materials
Article
Structural Retrofitting of Corroded Reinforced Concrete Beams
Using Bamboo Fiber Laminate
Paul Oluwaseun Awoyera 1 , Tobechukwu Austin Nworgu 1 , Balaji Shanmugam 2 ,
Krishna Prakash Arunachalam 3 , Iman Mansouri 4 , Lenin Miguel Bendezu Romero 5 and Jong-Wan Hu 6,7, *






Citation: Awoyera, P.O.; Nworgu,
T.A.; Shanmugam, B.; Prakash
Arunachalam, K.; Mansouri, I.;
Romero, L.M.B.; Hu, J.-W. Structural
Retrofitting of Corroded Reinforced
Concrete Beams Using Bamboo Fiber
Laminate. Materials 2021, 14, 6711.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216711
Academic Editor: Alessandro P. Fantilli
Received: 2 October 2021
Accepted: 4 November 2021
Published: 8 November 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
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iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2021, 14, 6711. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216711
1 Department of Civil Engineering, Covenant University, Ota 112233, Nigeria;
paul.awoyera@covenantuniversity.edu.ng (P.O.A.); nworgu.tobechukwu@lmu.edu.ng (T.A.N.)
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai 638060, India;
er.shbalaji@gmail.com
3 Department of Civil Engineering, Anna University, Chennai 600025, India; krishnaprakash3191@gmail.com
4 Department of Civil Engineering, Birjand University of Technology, Birjand 9719866981, Iran;
mansouri@birjandut.ac.ir
5 Departamento Académico de Estructuras, Universidad Ricardo Palma, Lima 1801, Peru;
lenin.bendezu@urp.edu.pe
6 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Korea
7 Incheon Disaster Prevention Research Center, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Korea
* Correspondence: jongp24@inu.ac.kr
Abstract: Corrosion creates a significant degradation mechanism in reinforced concrete (RC) struc-
tures, which would require a high cost of maintenance and repair in affected buildings. However,
as the cost of repairing corrosion-damaged structures is high, it is therefore pertinent to develop
alternative eco-friendly and sustainable methods. In this study, structural retrofitting of corroded
reinforced concrete beams was performed using bamboo fiber laminate. Three reinforced normal
weight concrete beams were produced, two of which were exposed to laboratory simulated corrosion
medium, and the remaining one sample served as control. Upon completion of the corrosion cycle,
one of the two corroded beams was retrofitted externally with a prefabricated bamboo fiber laminate
by bonding the laminate to the beam surface with the aid of an epoxy resin. The three beams were
subjected to loading on a four-point ultimate testing machine, and the loads with corresponding
deflections were recorded through the entire load cycle of the beams. Finally, the mass loss of
embedded steel reinforcements was determined to measure the effect of corrosion on the beams and
the steel. The result showed that corroded beams strengthened with bamboo laminates increase
the bearing capacity. Using a single bamboo laminate in the tensile region of the corroded beam
increased the ultimate load capacity of the beam up to 21.1% than the corroded beam without retrofit.
It was demonstrated in this study that the use of bamboo fiber polymer for strengthening destressed
RC beams is a more sustainable approach than the conventional synthetic fibers.
Keywords: concrete repair; sustainable materials; corrosion control; fiber laminate; structural failure;
bamboo laminate
1. Introduction
Reinforced concrete is a widely used composite construction material that employs
steel usage due to its remarkable tensile properties that help in the overall performance
of the composite material. Steel has strong tensile properties, which allows it to be used
in reinforced concrete and makes its relationship with concrete a mutually beneficial one.
However, steel corrosion compromises this relationship and threatens to negatively change
this relationship [1]. Steel is a thermodynamically unstable human-made occurring metal
that deteriorates to return itself to a more stable natural state via corrosion. Steel corrosion
in RC structures causes significant losses to a nation’s economy. Losses of 4–5% of the
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2021, 14, 6711 2 of 15

