9.

1 Analysis of Plane Stress

9.1 Introduction

Normal and shear stresses in beams, shafts, bars, and other structural elements can be obtained from the basic
formulas. The values obtained from the basic formulas are for stresses that act on cross sections of the members.
Inclined sections cut through a beam may be subjected to both normal and shear stresses, and these stresses may be
larger than the stresses acting on a cross section. In this chapter a general approach will be developed to find stresses
on inclined planes. The approach uses stress elements associated with a set of coordinate axes to represent the state
of stress at a point in a body. The objective of this chapter is to derive the transformation relationships that give the
stress components for any orientation of the associated axes. The process of changing stresses from one set of
coordinate axes to another is termed stress transformation. It must be clear that when we have two elements with
different orientations at the same point in the body, the stresses acting on the faces of the two elements are different,
but they still represent the same state of stress, namely, the stress at the point under consideration.
Stress has a magnitude and a sense, and also associated with an area over which it acts. Such mathematical entities
are called tensors of second-rank, vectors are tensors of first rank and scalars are tensors of rank zero.

9.2 Plane stress

A two-dimensional state of stress or plane stress exists when the stresses are independent of one of the coordinate
axes. Examples include the stresses arising on inclined sections of an axially loaded rod, a shaft in torsion, and
beams in bending. To explain plane stress, consider the infinitesimal element shown in Fig. 9-1 below. This element
is a rectangular parallelepiped with its edges parallel to the x, y, and z-axes. The faces of the element are designated
by the directions of their outward normals. The right-hand face of the element in this figure is referred to as the
positive x face. Similarly, the top face is the positive y face, and the front face is the positive z face.
Y1 Y
Y θ
Y
σy σy σ y1 σ X1
X1
τ τ τ X1Y1

τ τ τ τ θ
YX YX

σX XY
O
XY
σX σX XY
σX
Y1X1

τ X O
X X
YX
τ
τ
XY
Z
σY σ X1 τ τ
YX

σy
X1Y1
Y1X1
σ y1
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 9-1 elements in plane stress
In plane stress, only the x and y faces of the element are subjected to stresses, and all stresses act parallel to the x and
y axes (Fig.9-1a). The symbols for the stresses have the following meanings. A normal stress σ has a subscript that
identifies the face on which the stress acts. The sign convention for normal stresses is that tension is positive. A
shear stress τ has two subscripts; the first denotes the face on which the stress acts, and the second gives the
direction on that face. Thus, the stress τxy acts on the x face in the direction of the y-axis, and the stress τyx acts on
the y face in the direction of the x-axis.
A shear stress is positive when it acts on a positive face of the element in the positive direction of an axis, and it is
negative when it acts on a positive face in the negative direction of the axis. Therefore, the stresses τxy and τyx shown
on the positive x and y faces (Fig. 9-1a) are positive shear stresses. Similaray, on a negative face of the element, the
shear stress is positive in the negative direction of an axis. This sign convention for shear stresses is easily
remembered by the rule that when the directions associated with the subscripts are plus-plus or minus-minus, the
stress is positive; when the directions are plus-minus or minus-plus, the stress is negative. It must be noted that shear
stresses on perpendicular planes are equal in magnitude and have directions such that both stresses point toward, or
away from, the line of intersection of the faces. Therefore, it can be noted that
τxy= τyx (9-1)
Figure 9-1b shows two-dimensional view of the stress element. Given the stresses σx, σy, and τxy the equations for
the normal and shear stresses acting on an inclined plane can be derived in algebraic form. To study the stresses
acting on an inclined section, consider another stress element whose faces are parallel and perpendicular to the
inclined section (Fig. 9-1c). Associated with this element are axes x1, y1, and z1, such that the z1 axis coincides with
the z-axis and the x1y1 axes are rotated counterclockwise through an angle θ with respect to the xy axes. The normal
and shear stresses acting on this inclined element are denoted σx1, σy1, and τx1y1 and τy1x1.clearly,
τx1y1= τy1x1 (9-2)
An important observation is that the shear stresses acting on all side faces of the element are known if we know the
shear stress acting on any one of the faces.
The stresses acting on the inclined x1y1 element can be expressed in terms of the stresses on the xy element by using
equations of static equilibrium. For this purpose, consider a wedge-shaped element whose inclined face is the x1 face
of the inclined element and whose other two side faces are parallel to the x and y axes (Fig. 9-2a).

1
Denoting the left-hand side face as Ao, then the normal and shear forces acting on this face are σx Ao and τxy Ao, as
shown in the free body diagram of Fig. 9-2b.The area of the bottom face is Ao tanθ, and the area of the inclined face
is Ao secθ.

