The significance of SWM was introduced along with the negative
consequences that will incur if SWM is neglected. One of the main
challenges that the current generation faces is the devastating growth
rate of waste generation due to the rapid urbanization of municipals and
as a result, produces the associated global impacts such as the emissions
of GHG which contributes to global warming. Current practice in the
waste management industry was surveyed and summarized. Improve­
ments upon the methods of SWM promotes the ability to alleviate and
eliminate the corresponding issues before they develop into more
complex problems that are significantly more difficult to solve down the
line.
In terms of more environmentally friendly and economical methods
of waste management, the concept of Circular Economy was then pre­
sented as a step in the right direction to preserve sustainability through
the 6Rs (Rethink, Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Repair) whereby its
implementation should be investigated and carried to manage the con­
sumption rate that currently exceeds the limit of which the Earth is
capable of regenerating yearly. It was found that technological im­
provements in the SWM space alone are not sufficient and hence, sig­
nificant emphasis should be placed on waste generation reduction. Core
Industry 4.0 technologies such as ML, AI, IoT, and Cloud Computing
were briefly explained with their features and functionalities along with
the possible benefit that may be harvested if incorporated to SWM. A
total of 37 examples were presented and evaluated across 5 categories
(Waste classification, Landfilling, Composting, Recycling, Energy Con­
version Technologies).
In the next structure of the literature, the challenges face in incor­
porating Industry 4.0 technologies in SWM were presented. The imple­
mentation of these new technologies will be costly due to the need for
new infrastructure, and a skilled workforce with a wide array of tech­
nical knowledge needed to develop and apply these cutting-edge sys­
tems may be difficult to obtain. As Industry 4.0 revolves around IoT,
further resources would need to be invested in the security of the IoT
based system to prevent malicious attacks from disrupting the SWM
chain or manipulating the data stored on the servers.
Through the author’s implication, current research and work done is
based on applying Industry 4.0 technologies on individual waste man­
agement systems, which lacks the coherence needed to capitalise on
technologies such as cloud computing, interconnectivity, big data, etc
on a larger scale. A potential solution to this approach may involve the
use of Digital Twins, a trend in current research. Digital Twin technology
9
Environmental Research 213 (2022) 113619
can be used to perform a full scale accelerated risk assessment simula­
tion to identify process failures and carry out tests to determine and
improve the robustness of the system before a real-world implementa­
tion is carried out, greatly reducing the cost that may be incurred
through traditional prototyping.
The application of IR 4.0 technologies such as IoT and cloud
computing, system integration, smart automation, and cyber-physical
systems show promising opportunities in improving the management
and efficiency in view of solid waste. This is thanks to the improved
generation of real-time data in both quality and quantity which can be
used to gain better insights for improved decision making and man­
agement while enabling the automation of smart systems. RFID and
wireless communications enable the traceability in materials to better
understand the opportunities in circular economy. Additionally, the
interconnectivity of systems and automatic transfer of data enable the
creation of more complex system that houses a larger solution space that
was previously not possible such as centralised cloud computing to
reduce the cost by eliminating the need for individual computing
systems.
Credit author statement
Chor Gene Cheah: Data curation, Visualization, Methodology,
Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Wen Yi Chia:
Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing - review & editing. Shuet Fen
Lai: Methodology, Validation, Writing - review & editing. Kit Wayne
Chew: Funding acquisition, Project administration, Resources, Super­
vision, Writing - review & editing. Shir Reen Chia: Conceptualization,
Methodology. Pau Loke Show: Conceptualization, Validation,
Supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by Xiamen University Malaysia Research
Fund (Grant number: XMUMRF/2021-C7/IENG/0033) and Hengyuan
International Sdn. Bhd.
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