gross national product (GNP) of industrial countries have been reported to have been lost
dealing with corrosion costs [2,3].
Corrosion is launched on RC structures when damaging elements to steel such as
CO2 and chlorine make their way to the steel reinforcement. Corrosion induces many
concrete damages such as spalling, cracking, debonding; delamination; reduction of the
yield, ductility, and steel reinforcement cross-sectional area; and premature failure [1,4].
Due to the high alkalinity of concrete, embedded steel is prevented from corrosion by
forming a thin passive oxide film (Fe2 O3 ) around the reinforcing steel. However, corrosive
agents (CO2 and chlorine) eliminate the oxide film by penetrating through the voids formed
in the concrete by either lowering the PH value of the concrete or attacking the oxide film.
This allows the embedded steel to contact moisture and oxygen, consequently causing the
steel to corrode [5,6].
Due to the need to keep structures safe and functional from structural deterioration,
especially corrosion, various strengthening, and retrofitting techniques have arisen to solve
such problems. The usage of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites to strengthen
and reinforce structural elements has become increasingly popular over recent years
over traditional strengthening methods (post-tensioning, section enlargement, tensile
reinforcement of reinforced concrete elements using steel plate bonding, use of cement grout
or ferro-cement, and employing shotcrete) [7]. FRPs are utilized as rebar reinforcement and
external bond reinforcement for concrete, steel, masonry, and timber structures [8,9]. FRPs
are composite materials consisting of high tensile strength fibers attached in a polymer
resin matrix to a concrete surface with the help of epoxy resins and have several advantages
that are responsible for their rapid growth in the construction industry, such as their light-
weight, high strength-weight ratio, good fatigue resistance, high specific tensile strength,
high corrosion resistance, and ease of application [8,10].
Synthetic or artificial fibers such as carbon, aramid, and glass, amongst many, are the
most widely used fibers employed as FRP reinforcements in strengthening and retrofitting
concrete structures [11]. The most popular amongst synthetic fibers are carbon fiber and
is most commonly mentioned and used in previous studies and retrofitting applications.
Its high tensile strength combined with a comparable elasticity modulus to steel gives
this fiber its position amongst researchers and engineers [11,12]. Glass fiber is another
popularly used fiber in retrofitting applications, although, its lower cost, high deforma-
bility, break resistance, and good impact properties compared to CFRP make it in good
demand in strengthening and retrofitting applications. It has lower tensile strength and
elasticity modulus when compared with CFRP [11,13]. Aramid fibers are also popular with
advantages such as high modulus of elasticity, great dimensional stability, no melting point,
good fatigue behavior, high electrical, and corrosion resistance [14,15]. Synthetic fibers
have been reported to be hazardous to human health due to airborne fiber particles that are
released during their production and handling. A common health issue is a dermatitis that
is suffered by workers involved with glass fiber application and products. In addition, syn-
thetic fibers are not easily reusable, recyclable, biodegradable after their service life, readily
available, especially in rural regions and third world countries, and sustainable [11,16].
These problems have led to the exploration of viable alternatives of natural and re-
newable resources to replace these materials that are not environmentally friendly. Natural
fibers are good substitutes to synthetic fiber composites, especially in strengthening and
retrofitting materials in the construction industry [16]. The employment of natural fibers as
composites has been in use for a couple of years. They include kenaf, grass reeds, wood
fiber, wheat, oats, barley, hemp, flax, jute, rice husks, rye, sugar cane, bamboo Kane, straw,
ramie, sisal, Raphia, etc. [17]. Another investigation [18] demonstrated that hybridization
of natural fibers with steel fiber could offer higher mechanical performance of composite.
Fabrication of laminate using kenaf, jute, and jute rope fibers for structural application has
also been reported [16]. The shear strength of the developed laminate was comparable to
that of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer. It has also been researched that long natural fibers
exhibit better performance like the synthetic fibers.
Materials 2021, 14, 6711 3 of 15