Y1 Y Y1 Y
X1 θ X1
0s
ec
θ σ x1 θ σ x1
A

σx θ σ xA 0 θ
X
τ xy
o τ x1y1 X τ xy A 0
o τ x1y 1 A 0 sec θ

τ yx τ yx A 0 tan θ
σy σ y A 0 tan θ
(a) (b)_
Fig. 9-2 Wedge-shaped stress element in plane stress
Thus, the normal and shear forces acting on these faces have the magnitudes and directions shown. Then by applying
the equations of static equilibrium to the forces acting on the wedge (Fig. 9-2b), stresses σx1 and τx1y1 can be
obtained as follows.

Σ Fx1=0
σx1Ao secθ − σxAocosθ − τxyAosinθ − σyAotanθ sinθ − τyxAotanθ cosθ =0
But τxy=τyx
⇒ σ x1 = σ x cos 2 θ + σ y sin 2 θ + 2τ xy sin θ cos θ
Further simplification gives,
σ x +σ σ x −σ
σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
y y
(9-3)
2 2
Similarly, from
Σ Fy1=0,
τx1y1Aosecθ + σxAosinθ − τxyAocosθ − σyAotanθ cosθ + τyxAotanθ sinθ=0
But τxy=τyx
⇒ τ x1 y1 = − (σ x − σ y )sin θ cos θ + τ (cos xy
2
θ − sin 2 θ )

Further simplification gives,

σ −σ
τ = − sin 2 θ + τ cos 2 θ
x y
x1 y1 xy (9-4)
2
These equations for σx1 and τx1y1 are known as the transformation equations for plane stress because they transform
the stress components from one set of axes to another.
However, the intrinsic state of stress at the point under consideration is the same weather represented on the xy
element or x1y1 element (Fig. 9-1).
The normal stress σy1 acting on the y1 face of an inclined element (Fig. 9-1c) can be obtained from Eqn. (9-3) by
substituting θ+90o for θ, which produces the following equation for σy1:
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σ y1 = − cos 2θ − τ xy sin 2θ (9-5)
2 2
Summing Eqns. (9-3) and (9-5) gives
σ x1 +σ y1 =σ x +σ y (9-6)
This equation shows that the sum of the normal stresses acting on perpendicular faces of plane stress elements at a
point is constant and independent of the angle θ.
The transformation equations were derived solely from equilibrium considerations, so they are applicable to stresses
in any kind of material.

2
 9.3 Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear Stresses
The transformation equations for plane stress show that the normal stress σx1 and shear stress τx1y1 vary continuously
as the axes are rotated through the angle θ. For design purposes, the largest possible stresses are often needed, and
the plane on which such stresses occur is found first. To find the plane for a maximum or a minimum normal stress,
Eqn. (9-3) is differentiated with respect to θ and the derivative set equal to zero, i.e.,
dσ x1
= −(σ x − σ y ) sin 2θ + 2τ xy cos 2θ = 0
dθ
2τ xy
tan 2θ p =
From which we get
σ x −σ y (9-7)

The subscript p indicates that the angle θp defines the orientation of the principal planes, which are the planes on
which the principal stresses act. Eqn. 9-7 has two roots, since the value of the tangent of an angle in the
diametrically opposite quadrant is the same, as may be seen from Fig. 9-3.These roots are 180o apart, and, as Eqn. 9-
7 is for a double angle, the angle θp has two values that differ by 90o, one between 0 and 90o and the other between
90o and 180o.For one of these angles, the normal stress σx1 is a maximum principal stress; for the other, it is a
minimum principal stress. Because the two values of θp differ by 90o, it can be concluded that the principal stresses
occur on mutually perpendicular planes.

y²
] ² τ x
)/ 2
- σy
√ [( σ τ xy
x

2θ p
( σ x- σ y)/2
Fig. 9-3 Angle function for principal stresses

It can be observed that if the location of planes on which no shear stresses is wanted, Eqn. 9-4 must be set equal to
zero. This yields the same relation as that in Eqn. 9-7.therefore an important conclusion is reached: on planes on
which maximum or minimum normal stresses occur (i.e., principal planes), there are no shear stresses.
The values of the principal stresses can be calculated by substituting each of the two values of θp into the stress
transformation equation (Eqn. 9-3) and solving for σx1.
General formulas for the principal stresses can be obtained by using Fig. 9-4, which is constructed from Eqn. (9-7).

