Engineering Materials - II

UNIT – IV Copper and Alloys

Copper
Copper is an industrial metal and widely used in unalloyed and alloyed conditions.
(Second ranked from steel and aluminium). Used mostly in building constructions
and as electronic products.

Properties
Pure copper is soft, malleable and ductile metal with a reddish-brown appearance. It
is a good conductor of electricity. It is non-corrosive under ordinary conditions and
resists weather very effectively. Its tensile strength varies from 300 to 470 MN/m2
and melting point is 1084°C. It is one of the best conductors of heat and it is highly
resistant to corrosion. It is very difficult to cast. If copper is heated to red heat
condition and cooled slowly it becomes brittle, but if cooled rapidly it becomes soft,
malleable and ductile. It can be welded at red heat.

Applications
Copper is mainly used in making electric cables and wires for electric machinery,
motor winding, electric conducting appliances, and electroplating etc. It can be easily
forged, rolled and drawn into wires. Copper in the form of tubes is used widely in heat
transfer work. It is used for household utensils. It is also used in production of
boilers, condensers, roofing etc. It is used for making useful alloys with tin, zinc,
nickel and aluminium. It is used to form alloys like brass, bronze and gun metal.
Alloys of copper are made by alloying it with zinc, tin, and lead and these find wide
range of applications.

Copper trolley wires Electronic products Copper finish parts

Copper plating Increasing use of electronic parts in cars raise the amount of
copper used per vehicle.

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Extraction of copper from ores

Copper ores are normally associated with sulphur in which copper can be extracted
from chalcocite Cu2S, chalcopyrite CuFeS2 and cuprite Cu2O, melachite and azurite.

Manufacture
Copper ore is first ground and then smelted in a reverberatory or small blast furnace
for producing an impure alloy. Then the air is blown through the molten metal to
remove sulphur and iron contamination to obtain blister copper in the converter.
Copper is then refined further using electrolysis processes.
Extraction processes:
➢ Pyrometallurgical- for copper sulphide based ores
➢ Hydrometallurgical- for oxide or carbonate ores.

Physical properties of copper and copper alloys

Crystal structure FCC, Atomic number 29, Atomic weight 63.546, Density (g.cm-3)
8.933, Melting point (oC) 1084.62, High ductility, formability, High electrical and
thermal conductivities.

Copper and copper alloys are designated according to the Copper Development
Association (CDA).
Wrought alloys - C100-C799
Cast alloys - C800-C999

Classification of copper and copper alloys

1) Unalloyed copper
2) Brass :Copper and Zinc alloys – Brasses
Alloy Brasses: Copper Lead alloys, Copper zinc alloys with tin and aluminimu.
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3) Bronze: Copper Tin alloys, Copper aluminium alloys, Copper Silicon alloys,
Copper Beryllium alloys.
4) Copper Nickel based : Cupronickel (Cu-Ni) and Nickel Silver (Cu-Ni-Zn)

1) Unalloyed copper:
✓ Good electrical, thermal conductivities
✓ High corrosion resistance
✓ Easily fabricated
✓ Reasonable tensile strength
✓ Controllable annealing properties
✓ Good soldering and joining properties

2) Copper Zinc alloys - Brasses

Brasses are widely used alloy of copper (main constituent) and zinc. They also contain
small amounts of lead or tin or aluminium. The most commonly used copper-zinc
alloy is brass.
There are various types of brasses, depending upon the proportion of copper and zinc.
The fundamental a binary alloy comprises 50% copper and 50% zinc. By adding small
quantities of other elements, properties of brass may be greatly changed. For example
addition of lead (1 to 2%) improves the machining quality of brass. It has a greater-
strength than that of copper, but has a lower thermal and electrical conductivity.
Brasses alloys are very resistant to atmospheric corrosion and can be easily soldered.
They can be easily fabricated by processes like spinning and can also be electroplated
with metals like nickel and chromium.

Copper and zinc form solid solution up to ~ 39% zinc at 456 0C, giving a wide rage of
properties. Sn, Al, Si, Mg, Ni, and Pb are added elements, called ‘alloy brasses’.
Commercially used brasses can be divided into two important groups
1) Alfa brasses (hypo-peritectic) with alfa structure containing upto ~35% Zn.
2) brasses (hyperperitectic) with alfa and beta two phase structure, based on
60:40 ratio of Cu and Zn
✓ 40% Zn addition provides a complex structure of alfa and beta phases.
✓ 60%Cu-40%Zn (Muntz metal) is the most widely used.
✓ Beta phase makes this alloy heat-treatable.

Mechanical properties of brasses

Low brasses (80-95%Cu, 20-5%Zn): Increase in Zn content will increase Strength,
Hardness and ductility. The Colour change happens from Red to Gold Green to
yellow. This Can be hot worked in 730-9000C temperature range and Annealed low
brass is extremely ductile (40-50% at Room Temperature) and malleable.
High brasses (60-80%Cu, 40-20%Zn): Increased strength and hardness due to
increasing Zn content. Decreased ductility due to the presence of the beta phase
(BCC). The alfa + beta brasses are difficult to cold-work, due to increasing amount of
beta phase.
Alloy brasses: Addition of 1% Sn to brass does not greatly affect mechanical
properties. Multiple additions of Mn, Fe, Sn increase strength (manganese bronze).