Bamboo is an adequate option amongst natural fiber as a composite in strengthening

and retrofitting concrete elements. Its high tensile strength; cheaper cost compared to CFRP,
wood, and steel; rapid growth; and mechanical and durability properties are some of the
characteristics that are making this plant fiber gain increasing interest with researchers and
engineers [19–23].
Some past studies have investigated the use of natural fibers as a composite to
strengthen reinforced concrete (RC) beams in flexure and shear [24–27]. However, studies
covering the use of bamboo as a fiber or laminate in strengthening and retrofitting RC
concrete beams have not been overly reported. For instance, Chin et al. [21] did a study
on the potential of using bamboo fiber composite plate to strengthen RC beams in flexure.
In the study, six RC beams were cast and tested, which included two control beams, two
un-strengthened beams, and two strengthened beams, followed by measuring the tensile
and flexural strength of BFCP. Using the four-point bending test, all the beams were tested
to failure, and beams strengthened with BFCP were found to exhibit greater structural
capacity strength compared to the un-strengthened beams. Chin et al. [22] investigated
the structural behavior of RC beams that were with and without openings strengthened
externally with bamboo fiber-reinforced composite (BFRC) plates, both in shear and flexure.
The investigations showed that the openings affected the original beam capacity negatively,
and strengthening of RC beams with epoxy-based BFRC plates increased its capacity back
to 98% of the control beam. The study also showed that the BFRC plates diverted crack
formation from the strengthened section and enhanced the beam’s ductility.
Thus, the use of bamboo can be seen as a natural solution to the structural performance
of concrete. In the current study, bamboo fiber laminate is being used to strengthen the
structural beam exposed to corrosion in a laboratory simulated corrosive medium. In this
study, a composite material of epoxy resin reinforced with long unidirectional bamboo
fibers, to be used to strengthen corroded RC beams in flexure, was developed. A tensile
test was performed on the fabricated composite to determine its tensile strength following
the ASTM standards. The strengthening extent of the bamboo fiber-reinforced polymer
(BFRP) laminate on RC beam was determined experimentally by carrying out a four-point
bending test on a BFRP-strengthened RC beam, with reference to an un-strengthened beam.
Comparisons were drawn between the experimental results of both the un-strengthened
and strengthened beams in terms of the load versus deflection plot. Assumptions adopted
in this study were presented. The results and outcome of this research are expected to serve
as a guide to concrete designers and constructors for solving problems relating to concrete
member corrosion in practice.

Significance of the Study

The corrosion phenomenon causes a greater volume of the rust in concrete composite;
thus, it results in a most detrimental effect of cracking and spalling of the concrete cover
due to tensile stresses developing [28,29]. Along with the aesthetics being affected, the
mechanical performance and load capacity are also adversely affected by cracking. Litera-
ture reports show that, as the cracks become bigger, water permeation increases, allowing
aggressive agents access to the reinforcements. The aggressive agents initiate the corrosion
process with water and oxygen [30]. For steel corrosion to occur, certain conditions must
be met: An electrolyte, a metallic connection, and a minimum of two steel locations of the
steel rebar at different energy levels.
The use of the hybrid technique between near surface mount (NSM) and the external
bond (EB) technique has shown to mitigate disadvantages of each technique as mentioned
in the literature review, making it more desirable. Yet, concerning FRP composites, espe-
cially with natural fibers, limited research explores this technique. Though minimal studies
exist relating to the use of strengthening techniques employed retrofitting beams with
bamboo fiber, the studies which deal with it use the EB technique due to ease of use and
lower costs.
Materials 2021, 14, 6711 4 of 15

Bamboo as a reinforcing material is utilized in various forms such as mats, fibers,

powder, and strips, with strips shown to have the better cohesive ability on structural
members. Yet, most studies explore bamboo as a reinforcing material in retrofitting struc-
tural members, primarily as fibers [21,22] and few to none on strips. However, numerous
studies covered bamboo fibers [31–33].