From the figure 9.3 it can be seen that

σ x −σ y τ xy
cos 2θ p = sin 2θ p = (9-8)
2R R
Where

⎛σ x −σ
2
⎞
R= ⎜⎜ y
⎟⎟ + τ xy 2 (9-9)
⎝ 2 ⎠
Substituting the expressions for cos2θp and sin2θp into Eqn. (9-3) and obtain the algebraically larger of the two
principal stresses, denoted by σ1:

σ x +σ y ⎛σ x −σ y ⎞
2

σ1 = + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy 2 (9-10)
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
The smaller of the principal stresses, denoted by σ2, may be found from the condition that
σ1 +σ2 = σ x +σ y (9-11)

3
Inasmuch as σ1 and σ2 act on perpendicular planes, substituting the expression for σ1 in to
Eqn. (3-11) and solving for σ2, we get

σ x +σ y ⎛σ x −σ y
2
⎞
σ2 = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy 2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
The preceding formulas can be combined into a single formula for the principal stresses:

σ x +σ y ⎛σ x −σ y
2
⎞
σ 1, 2 = ± ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy 2 (9-12)
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
The plus sign gives the algebraically larger principal stress σ1 and the minus sign gives the smaller principal stress
σ 2.
In summery, the two angles defining the principal planes are denoted θp1 and θp2, corresponding to the principal
stresses σ1 and σ2, respectively. Both angles can be determined from the equation for tan2θp (Eqn. 9-7), but we
cannot tell from the equation which angle is θp1 and which is θp2. A simple procedure for making this determination
is to take one of the values and substitute into the equation for σx1 (Eqn. 9-3). The resulting value of σx1 will be
recognized as eitherσ1 or σ2, thus correlating the principal angles with the principal stresses.
The shear stresses τx1y1 acting on inclined elements are given by Eqn. (9-4). The determination of maximum shear
stresses and the planes on which they act involves taking the derivative of τx1y1 with respect to θ and setting it equal
to zero.i.e.,

d τ x1 y 1
= − (σ x − σ y )cos 2θ − 2τ xy sin 2θ = 0
dθ
from which
σ − σ
tan 2 θ = −
x y
(9-13)
2τ
s
xy
The subscript s indicates that the angle θs defines the orientation of the planes of maximum shear stresses. Equation
(9-13) yields one value of θs between 0 and 90o and another between 90o and 180o; these two values differ by 90o.
Hence, the maximum and minimum values of τx1y1 occur on perpendicular planes. Because shear stresses on
perpendicular planes are equal in absolute value, the maximum and minimum shear stresses differ only in sign.
Furthermore, comparing Eqn. (9-7) and (9-13) shows that
1
tan 2θ = − = − cot 2 θ (9-14)
tan 2 θ
s p
p

From trigonometry
(
tan α ± 90 0 = − cot α )
Hence, it can be seen that 2θs=2θp690o, or
θS=θp645o (9-15)
and it can be concluded that the planes of maximum shear stress occur at 45o to the principal planes.
The plane of the algebraically maximum shear stress τmax is defined by the angle θs1, for which one can obtain the
following equations:
τ xy σ x −σ y
cos 2θ s1 = sin 2θ s1 = − (9-16)
R 2R
in which R is given by Eqn. (9-9).
The corresponding maximum shear stress is obtained by substituting the expressions for cos2θs1 and sin2θs1 into
Eqn. (9-4), yielding

⎛σ −σ
2
⎞
τ max = ⎜⎜ x y
⎟⎟ +τ xy
2
(9-17)
⎝ 2 ⎠
The algebraically minimum shear stress τmin has the same magnitude but opposite sign.
Subtracting the expression for σ2from that for σ1, and then comparing with Eqn. (9-17), it can be seen that
σ −σ
τ max = 1 2
(9-18)
2
4
Thus the maximum shear stress is equal to one-half the difference of the principal stresses.
Normal stresses also act on the planes of maximum shear stresses. The normal stress on the plane of the maximum
shear stress can be evaluated by substituting the expressions for the angle θs1 (Eqns. 9-16) into the equation for σx1
(Eqn. 3-3). The resulting stress, denoted σaver, is equal to the average of the normal stresses on the x and y planes
σ x +σ y
σ aver = (9-19)
2
The stress σaver acts on both the plane of maximum shear stress and the plane of minimum shear stress.

