Statistics:

A Modern Approach

Dina Nath Pandit

M Sc, Ph D, FRSS
Department of Zoology
Veer Kunwar Singh University
Arrah - 802 301, INDIA

Hindustan Publishing Corporation (India)

STATISTICS: A MODERN APPROACH
Copyright © 2022 by Hindustan Publishing Corporation (India).
All rights reserved. Printed in India.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in

any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo-copying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISBN-13: 9788170751021
ISBN-10: 8170751020

Published by:
Hindustan Publishing Corporation (India), 4805/24 Bharat Ram Road, Daryaganj, Delhi-110002
Printed at:
Compudata Services, Okhla Phase - II, New Delhi 110020 (India)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The journey of writing this book has been more difficult and gratifying than I could have imagined. Without
the best life partner, colleagues, members of staff, friends, and well-wishers, none of this would have been
possible. Therefore, it is my prime duty to acknowledge their benign support and contributions.
My first and foremost sincere acknowledgements go to Prof. (Dr.) Kuldeep Kumar, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Kent),
FSS, C. Stat, Professor of Statistics, Centre for Data Analytics, Faculty of Business, Bond University, Gold
Coast, Queensland 4229, Australia and the Editor (Book Review), Journal of Royal Statistical Society (Series
A) & Significance. Without his motivation, review of chapters, support, and insights into the subjects, the
writing of this book would not have materialized.
I am highly obliged to Anna Heath, Membership Manager, Royal Statistical Society, LON-
DON EC1Y 8LX for making inquiries amongst the members and authorities of the Society to select
a genuine person to write the Foreword of the Book.

I acknowledge the regular help extended by Dr. Uday Shankar Sinha, Dr. Banshi Prasad Bhagat, Dr.
Dhyanendra Kumar, Dr. Raja Ram Singh and Dr. Suresh Prasad Srivastava, Former Heads, Department of
Zoology, Veer Kunwar Singh University, Arrah as well as Dr. Ram Randhir Singh, Department of Zoology,
Veer Kunwar Singh University, Arrah. Whenever required, they always spared time from their busy schedule
which enabled me to bring this wonderful workout.
It is my proud privilege to pay my gratitude and regard to Dr. Anil Kumar Sinha, Prof and Head, Department
of Zoology, Veer Kunwar Singh University, Arrah for his blessings and good wishes and also for providing
me all the bits of help as well as valuable suggestions for this work.
I hereby also acknowledge Ms. Deepa Sonal, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science, Patna
Women’s College, Patna, for writing some part of a chapter: ‘Fundamentals of Computers and Introduction
to C++’ of this book. I appreciate her efforts.
The author extends special thanks to his colleagues Dr. Kizar Ahmed Sumon, Associate Professor,
Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh-2202, Bangladesh,
and Ilham Zulfahmi of Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Ar-Raniry State Islamic
University, Koperma Darussalam, Banda Aceh City-23111, Indonesia and Dr. Muhammad Akram (Associate
Professor) Chairperson, Department of Eastern Medicine Government College University, Faisalabad,
Pakistan for their valuable suggestion which has improved the quality of the book.
The kind support of Dr. Phillip Robinson, Associate Professor and Head (Coordinator, DBT Star Scheme
and DBT PG Programme sponsored by DST and DBT, New Delhi), Department of Biotechnology, K.S.
Rangasamy College of Technology, Tiruchengode, Tamil Nadu is sincerely acknowledged. His constant
supervision and availability all the time are phenomenal.
(vi) Statistics: A Modern Approach

The efforts of Dr. Kumar Satyendra Yadav, Associate Professor, Department of Statistics, Patna University,
Patna have proven highly fruitful for this project. His sincere efforts in cross-checking all the references, and
preparing the lists of entries have proven a good deal of help indeed. His contributions toward making this
book worth browsing for the reader are hereby sincerely acknowledged.
I shall fail in my duty if I do not acknowledge the endeavours of Dr. Mohita Sardana and Dr. Amit
Priyadarshi of the Department of Zoology, Veer Kunwar Singh University, Arrah; Dr. Vijay Raj Kumawat,
Assistant Professor, Department of English, Veer Kunwar Singh University, Arrah, and Dr. Md. Alimul
Haque, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science, Veer Kunwar Singh University, Arrah. Their
efforts towards materializing this book shall always remain in my heart. I shall always fondly cherish those
unfailing commitments toward their vision of academic affluence among the teaching-learning fraternity.
In this series of thanksgiving, I tender my sincerest thanks to all my family members and all my dears too.
Their support, warmth, and affection even beyond the day hours cannot go unacknowledged.
I wish to acknowledge the efforts made by various Institutions/Organizations /Societies in developing
and providing Open Access Resources/External Resources for the benefit of teacher/student communities
and the general public at large.
Last but not the least, I tender my supreme thanks to every one of our publishers, Hindustan Publishing
Corporation (India) New Delhi. Without their support bringing out this book would not have been possible.
Their team was always at my disposal, whenever required. I convey my sincere thanks to them too.