2. Materials and Methods

The experimental study constituted casting three reinforced concrete (RC) beams. The
first beam was the control beam, the second beam was corroded, while the third beam
was corroded and retrofitted with a single bamboo laminate at the tensile underside of the
third beam. The dimensions of all the specimens were identical. Experimental data on
deflection and the load of each beam were observed and recorded. The disparity in yield,
and ultimate load capacity was investigated.
Two-part epoxy and hardener served as the polymer matrix component in the BFRP
laminate. Epikote 816 resin manufactured by Hexion, London, United Kingdom, and
Epikure F205 (manufactured by Kian Resin Chemical Co., Birjand, Iran) mixed with a 2:1
ratio by weight according to the manufacturer’s specification were utilized. Sikadur 30 LP
adhesive manufactured by SIKA corporation, New Jersey, USA, was used to bond the BFRP
laminate to the RC beam. The Sikadur adhesive was prepared by blending its two parts
(resin and hardener) with a 2:1 ratio. Table 1 shows the mechanical properties of Sikadur
30 LP cured as provided by the manufacturer. As illustrated in Figure 1, the process of
developing bamboo fiber laminate entails: Dividing fibers, applications of adhesives on
fibers, compressing fibers to the required thickness. The properties of the bamboo fiber are:
tensile strength (520 MPa), elongation (2.3%), Young’s modulus (32 GPa), moisture content
(7.79 wt.%), density(1.4 g/cm3 ), and moisture absorbency (8.7%).

Table 1. Mechanical properties of Sikadur 30 LP cured at 25 ◦ C.

Property Value
Compressive strength >85 MPa
Tensile strength 14–17 MPa
Tensile modulus ~10 GPa
Flexural strength 20–25 MPa
Tensile adhesion strength (concrete) >4 MPa
Pot life ~60 min
Curing time 7 days

The developed bamboo laminate was fabricated with both 35% and 45% fiber contents
by mass. The tensile strengths are as follows—35% fiber laminate (72.8 MPa) and 45% fiber
laminate (99.3 MPa).
The fabricated bamboo fiber laminate is shown in Figure 2. The contact surfaces
of both the RC beam and the bamboo laminate were roughened mechanically with a
hand grinder to ensure proper adhesion and prevent premature debonding. A coat of
adhesive was applied on the surface of the beam, after which the laminate was placed on
the adhesive, and pressure was applied to it for about 24 h.
FRP wrapping on the beam was a one-sided wrap and continuous along the span of
the length of the beam.
Materials 2021, 14,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 55 of
of 15
15

Figure 1. Process of fabricating bamboo fiber laminate.

The fabricated bamboo fiber laminate is shown in Figure 2. The contact surfaces of
both the RC beam and the bamboo laminate were roughened mechanically with a hand
grinder to ensure proper adhesion and prevent premature debonding. A coat of adhesive
was applied on the surface of the beam, after which the laminate was placed on the adhe-
sive, and pressure was applied to it for about 24 h.
FRP wrapping on the beam was a one-sided wrap and continuous along the span of
Figure 1.
1. Process
Process of
of fabricating bamboo fiber laminate.
Figure
the length of the beam. fabricating bamboo fiber laminate.
The fabricated bamboo fiber laminate is shown in Figure 2. The contact surfaces of
both the RC beam and the bamboo laminate were roughened mechanically with a hand
grinder to ensure proper adhesion and prevent premature debonding. A coat of adhesive
was applied on the surface of the beam, after which the laminate was placed on the adhe-
sive, and pressure was applied to it for about 24 h.
FRP wrapping on the beam was a one-sided wrap and continuous along the span of
the length of the beam.

Figure
Figure2.
2. Fabricated bamboolaminate.
Fabricated bamboo laminate.