Ref. Table for Types of Brasses, Composition, Properties and Applications of

Brass Alloys.

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Type Composition Properties Application

Excellent corrosion resistance, tensile strength 27- heat conducting purposes, heat exchanger tubes,
Cu = 85%,
Red Brass 31 kg/mm2. Percentage elongation of this brass is condenser, radiator cores, plumbing pipes, sockets,
Zn = 15%.
42-48. hardware, etc.
Hot working by rolling, extrusion and stamping,
Yellow
components of machine and electrical equipment
Brass or Cu = 60%,
Muntz Zn = 40%. High strength and high hot workability, tensile such as bolts, rods, tubes, valves and fuses. making
strength 38 Kg/mm2 (approximately). The for pump parts, valves, taps, condenser tubes, sheet
Metal
percentage elongation of this brass is 45% form for ship sheathing (casing)

Cartridge 70% Cu and good combination of strength and ductility, tensile Utilized for making tubes, automotive radiator
Brass 30% Zn. strength between 31-37 kg/mm2, Percentage cores, hardware fasteners, rivets, springs, plumber
elongation of this brass is 55-66% accessories and in tube manufacture.

Cu = 70%, Tubes in marine and other installations, for making

Admiralty Highly resistant to corrosion, impingement attack plates used for ship building. It is utilized also for
Zn = 29%,
Brass of sea water, tensile strength 30 kg/mm2 , making bolts, nuts, washers, condenser plant and
Sn = 1%
elongation of admiralty brass is 65%. ship fittings parts, etc.
Cu = 59%, making marine components, The percentage
Naval Brass Zn = 40%, elongation of navel brass is 47% and its tensile for making marine hardware casting, piston rods,
Sn = 1% strength is 38 kg/mm2 propeller shafts, welding rods etc.
Manganese Cu = 60%,
Brass or Zn = 38%,
High Mn = 0.5%, Sufficient toughness and good corrosion
tensile Fe = 1.0%, resistance. It is very active in reducing the oxides for making hydraulic rams, valves and cylinders,
Brass Sn = 0.5% of other metals. tubes, pump rods, propellers, bolts, nuts etc.
Iron Brass Cu = 60%,
or Delta Zn = 37%, Hard, strong, tough, and having good corrosion Some amount of iron brass or delta metal is added
Metal Fe = 3% resistance. It can be casted easily. in mild steel for corrosin resistance.
Gilding
Cu = 85%,
Brass or very cheap metal for making jewellery, Ductile, Used for jewellery, decorative and ornamental work,
Zn = 15%.
Commercial Gold like colour coins, medals etc..
Free Cu = 57.5%,
Cutting Zn = 40%, For making cast, forged or stamped blanks, high
Brass Pb = 2.5% highly machinable and it does not allow bending speed turning and screwing.
Cu = 65%,
Lead Brass Zn = 34%,
Pb = 1% Making small gears and pinions for clock work.

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Copper-tin alloys (Tin bronze)

Bronze is a common alloy of copper and tin. The alloys of copper and tin are
generally termed as bronzes. The wide range of composition of these alloys
comprise of 75 to 95% copper and 5 to 25% tin. P is usually added as
deoxidizing agent is called phosphor bronzes.
Cu-Sn can form solid solution upto 15.8% at about 520-5860C. Solid solubility
limit of Cu-Sn is lower than that of Cu-Zn. Upto about 11% Sn, precipitation is
found sluggish (slow) when cooled from above 350 0C to Room Temperature, but
the formation of metastable has been observed.

Wrought and cast copper-tin bronzes

• Wrought Cu-Sn bronzes contain about 1.25-10% Sn with upto 0.1% P; hence
usually called phosphor bronzes.
• P is added as deoxidizing agent to improve castability.
• Microstructure of 92%Cu-8%Sn consists of recrystallised alfa grains.
• The wrought tin bronzes possess higher strength than brasses, especially in
the cold-worked condition and has better corrosion resistance.

Properties of bronzes
Bronze has higher strength, better corrosion resistance than brasses. It is
comparatively hard and resists surface wear and can be shaped or rolled into
wire, rods and sheets very easily. It has antifriction or bearing properties.
Bronze is costlier than brass. The tensile strength of bronze increases gradually
with the amount of tin, reaching a maximum when tin is about 20%. However
the percentage of tin content if increases beyond this amount, the tensile
strength decreases very rapidly. Bronze is most ductile when it contains about
5% of tin. As the amount of tin increases about 5%, the ductility gradually
decreases. Whereas presence of zinc in the bronze increases fluidity of molten
metal, strength and ductility.