Mohr’s Circle For Plane Stresses

The transformation equations for plane stresses (Eqns.9-3 and 9-4) can be represented in graphical form known as
Mohr’s circle. This representation is extremely useful in visualizing the relationships between normal and shear
stresses acting on various inclined planes at a point in a stressed body. In addition to the above function, with the aid
of Mohr’s circle, a quicker solution of stress transformation problems can often be obtained.
A careful study of Eqns. 9-3 and 9-4 shows that they represent a circle written in parametric form with the angle 2θ
as the parameter. To show that they represent a circle they can be rewritten as
σ x +σ σ x −σ
σ x1 − = cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
y y
(9-3*)
2 2
σ x −σ y
τ x1 y 1 = − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ (9-4*)
2
Squaring both sides of each equation and then adding eliminates the parameter; the resulting equation is

σ +σ ⎞ ⎛σ −σ
2 2
⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜ σ x1 −
x y
⎟⎟ + τx1 y1
2
= ⎜⎜
x y
⎟⎟ + τ xy
2
(a)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
This equation can be written in simpler form by using the following notations.

⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
2
σ x +σ y R = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ +τ xy2
σ aver =
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Equation (a) becomes
(σ x1 − σ aver )2 + τ x1 y1 2 = R2 (9-20)
which is the equation of a circle with σx1 and τx1y1 as the coordinates. The circle has radius R, and its center has the
coordinate (σaver, 0).
Following the sign convention that 2θ is positive when measured counterclockwise and the shear stress τx1y1 is
positive downward, we can construct the Mohr’s circle from equations (9-3), (9-4) and (9-20). The normal stress σx1
is plotted as the abscissa and the shear stress τx1y1 is plotted as the ordinate.
The following procedure shows the construction of Mohr’s circle for the element in plane stress (Fig. 9-1b and c).
1. Locate the center C of the circle at the point having the coordinate (σaver, 0)
(Fig. 9-4).
2. Locate point A, which is the point on the circle representing the stress conditions on the x face of the
element (θ = 0); for this point we have σx1= σx and τx1y1= τxy.
3. Locate point B, representing the stress conditions on the y face of the element (θ =90). The coordinates
of this point are σx1= σy and τx1y1= -τxy. Note that a line from A to B passes through the center C.
4. Draw the circle through the points A and B with center at C.

5
 σ1
σy B ( θ =90°)
S'
−τ x y D'

p1
O p2 C β σX 1
σ2 τ x1y1

p1
τx y

2θ
2θ
D (θ = θ
)
S
σ aver = ( σ x + σ y ) A ( θ=0) (σ x − σ y )
2 2
σX
σX 1
τ x 1y1
Fig. 9-4 Mohr’s circle for plane stress.

The radius R of the circle is the length of line CA. As can be seen on the figure, line CA is the hypotenuse of a
right triangle having one side of length (σx - σy)/2 and the other side of length τxy (Fig. 9-5). Taking the square
root of the sum of the squares of these two sides gives R.
The stresses acting on an inclined face of the element oriented at an angle θ from the x-axis (Fig. 9-1c) can be
determined using the above diagram. On Mohr’s circle, take an angle 2θ counterclockwise from the radius CA,
because A is the point for which θ = 0. The angle 2θ locates point D on the circle; this point has coordinates σx1
and τx1y1, representing the stresses on the x1 face of the stress element, defined by the angle θ.
Point D', diametrically opposite of point D, is located by an angle that is 180o greater than the angle 2θ to point D
(Fig. 9-4). Therefore, point D’ represents the stresses on a face of the stress element 90o from the face represented
by point D; hence point D' gives the stresses σy1 and - τx1y1 on the y1 face.
At point P1 on the circle, the normal stress reaches its algebraically largest value and the shear stress is zero.
Hence, P1 represents a principal plane. The other principal plane associated with the algebraically smallest normal
stress, is represented by P2. From the geometry of the circle, it can be seen that the larger principal stress is
σ +σ
σ = OC + CP 1 = + R
x y
1
2
which, upon substitution of the expression for R (Eqn. 9-9), agrees with Eqn. 9-10. In a similar manner the
expression for σ2 can also be verified.
The principal angle θp1 between the x-axis and the plane of the algebraically larger principal stress for the rotated
principal stress element (Fig. 9-1c) is one-half the angle 2θp1 between radii CA and CP1 on Mohr’s circle. The
angle 2θp2 to the other principal point is 180o larger than 2θp1; hence θp2 = θp1 + 90o.
Points S and S', representing the planes of maximum and minimum shear stresses, are located on the circle at 90o
angles from the points P1 and P2. Therefore, the planes of maximum shear stress are at 45o to the principal planes.
The maximum shear stress is numerically equal to the radius of the circle. Also, the normal stresses on the planes
of maximum shear stress are equal to the abscissa of point C, which is the average normal stress.
The diagram of Fig. 9-5 was drawn with both σx and σy as positive stresses, but the same procedures are followed
if either or both stresses are negative. In such cases, part or all of Mohr’s circle will be located to the left of the
origin.
It should be noted that the angle 2θ is always measured counterclockwise from the radius CA, regardless of where
the point A is located.