Timber
Timberformworks
formworks were fabricated
fabricatedusing
usingplywood
plywoodsheets.
sheets. After
After thethe mold
mold fabrication,
fabrication,
a low-density
a low-densitypolymer
polymer termed nylon was
termed nylon wasapplied
appliedtotothe
themold
mold walls
walls to to avoid
avoid its adhesion
its adhesion
withcured
with curedconcrete.
concrete. The
The steel
steel bars were
were then
thenbe
becut
cuttotothe required
the required length, bent
length, to the
bent to the
required shape, then tied together, forming the reinforcement cage. The reinforcement
cage was then be placed inside the timber mold, ensuring that the desired concrete cover is
achieved. TheFigure 2. Fabricated
prepared concrete bamboo laminate.
was then poured into the mold and allowed to set. After
24 h, the three beams were demolded and placed in a curing tank for 28 days at 20 ◦ C.
Timber formworks
The concrete employed to were
castfabricated
the beamusing plywood
specimens wassheets. After
also used to the
castmold fabrication,
three—150 mm
a low-density
concrete cube polymer
specimens termed nylon was
to determine its applied to the mold walls
28-day compressive to avoid
strength baseditson
adhesion
the BS
with cured concrete. The steel bars were then be cut to the required length, bent to the
 cage was then be placed inside the timber mold, ensuring that the desired concrete cover
is achieved. The prepared concrete was then poured into the mold and allowed to set
After 24 h, the three beams were demolded and placed in a curing tank for 28 days at 20
°C. The concrete employed to cast the beam specimens was also used to cast three—150
Materials 2021, 14, 6711 6 of 15
mm concrete cube specimens to determine its 28-day compressive strength based on the
BS EN, 12390-3 [35] procedures. The study adopted a mix proportion for a nominal mix
of grade M25 concrete representing 1:1:3 (one part cement, one part sand, and three parts
EN,granite)
of 12390-3 with
[34] procedures. The study
a water-cement adopted
(W/C) a mix
ratio of 0.6.proportion for amixing
The concrete nominal mixproduction
and of
grade M25 concrete representing 1:1:3 (one part cement, one part sand, and three parts
followed standard procedures [36].
of granite) with a water-cement (W/C) ratio of 0.6. The concrete mixing and production
followed standard procedures [35].
Experimental Program
Experimental Program
Each rectangular beam was 300 mm × 200 mm in cross-section and 1200 mm long
Each rectangular
The steel reinforcement beam was 300 of
consisted mmtwo× 200
highmm in cross-section
yield 16 mm diameterand 1200
steelmm long.
bars at the bot-
The steel reinforcement consisted of two high yield 16 mm diameter steel bars
tom and two 12 mm diameter bars at the top. The shear reinforcements consisted of 10 at the bottom
and two 12 mm diameter bars at the top. The shear reinforcements consisted of 10 mm
mm diameter bars 150 mm center to center. The clear concrete cover was 25 mm on al
diameter bars 150 mm center to center. The clear concrete cover was 25 mm on all sides of
sides of the beam specimens. The second and third beams had their reinforcements pro-
the beam specimens. The second and third beams had their reinforcements protruded out
truded out of to
of the concrete the concrete
establish to establish
electrical electrical
connections connections
to induce tocorrosion.
accelerated induce accelerated
A section corro
sion.
of the A section
beam of the
showing beam showing
reinforcement reinforcement
details is presented in details
Figureis3.presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Beam reinforcement details.

Two beams Figure

were3. Beam reinforcement
immersed details.
to 75% of their length in a tank containing 6% of industrial
salt solution (NaCl), which was subjected to wet and dry cycles (three weeks wet and
Two dry
one week beams were immersed
alternately to 75%
in total). This of their
method length in a tank
is a combination containing
of both 6% of indus
the impressed
trial salttechnique
current solution and
(NaCl), which
alternate was subjected
wetting and drying to technique.
wet and dryThecycles
beams(three
were weeks
subject wet and
one week dry
to a constant alternately
electric currentin total).
that This method
was applied during isthea wetting
combination
period.ofThe
both the impressed
mass-loss
rate of tensile bars is regarded as corrosion rate and will be estimated
current technique and alternate wetting and drying technique. The beams were employing usingsubject to
aFaraday’s
constantlaw. The equation
electric current expressing mass loss
that was applied is represented
during by: period. The mass-loss rate
the wetting
of tensile bars is regarded as corrosion rate
atI and will be estimated employing using Fara-
m = loss is represented by:
day’s law. The equation expressing mass (1)
[nF ]