Dina Nath Pandit

 PREFACE

Statistics, a multi-disciplinary branch with its principles, concepts, methods and values’ find many applications
in Mathematical Sciences, Life Sciences, Research Methodology, Health Sciences, Medical Sciences, Planning,
Machine Learning, Artificial Intelligence, Internet of Things, most recently Programming and Data Analysis,
Environmental Sciences, Meteorology, Economics, Psychology, Social Sciences, Commerce, Chartered Accountancy,
Geography, Education, Management, Mass Communication and Journalism, Trade and other disciplines.
Statistics always finds a way of being useful for research across any discipline. It functions as a tool in designing
research, analysing the data and drawing conclusions. Descriptive statistics help to develop indices from the raw
data, whereas inferential statistics is concerned with the process of generalization.
In the changing world scenario, interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary learning must be prioritized, along
with the development of multiple abilities and the inclusion of missing views. The UGC has implemented several
initiatives to improve learning and education efficiency and academic excellence. Implementation of a Choice Based
Credit System (CBCS) is one of them. CBCS is an internationally recognized system that provides opportunities
to learn as well as additional outlets for the holistic development of a student.
Moreover, The New Education Policy (NEP) approved by The Union Cabinet in July 2020 is expected to
bring a spate of big reforms. It may be implemented by 2022 or 2023. Holistic and multidisciplinary education
across the sciences, social sciences, arts, humanities and sports will ensure unity and integrity of knowledge. A
higher proportion of students will receive vocational education and there will be a shift toward multi-disciplinary
Institutions. At all higher Education Institutions, a Department of Statistics shall be established and strengthened.
I am fascinated by Statistics and I enjoy working in this field. I like teaching statistics as well, and I hope that I
cancommunicate some of my enthusiasm to my students, the majority of whom are compelled to take my classes
as part of their studies. It’s often a losing battle; however, some of them come in with a negative attitude toward
statistics, possibly exacerbated by the belief that statistics is some kind of magical procedure that will do their
thinking for them or a set of tricks and manipulations whose purpose is to twist reality to deceive others.
Some people find it challenging because they lack basic mathematical skills. Although an introductory-level
statistics course does not need mathematics beyond what a high school freshman or sophomore should be able
to achieve, many adults and college students lack even that level of proficiency in mathematics. Others struggle
because they attempt to pass the course through rote memorization. Statistics is a problem-solving subject, and
memorizing will not help you when you need problem-solving skills.
Statistics is a subject that aims to encourage students to think in new ways and see the world around them
from fresh angles. Once you have mastered numbers, you will beable to see the world in ways you did not know
existed before.
Proficiency in statistics is quickly becoming a requirement in many domains of work. It’s also becoming a
prerequisite to be a thoughtful memberof modern society, as we are constantly assaulted with statistical data and
arguments, many of which are debatable. Much of modern finance relies on Statistics and Probability. Without
statistical analysis, much of modern science, both physical and social, would come to a halt. Iattempted to address
statistics as both a professional requirement and a component of the intellectual content.
(viii) Statistics: A Modern Approach

Coverage and Scope

Statistics presents the appropriate statistical concepts and skills in a logical and engaging progression that
should be familiar to faculty.This book is intended for undergraduate and postgraduate courses mostly based on a
non-mathematical background. My goal has been to provide a clear and intuitive approach to these topics.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics
Chapter 2: Concept of Statistics
Chapter 3: Measurement and Scaling
Chapter 4: Sampling Theory
Chapter 5: Collection of Data
Chapter 6: Editing and Coding of Data
Chapter 7: Presentation of Data
Chapter 8: Basic Concept of Computer
Chapter 9: Univariate, Bivariate and Multivariate Analysis
Chapter 10: Probability Distribution
Chapter 11: Measures of Averages
Chapter 12: Measure of Dispersion
Chapter 13: Correlation Analysis
Chapter 14: Regression Analysis
Chapter 15: Testing of Hypothesis
Chapter 16: Chi-square Test
Chapter 17: ‘t’ and ‘z’ Test
Chapter 18: Analysis of variance
Chapter 19: Parametric and Non-parametric Statistics
Throughout the book, there are several instances of applications from everyday life, health, finance and business
to help in motivating the reader. These examples have been worded in a way that all students may understand. The
book contains a large number of illustrative examples. In addition to the examples given in the text, each section
concludes with a set of questionnaires.
Please accept my apologies in advance for any typos and errors that may remain in this book. Though I have
provided answers to some of the questions, there are still some problems and queries for which there is no solution.
Finally, I am open to improving recommendations, discussion and challenges that may arise after reading this book.

Dina Nath Pandit

 Contents (ix)

Contents
Acknowledgements (v)
Preface (vii)
1. Introduction 1–31
1.1 The history of Statistics 1
1.2 Need of Statistics 8
1.3 Definitions of Statistics and Biostatistics 9
1.4 Branches of Statistics 13
1.5 Scope of Statistics/Biostatistics 19
1.6 Internet of Things and Biostatistics 20
1.7 Machine Learning and Biostatistics 21
1.8 Artificial Intelligence and Statistics 24
1.9 Research Methodology and Statistics 24
1.10 Applications of Statistics 25
1.11 Constraints and Limitations of Statistics 28

2. Concept 32–56
2.1 Concept of Biostatistics 32
2.2 Terminology used in Statistics 33
2.3 Notations used in Statistics 35
2.4 Logarithms 38
2.5 Set Theory 41
2.6 Permutation and Combination  44
2.7 Level of Significance and Confidence Limit 48
2.8 Statistical Error 51