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Type Composition Properties Application

Cu = 89 to For bolts, electric contact springs, bearings,
94%, Tensile strength, ductility, elasticity, soundness bushes, gears, ship sheathing, valve parts,
Phosphor Sn = 6 to of castings, good wearing quality and resistance propeller blades, worm wheels, gears, nuts
Bronze 10%, to fatigue, good corrosion resistance especially for machine lead screws, pump parts,
P = 0.1 to for sea water, easily casted, forged, drawn, and springs and corrosion resistance mine
0.3% cold rolled. cables.
Cu = 96%, Making boilers, tanks, stoves or where high
Silicon Si = 3%, Corrosion resistance, higher strength. It can be strength and good corrosion resistance is
bronze Mn or Zn = cast, rolled, stamped, forged and pressed either required. It is used also for making screws,
1% hot or cold and it can be welded. tubing’s, pumps
Higher tensile strength than other bronzes, For making springs, tubes, diaphragms and
excellent corrosion resistance, high yield point electrical contacts, heavy duty electrical
and high fatigue limit, good hot and cold switches, cams and bushings. It is used for
Beryllium Cu = 97.5%, resistance. This can be heat treated by making chisels and hammers using for such
bronze Br = 2.5% precipitation hardening. excellent formability in conditions where spark might cause
soft condition, and high fatigue and creep explosion. suitable as a bearing metal. Since
resistance in hardened condition. However it the wear resistance of beryllium copper is
involves high cost. five times that of phosphorous bronze,
Cu = 60%, Used for bushes, plungers, feed pumps, rods
Manganese
Zn = 35%, Highly resistant to corrosion. It is stronger and etc. Worm gears are frequently made from
bronze
Mn = 5% harder than phosphor bronze. this bronze
With 8% aluminium possesses very good cold
Cu = 85 to working properties. When iron is added refines
88%, the grain size and improve the ductility. The
Aluminium Al = 8 to maximum tensile strength of this alloy is 450 to
Bronze 11%, 650 MPa with 11 % aluminium.good resistance Used for making fluid connection fittings,
Fe = 3%, to corrosion, wear and fatigue. difficult to cast gears, propellers, air pumps, bushings,
Sn = 0.5% due to oxidation problem. tubes, slide and valves etc. Cams and rollers
are commonly produced using this alloy.
Bell Cu = 66.7%, It possesses resistance to corrosion water and
Metal/Bronze Sn = 33.3% atmosphere Used to make bells.
used for accurate resistors like thermo-
Cu = 55%,
Constantan high specific resistanceis unaffected by couples, Wheet-stone bridge, Low
Ni = 45%
temperature variation temperature heaters and Resistances

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Copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronzes) – For Composition, properties

and application refer above table under the heading of aluminium bronze.
Al forms solid solution in Cu (Alfa phase) upto 9.4% at 5650C.
• Microstructure of Alfa aluminium bronzes consists of single alfa phase solid
solution.
• The solid solubility of the alfa phase increases with decreasing temp.
• Above 9.5% Al, rapid quenching to Room Temperature produces martensitic
transformation of metastable Beta tetragonal structure.

Microstructure and heat treatment of the complex aluminium bronzes

From Cu-Al phase diagram, the beta phase is introduced when the Al content is
above 8% at T> ~9000C will provide a complex microstructure.
• Above 9.5% Al, quenching from ~900 0C gives almost beta martensites, fig (a).
• Slowly cooled to 800 or 650C and quenched gives less beta ’ martensites, fig
(b) and (c).
• Cooled to 5000C and quenched, the beta phase will decompose to form
alfa + gama2, fig (d). (aluminium bronze pearlite)

Copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronze): For Composition, properties and

application refer above table under the heading of silicon bronze
✓ Si has a maximum solid solubility with Cu at 5.3% at 843 0C.

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✓ Most silicon bronzes contain 1-3% Si, which are not precipitation
hardenable.
✓ Mn and Fe are sometimes added to improve properties.
✓ Annealed structure of a bronze consists of alfa grains with twin bands.
✓ Silicon bronzes have high corrosion resistance, high strength (~390-1000
MPa) and toughness. Low-cost substitutes to tin-bronze (due to high
corrosion resistance to sea water).

Copper Manganese alloys: Manganese Bronze - For Composition, properties

and application refer above table.

Cupronickels and Gun Metals:

Gun Metals and Cupronickels - Type, Composition, Properties and Applications
Type Composition Properties Applications
Cu = 88%, Tensile strength of the order of
Admiralty 270 MN/m2. It possesses utilized where lubrication
Sn = 10%,
Gun Metal elongation of about 20% and is needed and oiling is
Pb = 2%
Brinell Hardness of 65 BHN difficult
Lead bronze possesses
Leaded Cu = 80%, Tensile strength of 230 has antifriction properties
Bronze or Sn = 10%, MN/m2, Brinell Hardness of 65 and hence is generally
red brass Pb = 10% BHN and elongation of about utilized where lubrication
15%. is doubtful.
Tensile strength of 220 used for high compressive
Hard Bearing Cu = 85%,
MN/m2, 100 BHN and loads such as locomotive
Bronze Sn = 15%
percentage elongation of 2%. slide valves etc.
Excellent Corrosion resistance
Copper 70% and can be hot worked and
Cupronickels and Nickel cold worked, shaped by rolling, Used for salt water piping,
30%. forging, pressing, drawing, and condenser tubing and for
spinning bullet envelopes

*********************************END OF UNIT IV **********************************

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