where m = mass loss, a = atomic mass of iron=(55.85 gr), t = corrosion process time, (1)
I = corrosion current, n = reacting electrode valence[ for]the material (which for steel is 2),
and F = m
where faraday’s
= massconstant
loss, a =(96,500 C/mol).
atomic mass Figures
of iron4(55.85
and 5 show
gr), tthe schematic of
= corrosion acceler-time, I =
process
ated corrosion set-up and simulated corrosion set-up in the laboratory, respectively.
corrosion current, n = reacting electrode valence for the material (which for steel is 2), and
All the specimens were tested in a 50 tons universal testing machine (UTM), manufac-
F = faraday’s
tured by Dongguanconstant (96,500
HongTuo C/mol). Co.,Ltd.,
Instrument Figures 4GuangDong,
and 5 showChina.
the schematic of accelerated
After the 28-day
corrosion
curing at 20 set-up and
◦ C was simulated
done, corrosion
the beams set-up in
were washed, the
and laboratory,
their respectively.
surface was cleaned and
checked for cracks. The second and third beams were then immersed about 2/3 of a 200 L
drum containing 0.6 mol NaCl solution, which was then left for a week. The tensile rein-
forcements served as the connecting point for the anode, while an external reinforcement
served as the cathode. Alternate wetting and drying were also used in inducing accelerated
corrosion to save energy costs for three weeks with two weeks of wetting and a week
of drying. Figure 6 presents a corroded beam and the process of gluing the laminate to
its surface.
 Materials
Materials 2021,
2021, 14,14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
6711 7 7ofof
15 15
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 1

Figure 4. Schematic ofFigure

accelerated corrosion set-up.
Figure 4. Schematic4.ofSchematic of accelerated
accelerated corrosion set-up.
corrosion set-up.

Figure 5. Simulated corrosion set-up in the laboratory.

Figure 5. Simulated corrosion set-up in the laboratory.
Figure 5. Simulated All
corrosion set-up in the
the specimens werelaboratory.
tested in a 50 tons universal testing machine (UTM), manu
factured by Dongguan HongTuo Instrument Co.,Ltd., GuangDong, China. After the 28
All thetesting,
During specimens theatwere
beams tested
were inmounted
a 50 tonson universal testing machine (UTM), manu-
day curing 20 °C was done, the beams steel supports
were washed, andwith a surface
their clear span
was ofcleaned and
factured by Dongguan
1050 mm. Thechecked
load was HongTuo Instrument Co.,Ltd., GuangDong, China. After the 28-
for then applied
cracks. with and
The second a 50third
ton UTM
beamsatwere1 ton
thenincrements.
immersed about The total
2/3 of a 200 L
day curing
applied load at
was 20a°C
drum
was done, thethe
combination
containing 0.6ofmol
beams were
weight
NaCl ofwashed,
the which
solution,
and
spreader their
wasbeam
surface
andfor
then left thewas
a load
cleaned
week.applied
and
The tensile rein
checked for
from the UTM. cracks. The second
Three dialserved
forcements gauges and
as werethird beams
placed below
the connecting were
pointthe then
forbeam immersed
at thewhile
the anode, about
midspan 2/3 of
and below
an external a 200 L
reinforcemen
drum containing
the load application 0.6
served as mol
points NaCl solution,
to monitor
the cathode. which
the beam’s
Alternate was
wetting then left
deflections.
and drying for a week.
Deflections
were also usedThe
werein tensile
recorded rein-
inducing acceler
forcements
after each load served
ated as the connecting
increment.
corrosion Figure
to 7a point
save energyshows for
coststhetheschematic
for anode,
three while
weeks setup,
withantwo
external
Figure
weeks 7breinforcement
ofshows
wetting theand a wee
served asarrangement
schematic the
of cathode. ofAlternate
drying. Figure wetting
the testing
6 presents and drying
equipment,
a corroded and
beam were
the also
process
and used inofinducing
of testing
the process a beam
gluing theacceler-
using
laminate to it
ated corrosion
ultimate testing to save energy
machine
surface. costs for
is presented in three
Figureweeks
8. with two weeks of wetting and a week
of drying. FigureDuring
6 presents a corroded
testing, the beams beam
wereand the process
mounted of supports
on steel gluing the withlaminate
a clear to its of 105
span
surface. mm. The load was then applied with a 50 ton UTM at 1 ton increments. The total applied
During testing, the beams were mounted on steel supports with a clear span of 1050
mm. The load was then applied with a 50 ton UTM at 1 ton increments. The total applied
 load was a combination of the weight of the spreader beam and the load applied from the
load was a combination of the weight of the spreader beam and the load applied from the
UTM. Three dial gauges were placed below the beam at the midspan and below the load
UTM. Three dial gauges were placed below the beam at the midspan and below the load
application points to monitor the beam’s deflections. Deflections were recorded after each
application points to monitor the beam’s deflections. Deflections were recorded after each
Materials 2021, 14, 6711 load increment. Figure 7a shows the schematic setup, Figure 7b shows the schematic 8 of 15ar-
load increment. Figure 7a shows the schematic setup, Figure 7b shows the schematic ar-
rangement of the testing equipment, and the process of testing a beam using ultimate test-
rangement of the testing equipment, and the process of testing a beam using ultimate test-
ing machine is presented in Figure 8.
ing machine is presented in Figure 8.