3. Measurement and Scaling 57–65

3.1 Measurements 57
3.2 Scaling 60

4. Sampling Theory 66–82

4.1 Sampling Theory 66
4.2 Sampling Frame 69
4.3 Methods of Sampling 71
4.4 Estimation of Population Mean and Proportion 79
(x) Statistics: A Modern Approach

5. Collection of Data 83–107

5.1 Data 83
5.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Methods 89
5.3 Collection of Data 94
5.4 Questionnaire, Schedule and Rating Scale 98

6. Editing and Coding of Data 108–115

6.1 Editing of Data 108
6.2 Coding of Data 111

7. Presentation of Data 116–137

7.1 Classification and Tabulation of Data 116
7.2 Frequency Distribution 121
7.3 Visualization of Data 127

8. Basic Concept of Computer 138–175

8.1 Fundamentals of Computer 138
8.2 Introduction to C+ + 146
8.3 Introduction to Excel 156
8.4 Graphpad Prism 157
8.5 Introduction to Spss 160
8.6 Introduction to R 162
8.7 Introduction to Python 165
8.8 Statistical/Biostatistical Software 167

9. Univariate, Bivariate and Multivariate Analysis 176–203

9.1 Univariate Analysis 176
9.2 Bivariate Analysis 181
9.3 Multivariate Analysis 184
9.4 Multivariate Analysis Techniques 191
9.5 Ordinal Data Analysis 193
9.6 Conjoint Analysis 201

10. Probability Distribution 204–232

10.1 Concept of Probability 204
10.2 Types of Probability Distribution 211
10.3 Normal Probability Distribution 212
10.4 Binomial Distribution  218
10.5 Poisson Distribution 224
10.6 Bayes’ Theorem 227
 Contents (xi)

11. Measures of Averages 233–267

11.1 Measures of Central Tendency 233
11.2 Averages or Means 235
11.3 Geometric Mean 242
11.4 Harmonic Mean 246
11.5 Median 249
11.6 Mode 253
11.7 Percentile 258

12. Measures of Dispersion 268–303

12.1 Measures of Dispersion 268
12.2 Range 269
12.3 Quartile Deviation 272
12.4 Average (Mean) Deviation 275
12.5 Standard Deviation 280
12.6 Standard Error 288

13. Correlation Coefficient 304–335

13.1 Correlation Coefficient 304
13.2 Types of Correlation 307
13.3 Illustrative Problems of Correlation Coefficient 310
13.4 Coefficient of Partial and Multiple Correlation 320
13.5 The Coefficient of Point-Biserial Correlation  329
13.6 Relation Between Kendall W and Spearman r 331

14. Regression 336–365

14.1 Regression Analysis 336
14.2 Types of Regression Analysis 341
14.3 Illustrative Examples of Regression 344
14.4 Coefficient of Partial and Multiple Regression 349
14.5 Interpolation and Extrapolation 358
14.6 Least Square Method 360

15. Testing of Hypotheses 366–395

15.1 The Testing of the Hypothesis 366
15.2 Steps of Testing of Hypothesis 372
15.3 Testing of Hypothesis of Coefficient of Correlation 378
15.4 Confidence Limits and Fiducial Limit 380
15.5 Testing of Hypothesis for Population Mean 381
15.6 Testing of Hypothesis for Population Proportion 387
15.7 Post hoc Tests 391
(xii) Statistics: A Modern Approach

16. Chi-Square Analysis 396–421

16.1 The Chi-Square Test 396
16.2 Yates’s Correction 406
16.3 Variants of chi square Test 408
16.4 F, Cramer’s V, Odds Ratio and C-Coefficient 414
16.5 Post hoc Tests for chi-square test 417

17. ‘t’ And ‘z’ Analysis 422–450

17.1 Student’s t-Test 422
17.2 z-Test 437
17.3 Sandler’s A Test 441
17.4 Theorem of Central Limit 443
17.5 Post hoc Tests for t-Test 447

18. Analysis of Variance 451–499

18.1 Analysis of Variance 451
18.2 Modifications of ANOVA 460
18.3 Solved Problems of ANOVA 464
18.4 Coding Method for ANOVA 472
18.5 Latin-Square Design 473
18.6 Post hoc Tests for ANOVA 476

19. Non-Parametric Statistics 500–522

19.1 Parametric and Non-Parametric Statistics 500
19.2 The Sign Test 502
19.3 Mood’s Median Test 505
19.4 The Man-Whitney U Test 508
19.5 The Wald-Wolfowitz Runs Test 510
19.6 The Krushal-Wallis Test 514
19.7 The Kolmogorov Smirnov Test 516
Appendices 523–542
References 543–556
Author index 557–560
Subject index 561–566
 Author Index 557

Author Index

A Bernoulli D 2, 218 Chau Ya-Lun 215, 235

Achenwall G 2 Bernoulli J 38 Chebyshev 288
Adeleye OA 8 Bertolucci J 87 Chon YL 304
Adyanthaya NK 51 Bickel PJ 381 Chuprov AA
Agresti A 5 Black F 218 Clapham AR
Akaike H 374 Black JA 367 Clark 275
Al-Kadi IA 1 Blair 336 Cleveland W 132
Al-Karaji M 45 Bland JM 8 Clopper CJ 381
Al-Khalil 1, 44, 204 Boddington AL 10, 304 Cochran WG 73, 177, 410, 431
Altman D 8 Bonferroni CE 391 Collier R 1, 2
Anderson L 5, 96 Bowley AL 28, 235, 268, 292,410 Connor LR 116, 249, 304
Anderson TW 5, 78 Box GEP 4 Conover WJ 2
Andersson M 5 Box JF 5 Cook I 78
Arbuthnot J 2, 367, 501 Braak 185 Cook RD 233
Ashton K 20 Bravais A 304 Cowden DJ 10, 121, 254, 304
Aspin 429 Brookes BC 268 Cox GM 4
Ayappan S 174 Brown GW 505 Cox W 40
Brown MB 423 Cramér H 308, 415
B Buldygin 297 Croxton FE 10, 121, 254, 304
Babbie E 89 Bürgi J 38
Babu GJ 14 D
Banerjee S 7 C Daniel 32
Barbour MG 78 Cantelli FC 258 Das CR 4
Bartlett MS 350, 423 Cantor G 41 Davenport 7
Bateson C 7 Cardano G 1, 2 Day EE 304
Battaglia F 413 Cars T 361 Deming WE 4, 67
Bayes T 1, 2, 207 Castellan NJJr 505 Dick WFL 268
Bekaert G 291 Causton H 6, 32 Dodge Y 233
Bellhouse DR 2, 3 Cerf V 145 Doksum KA 381
Benjamini Y 393 Chakrabarti MC 7 Dou C 91
Berger VW 32 Chakrabarty D 6 Dubois EN 11
Berners-Lee TJ 145 Champion DJ 367 Duncan DB 392
Chao LL 11 Dunn OJ 391
558 Statistics: A Modern Approach

Dunnett C 393 G I
Dyken M 50 Galton F 3, 12, 98, 213, 304 Iamblichus 234
Garrett HE 204 Ihaka R 162
E Garwood F 381 Indrayan A 6, 32
Edgeworth FY 3, 304 Gauss JCF 2, 213, 242 Ioannidis JPA 232
Edward W 501 Gayon J 5 Irwin JO 408
Ellison AM 70 Geary RC 212 Iverson MG 6, 32
Enus P 9 Geiringer H 32
Ercan I 8 Gentlman R 162 J
Erlang AK 225 Gergen M 6, 32 Jacobson JO 78
Excoffier L 460 Gibbs GR 111 Jeffreys H 227
Ezra RA 45 GLivenko VI 258 Johannsen 7
Goodman M 192
F Gosset WS 5, 225, 422 K
Fano U 286 Gotelli NJ 70 Kafla F 67, 233
Farr W 66 Graunt J 2 Kahane J-P 297
Fazl A 2 Green PE 201 Kahn R 145
Feigelson ED 14 Guilford JP 397 Kaism 92
Feller W 213 Kelly 292
Fermat de P 2, 45, 204 H Kendall M 11, 308, 381
Fibonacci L 45 Haenszel W 410 Kendall MG 73, 191, 269, 291
Fine 205 Halley E 233 Keuls M 392
Finley AO 7 Hansen MH 73 Kiaer AN 3, 67
Fisher RA 4, 218, 370, 392, 437 Hardy A 4 Kim K 168
Fiske M 79 Harper WM 358 King WI 10, 28, 304
Fletsch CE 96 Harvey AS 291 Kish L 51
Fontana A 106 Harvey C 90 Kolmogorov AN 204, 425, 516
Fontana, A., & Frey, J. H. (1994). Hay I 112 Kozachecko 297
Interviewing: The art of science. In Hayden EC 1, 6, 32 Krammer 392
D. Denzin & Y. Heath TH 234 Kruskal W 194, 197, 514
Fontana, A., & Frey, J. H. (1994).
Heikalabad SR 140 Kumar R 367
Interviewing: The art of science. In
D. Denzin & Y. Helmert 423
Fontana, A., & Frey, J. H. (1994). Herzberg FS 91 L
Interviewing: The art of science. In Hichcock DB 5 Landwehr JM 32
D. Denzin & Y. Hidalgo B 192 Laplace P 204, 213
Forsythe AB 423 HIrach 358 Laplace PS 2, 66, 367, 443
Frank ES 32 Hochberg Y 393 Lauro C 16
Franklin J 2 Holm S 391 Lazarsfeld P 79
Frey JH 106 Horvitz DG 78 Legendre AM 2, 337
Friden 8 Hotelling H 185, 187, 322, 350 Lehman 437
Friedman M 199, 454 Hurwitz WN 73 Levene 423
Freud S 96
 Author Index 559