Figure 6. Bonding of bamboo laminate to the surface of the corroded beam.

Figure6.6.Bonding
Figure Bondingofofbamboo
bamboolaminate
laminatetotothe
thesurface
surfaceofofthe
thecorroded
corrodedbeam.
beam.

Figure 7. (a)Loading
Loading details
details of bending test on the control and corroded beam; (b) (b)
schematic ar-
Figure7.7. (a) Loading
Figure details ofofbending
bendingtest
test
onon
thethe control
control andand corroded
corroded beam;
beam; schematic
(b) schematic ar-
rangement of testing equipment.
arrangement
rangement of oftesting
testingequipment.
equipment.
Materials 2021, 14, 6711 9 of 15
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

Figure 8. Testing of a beam using an ultimate testing machine.

Figure 8. Testing of a beam using an ultimate testing machine.

3.3.Results
Resultsand andDiscussion
Discussion
Theultimate
The ultimateload-carrying
load-carryingcapacity
capacityofofallallthe
thebeams
beamsand andthethenature
natureofofthe
thefailure
failureare
are
given in Table 2. It shows that for the corroded un-strengthened beam, its deflection isis
given in Table 2. It shows that for the corroded un-strengthened beam, its deflection
18.6mm,
18.6 mm,whichwhichisislesslessthan
thanthethecontrol
controlbeam.
beam.The Theretrofitted
retrofittedororstrengthened
strengthenedcorroded
corroded
beamhas
beam hasa adeflection
deflectionofof22.7 22.7mm,
mm,which
whichisisless
lessthan
thanthethecontrol
controlbeambeambutbuthigher
higherthan
thanthethe
corrodedun-strengthened
corroded un-strengthenedbeam. beam.TheThemargin
marginofofstructural
structuralcapacity
capacitydemonstrated
demonstratedbybythe the
retrofitted
retrofittedcorroded
corroded member
member was
wasevidence
evidencethatthatbamboo
bamboolaminate
laminatehas hassomewhat
somewhatbeneficial
beneficial
effect
effectininretrofitting
retrofittingdistressed
distressed members.
members.AsAssuch, such,the
theservice
servicelife
lifeofofweak
weakmembers
memberscan canbebe
extended with natural materials.
extended with natural materials.
Table 2 summarizes the results of the experiments corresponding to the beam sam-
Table
ples2.andComparisons between maximum
loading schemes: Load at the loadfirst
and crack
deflections.
(K), flexural load at the first crack (F)
(occurring
Beam at the tension
K face),
F maximum
Fu load
Dexp (Fu), the increase
δmax Ddispl of the bearing
Nature capacity
of
due to
Sampleslaminate application
(kN) (kN) (Dexp),
(kN) the mid-span
(%) deflection
(mm) at maximum
(%) load δmax, and
Failure
the decrease of deflection compared to the level of the control beam (Ddispl).
Control beam 84 98 180.4 - 22.93 0 Flexure failing
Corroded
Table un-
2. Comparisons between maximum load and deflections.
strengthened 59 68 113.76 - 18.6 18.8 Flexure failure
beam Nature of
Beam Samples K (kN) F (kN) Fu (kN) Dexp (%) δmax (mm) Ddispl (%)
Retrofitted Failure
Interfacial crack
68.6 98 144.16 26.7 22.7 1
corroded beam debonding
Flexure
Control beam 84 98 180.4 - 22.93 0
failing
Corroded un-
Table 2 summarizes the results of the experiments corresponding to the beam samples
Flexure
and strengthened 59 at the68
loading schemes: Load 113.76
first crack - load at18.6
(K), flexural 18.8 (F) (occurring
the first crack
failure
at the tension
beamface), maximum load (Fu), the increase of the bearing capacity due to laminate
application (Dexp), the mid-span deflection at maximum load δmax, and the decrease of
Interfacial
Retrofitted
deflection compared to68.6
the level 98
of the control beam (Ddispl).
144.16 26.7 22.7 1 crack
corroded beam
debonding
3.1. Load-Deflection
3.1.1. Control Beam
The load-deflection curve for the control beam includes a linear response of load in the
range between 65–80 kN. The first apparent crack was seen at a load of 84 kN. After 120 kN,
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15