Liddell FDK 177 N Richardson MW 32

Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of Napier J 38 Richard Mv 204
qualitative research (pp. 361-376). Neison FGP 3 Robets 11
Thousand Oaks, CA:
Newcomb S 224 Rodgers J 305
Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of
Newman D 392 Romkey J 20
qualitative research (pp. 361-376).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Neyman J 5, 50, 367, 360 Rutherford E 24
Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of Nicewander A 305 Rossum Gv 165
qualitative research (pp. 361-376). Nightingale F 3
Thousand Oaks, CA: Norwood JL 5 S
Lind J 2 Nyquist H 67 Schkade 275
Lorenz MO 135 Sage.
Louis PCA 3 O Sage.
Louviere JJ 201 Offili AN 8 Sage.
Lovitt 10 Osgood CE 64 Sami W 8
Luce RD 201 Samuel AL 21
Lüroth J 423 P Samuel S 29
Panse VG 7 Sandler J 441
M Papoulis 221 Satterwaite 429
Magnello ME 4 Papyrus RM 44 Savage LJ 32
Mahalanobis PC 4 Pascal B 2, 45, 204 Scheffé H 392
Maistrov LE 32 Pasteur L 3 Scholes M 218
Mandelbrot B 218 Pearson ES 4, 51, 367 Schwartz RK 218
Mann HB 194, 508 Pearson K 4, 10, 187, 234, 253, Secrist H 11, 249
Mannheim A 40 280, 291, 304 Seidel 172
Mantel N 410 Petty SW 2 Shannon CE 67
Mardia KV 5 Petunin YI 288 Siddique A 291
Matthews JR 32 Playfair W 2, 131 Siegel S 505
Matthias D 32 Plummer M 167 Simith BB 429
Mauchly JQW 455 Poisson SD 224 Simmons 5
McDonald JH 409 Popper KR 367 Simpson G 67, 233
McNemar Q 412 Pythagoras 242 Sinclair SJ 2
Mendel G 7, 218 Singh S 1
Milles JD 98 Q Seligman 10
Misses VR 32 Publishing Šmilauer P 185
Moiever De 213 Publishing Smirnov N 425, 516
Moivre Ab de 505 Quetelet A 3, 213 Snedecor GW 73
Mood AM 171 Snow DA 96
Moore JH 171 R Sonal D 20
Morgan TH 8 Rand Corporation 73 Spear MEH 102
Motulsky H 158 Rao CR 72, 320 Spearman C 308
Reichenbach H Spiegel MR 66, 268
560 Statistics: A Modern Approach

Srinivasan V 201 Thurstone LL 62, 186 Wayne WD 32

Stake RE 96 Tijms H 205 Weathington BL 32
Stander I 18 Tippet 73 Weisberg HF 233
Stangor C 32 Townend HPV 67 Welch BL 423
Stanley JC 5 Tukey J 4, 201, 392 Weldon WFR 7, 12
Stegmann Dr R 171 Tukey JW 102, 413 Wells HG 9
Stephens LJ 66 Tuttle AM 254, 304 White PT 50
Stevens SS 61 Whitney DR 194, 508
Stevens WL 381 U Wilkinson L 132
Stevin S 2 Upton GJG 233 Wilks SS 413, 464
Stigler SM 4, 227, 304 Willcoxon W 194
Stroustrup B 147 V Winger 297
Stuart A 381 Venn J 205 Wishart J 419
Student’ WSG 392 Vysochanskii DF 288 Wolfowitz J 510
Sukhatme PV 7 Wright E 2
Sylvester JJ 127 W Wright S 7, 190
Wald A 4, 510
T Walker J 4 Y
Taylor RW 145 Wallis WA 11, 197, 514 Yates F 5, 73, 406
ter Braak CJF 185 Wallis J 38, 453 Yin RK 96
Thompson DA 7 Wang PZ 91 Yule GU 11, 268, 291, 322, 337
Thompson DW 76 Wanous JP 64
Tibshirani R 23 Warner SL 76 Z
Thucydides 1 Watkins AE 32 Zeng ZB 16

Subject Index
Absolute dispersion 269
Accidental sampling 77
Active Learning 22, 23
Actuarial science 17
Additive laws of probability 209
Additive Rule 209
Advance Survey Statistics 15
Algebraic dispersion 269
Alternative Hypothesis 370
AMOVA 460
Analysis of Nominal scale data 176
Analytical Statistics 13
ANCOVA 460
Anderson–Darling test 502
ANORVA 460
ANOVA 451
Anti-logarithm 40
Applications of Statistics 25
Applied statistics 14
A-priory 112
Area chart 135
Array data 34
Artificial Intelligence and Statistics
24
Assumed mean method 236
Astrostatistics 14
Automatic editing 109
Averages or means 235
Avian point count 78
Axiomatic definition of probability
205
Bar Graph 128
Basic Concept of Computer 138
Basic rules of classification 116
Bayes’ theorem 217
Bean box plot 105
Benjamini-Hochberg procedure
393
Between Group Variability 453
Biased error 71
Bi-logarithmic graph 127
Binary data 90
Binomial distributions 218
Binomial test 410, 447
Biographical data35
Biological hypothesis 370
Biometric monitoring 16
Biometrics 16
Biostatistics 12, 14
Bivariate analysis 181
Bivariate data 87
Bivariate Frequency Table 126
Bivariate sample 33
Bivariate Statistics 14
Blocking 452
Bonferroni Test 391
Bowley's measure of skewness 292
Box Plot 102, 129
Branches of Statistics 13
British Imperial System 59
Bubble chart 135
Business analytics 17
Business Statistics 14
C coefficient 414
Call playback responses 78
Candlestick chart 139
Subject Index 561
Canonical Correlation Analysis 193
Cardinality number 43
Cartesian graph 128
Cartesian products of set 43
Case study method of data collec-
tion 96
Categorical data 399
Causal hypothesis 370
Central Editing 111
Central Limit Theorem 443
Centroid method 186
Characteristic (Index) of log 40
Check list Scale Questions 113
Chemometrics 17
Chi square test 178, 396
Chronological classification 117
Chronological data 35
Class boundary 123
Class interval 122
Class limits 123
Classical Probability 208
Classification of Data 108, 116
Classification of Scales 61
Closed end coded structured Ques-
tions 113
Closed-Ended Class Interval 122
Cluster method 75, 192
Cluster sampling method 75
Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel χ^2 test
410
Cochran's Q Test 177
Coding method 472
Coding of data 111
562 Statistics: A Modern Approach
Coefficient of Alienation 310
Coefficient of determination 310
Coefficient of non-determination
310
Coefficient of Quartile deviation
272
Coefficient of variation 269, 286
Collection of data 94
Column Graph 129
Combination 44
Combined arithmetic mean 239
Combined geometric mean 244
Common statistical Software 167
Comparative rating scale 102
Comparative Scaling Technique 62
Complex Hypothesis 369
Computer Software 167
Concept of probability 204
Concept of Statistics 32
Concordant (Agreeable) orders 332
Confidence Limit 48, 380
Confirmatory factor analysis 188
Conjoint analysis 192, 201
Conservative test 368
Constant Sum Scaling 63
Constraints of Statistics 28
Continuous data 35, 86, 236
Continuous frequency distribution
126
Continuous variable 34, 329
Control Statements 148
Correlation Coefficient 304
Correspondence Analysis 192
Crammer correlation 414
Critical value 368
Cross tabulations 182
Crossover error rate 52
Cross-sectional data 88
Crowd-sourced data 88
Cumulative frequency table 127
Cumulative sampling table 71
Cumulative frequency distribution
125
Curve fitting theory 361
Curvilinear correlation 308
Curvilinear regression 337
Dark data 86
Data 34, 83
Deciles 260
Deductive Inference 23
Definitions of Statistics 9
Degree of freedom 399, 435
Demography 17
Dependent t-test 431
Derived variables 34
Descriptive data 87
Descriptive rating scale 102
Descriptive Statistics 13
Determination of Sample size 70
Device Management 141
Dichotomous Question 113
Direct sampling method 77
Directional hypothesis 370
Discontinuous variables 34
Discordant (Non-agreeable) orders
332
Discrete data 35, 85, 236
Discrete frequency distribution 125
Discrete variable 117
Discriminant Analysis 192
Discriminate regression 343
Distance dispersion 269
DMCT 392, 476
DMRT 392, 476
Document schedule 100
Dot plot chart 132
Drak data 86
Ecological Statistics 16
Econometrics 17
Economical Statistics 15
Editing of Data 108
Elastic Net regression 343
Elements of an ideal table 118
Ensemble Learning 23
Environmental monitoring 21
Environmental statistics 17
Epidemiology 17
Estimation of population mean 79
Estimation of population propor-
tion 79
Exact test 368
Exclusive Class Interval 122
Experimental Design 15, 376, 452
Experimental method: data collec-
tion 97
Exploratory factor analysis 188
Exponential graph 127
External Hardware 138
Extrapolation 358
Factor Analysis 186
FANOVA 460
Fiducial limits 380, 381
Field Editing 110
File Management 140
Finite data 87
Finite Population 33
First Coefficient of Skewness 291
First order correlation 309
First-order central tendency 234
First-order partial correlation 321
Fisher Irwin Test 408
Fisher’s approach 418
Fisher’s LSD test 392, 408
Fisher's exact test 178, 408
Fixed-effects model 453
Flow chart 133
Focus group method: data collec-
tion 95
Forensic statistics 17
Four-way ANOVA 455
Fractional Scale 62
Frequency distribution 121, 124
Frequency Distribution Graph 129

Frequency of class interval 124
Frequency Polygon 129
Friedman two-way ANOVA 199
Fundamentals of Computer 138
Funnel chart 131
Gantt chart 133
Generations of Computers 139
Genetic Epidemiology 15
Geographical classification 118
Geographical data 88
Geometric mean 242
Geometric probability distribution
212
Geostatistics 17
GPS telemetry 82
Graphic rating scale 102
Graphical editing 110
Grouped frequency distribution 125
G-test 409
Harmonic mean 246
Harmonic sampling 82
Health Statistics 14
Heronian mean 240
Hierarchy chart 134
Histogram 129
History of Statistics 1
Holm-Bonferroni Method 391,
443, 446
Horvitz-Thompson estimator 76
Hypergeometric probability distri-
bution 212
Hypothesis 367
Hypothesis for population mean
381
Hypothesis for proportion of popu-
lation 387
Hypothesis of correlation coeffi-
cient 378
I/O System Management 141
Image factoring 187
In house editing 111
In vivo coding 112
Inclusive Class Interval 122
Independent two-sample t-test 425
Individual data 35
Inductive Learning 23
Inductive Statistics 13
Inferential Statistics 13
Infinite data 87
Infinite Population 33
Interactive editing 110
Intercept 337
Internal Hardware 138
Internet 145
Internet of Things and Statistics 20
Interpolation 358
Interquartile mean 240
Interval data 86
Interval Scale 62, 101
Interview method of data collection
95
Introduction to C++ 146
Introduction to Excel 156
Introduction to GraphPad Prism
157
Introduction to Python 165
Introduction to R 162
Introduction to SPSS 160
Judgment sampling method 77
Jurimetrics 18
Kelly's coefficient of skewness 292
Kendall correlation 308
Kendall τ 331
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test 516
Krusall Wallis Test 194, 371, 514
Kruskal–Wallis one-way ANOVA
502
Kurtosis 296
Lack-of-fit error 452
LASSO regression 343
Latin square design 473
Laws of probability 209
Subject Index 563
Least square method 360
Leptokurtic curve 296
Level of significance 48, 367
Likelihood-ratio test 413
Likert Scale Questions 99, 113
Limitations of Statistics 28, 29
Line Graph 130
Line intercepts method 78
Line transect 78
Linear correlation 308
Linear regression 337
Linear scale 61
Linux 144
Logarithm 38
Logical Hypothesis 370
Logistic regression analysis 192,
338
Lorenz curve 135
Machine data 89
Machine learning 18
Machine Learning and Statistics 21
MANCOVA 464
Mann Whitney Wilcoxon Test 194
Mann–Whitney U test 194, 427,
508
MANOVA 460
Mantissa of log 40
Manual editing 109
Marine radar sampling 82
Maximum likelihood method 187
McNemar's test 177, 412
Mean deviation 275
Meaning of Statistics 9
Measurement 57
Measures of averages 233
Measures of central Tendency 233
Measures of dispersion 268
Median 249, 259
Median skewness 292
Medical Statistics 14
Memory Management 140
564 Statistics: A Modern Approach
Mesokurtic curve 296
Meteorological Statistics 15
Methods of sampling 71
Microsoft Excel 156
Microsoft Windows 142
Minimax sampling 78
Mixed-effects model 453
Mode 253
Mode skewness 291
Modifications of ANOVA 460
Mood's median test 194, 371, 505
MPT 368
Multi item scales 64
Multi-dimensional Array 155
Multidimensional scaling 192
Multi-Instance Learning 23
Multi-items Psychometric Scale 61
Multinomial regression 342
Multiple correlation 308, 349
Multiple Item scale 64
Multiple regression analysis 192
Multiple-choice questions 113
Multiplicative rule of probability
211
Multistage sampling method 75
Multi-Task Learning 23
Multivariate analysis 184
Multivariate analysis techniques
191
Multivariate data 87
Multivariate sample 33
Multivariate Statistics 14
Mutually exclusive events 214
NANOVA 460
Need of Statistics 8
Negative Skewness 292
Nest search 78
Newman-Keuls test 392, 476
Nominal data 86, 176
Nominal Logistic Model 338
Nominal scale 61, 176
Nominal variables 34
Non-comparative scales 64
Non-directional hypothesis 370
Non-parametric Statistics 17, 500
Normal distribution 212
Notation used in Statistics 35
Notched box plots 105
Null Hypothesis 369
Numerical data 85
Numerical rating scale 102
Objectives of tabulation 118
Observation method 94
Observational schedule 100
Odds ratio 414, 417
Ogive 129
One dimensional Array 155
One-sample t-test 423
One-sample z-test 438
One-way ANOVA 455
One-Way Table 119
Online Learning 23
Open data 87
Open end coded structured Ques-
tions 114
Open-Ended Class Interval 122
Operating Systems of Computer
138
Operations research 18
Opportunity sampling 77
Ordered data 86
Ordinal data 86
Ordinal data analysis 193
Ordinal Logistic Model 338
Ordinal scale 62, 101
Ordinal variables 34
Orthogonal regression 338
Panel sampling 79
Parameter 35
Parametric Statistics 16, 500
Partial correlation 308, 320, 349,
Partial least squares regression 345
Partial regression analysis 349
Path Analysis 190
Pearson Coefficient of Skewness
291
Pearson correlation 308
Percentiles 258
Perfect correlation 308
Permutation 44
Perspective data 87
Pictograph 128
Pie chart 131
Platykurtic curve 296
Plural sense of Statistics 10
Point Biserial Correlation Coeffi-
cient 308, 329
Poisson distribution 224
Polynomial regression 343, 360
Population 33
Population ecology 18
Population genetics 15
Positional dispersion 269
Positive data 367
Positive direct correlation 307
Positive inverse correlation 308
Positive Skewness 292
Post hoc ANOVA Tests 476
Post hoc chi-square Tests 417
Post hoc t and z Tests 447
Post hoc tests 391
Power of a test 368, 376
PPS method 76
Precision rule 70
Predictive data 87
Primary data 34
Primary source data 83
Principal Component Analysis 187
Principles of tabulation 118
Probability and Non-probability
sampling 72
Probability distribution 211
Probability Sampling method 72

Probable error 387
Process coding 112
Processor Management 140
Psychological Statistics 14
Psychometrics 18
Purposive (=Deliberate) method 77
Q-Sort 64
Quadrate fixed area plots 78
Quadratic mean 241
Qualitative data 35, 87
Qualitative methods 89
Qualitative variables 34
Quality control 18
Quantitative data 35, 87
Quantitative genetics 15
Quantitative methods 89
Quantitative psychology 18
Quantitative variables 33
Quartile deviation 272
Quartiles 259
Quasi-random method 73
Questionnaires 83, 98
Quintiles 260
Quota sampling method 77
Radio telemetry 82
Random (indeterminate) error 452
Random Number Series 73
Random sampling error 71
Random sampling method 72
Random-effects model 453
Range 269
Rank Order Scaling 63
Rank Scale Questions 113
Ranked variables 34
Rating Scale Questions 113
Rating scales 98
Rating schedule 100
Ratio data 86
Ratio scale 62
Redundancy analysis 185
Regression 338
Regression line 339
Reinforcement Learning 22
Relational hypotheses 370
Relative cumulative frequency dis-
tribution 125
Relative frequency 208
Relative frequency distribution 125
Relative Frequency Histogram 130
Reliability engineering 18
Representation of a set 41, 42
Research Hypothesis 369
Research Methodology and Statis-
tics 24
Ridge regression 343
Rodger’s Method 476
RRS Method 73
Run 35
Sample 33
Sample Statistics 16
Sampling error 71
Sampling Frames 69
Sampling Theory 66
Sandler’s A-test 441
Scalar data 88
Scaling 60
Scatter plot chart 130, 132
Schedules 98
Scheffe’s test 392
SciPy 170
Scope of Statistics 19
Search data 88
Second Coefficient of Skewness
292
Second order correlation 309
Secondary data 34
Secondary source data 84
Second-order central tendency 234
Second-order partial correlation
321
Selective editing 109
Subject Index 565
Self-Supervised Learning 23
Semi-log graph 128
Semi-Supervised Learning 23
Sequential sampling method 77
Set theory 41
Sheppard’s Correction 299
SiMfiT 170
Simple arithmetic mean 235
Simple correlation 308
Simple geometric mean 242
Simple Hypothesis 369
Simple Random Sample 181
Simultaneous coding 112
Single item scale 64
Singular sense of Statistics 10
Skewness 291
Slope 337
Snowball sampling method 77
Social data 88
Social Science Statistics 15
Sorting of data 120
Sources of data 88
Spatial classification 117
Spearman rank correlation 194, 308
Sphericity 455
Spider chart 132
Spline chart 135
Spot mapping 78
SRS Method 72
SRSWOR method 72
SRSWR method 72
Stack bar diagram 129
Standard deviation 280
Standard error 288
Statistic 35
Statistical Computing 16
Statistical Error 51
Statistical finance 18
Statistical Genetics 15
Statistical Hypothesis 370
566 Statistics: A Modern Approach
Statistical Lab 171
Statistical learning 23
Statistical mechanics 18
Statistical physics 18
Statistical signal processing 19
Statistical thermodynamics 19
StatTools 168
Stem plot122, 130
Step deviation method 236
Steps in testing of hypothesis 372
Stepwise regression 337
Stock chart 133
Stratified sampling method 74
Stratum 35
Structural equation modelling 188,
193
Sub-coding 112
Supervised Learning 22
Survey schedule 100
Survey Statistics 15
Survival analysis 15
Systematic (determinate) error 54
Systematic Sample 73
Tabulation of Data 116
Temporal classification 117
Terminology used in Statistics 33
Test Statistics 16
Testing of hypotheses 366
The Facet Satisfaction Scale 61
The International System of Units
57
The modern form of the metric sys-
tem 58
The Sign Test 502
The US Customary System 59
The portmanteau test 413
Third-order central tendency 231
Three-way ANOVA 455
Three-way Table 120
Time plot 130
Time-series data 88
Tools of measurement 59
Transactional data 88
Transductive Learning 23
Transfer Learning 23
Trellis chart 134
Trimean 240
Trimmed mean 240
Trivariate Frequency Table 126
Truncated mean 240
t-test 422
Tukey median 241
Tukey’s HSD test 392, 448, 476
Tukey–Duckworth test 502
Two-dimensional array 156
Two-sample z-test432
Two-way ANOVA 455
Two-Way Table 120
Types of Correlation Coefficient
307
Types of data 83
Types of measurement 57
Types of probability distribution
211
Types of regression analysis 341
Types of sets 43
Types of table 119
UMPT 369
Unbiased character 68
Unbiased error 71
Unequal Class Interval 122
Ungrouped frequency distribution
124
Univariate analysis 176
Univariate data 87
Univariate Frequency Table 126
Univariate sample 33
Univariate Statistics 14
Unsupervised Learning 22
Value coding 112
Variables 33
Variance 286
Variants of Chi square test 408
Vector data 88
Venn chart 135
Verbal scale 64
Versus coding 112
Violin box plot 105
Visual search 78
Visualization of data 127
Vital Statistics 2, 14
Voluntary Sampling 78
Wald–Wolfowitz run test 510
Warner proposed sample model 76
Waterfall chart 133
Weighted arithmetic mean 239
Welch's t-test 371, 429
Wilcoxon rank-sum test 502
Wilcoxon signed-rank test 194, 425
Wilcoxon-Man-Whitney U Test
508
Yates correction 406
Yule's coefficient 292
Zero correlation 309
Zero order correlation 309
z-test 437
ϕ coefficient 308, 414