3.1. Load-Deflection
Materials 2021, 14, 6711 10 of 15
3.1.1. Control Beam
The load-deflection curve for the control beam includes a linear response of load in
the range between 65–80 kN. The first apparent crack was seen at a load of 84 kN. After
flexural
120 kN, load cracks
flexural showed
load cracksand widened
showed and as loadingasincreased.
widened The maximum
loading increased. load was
The maximum
180.4 kN, 180.4
load was as shown in shown
kN, as Figure 9.
in The control
Figure 9. The beam
controlshowed
beamthe most ductility
showed the most as the steel
ductility as
reinforcements inside the beam was not corroded and were in good
the steel reinforcements inside the beam was not corroded and were in good condition condition after the
beam wasbeam
after the openedwasand the steel
opened andremoved
the steel for corrosion
removed for mass loss calculation.
corrosion The deflection
mass loss calculation. The
at
deflection at the three points of measurement (dial gauges) were highest for beam.
the three points of measurement (dial gauges) were highest for the control The
the control
control
beam. Thebeam had some
control beammoment
had somecapacity
moment beyond the yield
capacity beyondpoint,thebut thispoint,
yield capacity
butwasthisnot
ca-
detected
pacity wasfromnotthe experiment,
detected as the
from the UTM used
experiment, aswas
the graded
UTM used in 1 was
ton (9.8 kN) in
graded increments.
1 ton (9.8
From the load-deflection
kN) increments. From the curve, there are three
load-deflection phases
curve, therefor the
are beam.
three In thefor
phases first
thephase,
beam.theIn
control beam’s stiffness is maintained. In the second phase, where the
the first phase, the control beam’s stiffness is maintained. In the second phase, where beam cracks see the
the
stiffness of thesee
beam cracks beamthe reduce,
stiffnesswhile at the
of the beam lastreduce,
stage, the mid-span
while at the deflection
last stage,increases from
the mid-span
12.9–21.3 mm with an increase of 11 kN of load force.
deflection increases from 12.9–21.3 mm with an increase of 11 kN of load force.

200

180

160

140

120
Force (kN)

100 Deflection A (mm)

80 Deflection B (mm)
Deflection C (mm)
60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Deflection (mm)

Figure 9. Load deflection plot for control beam.

Figure 9. Load deflection plot for control beam.

3.1.2. Corroded
3.1.2. Corroded Un-Strengthened
Un-Strengthened Beam Beam
Figure 10
Figure 10 shows
shows the the load
load deflection
deflection plot
plot for
forcorroded
corrodedun-strengthened
un-strengthened beam.beam. The
The
same pattern of curve was also shown for the corroded beam as the control.
same pattern of curve was also shown for the corroded beam as the control. The difference The difference
was shown
was shown toto be
be that
that its
its ranges
ranges ofof value
value been
been lesser
lesser than
than the
the corroded
corroded beam.
beam. This
This can
can bebe
attributed to
attributed to the
the corrosion
corrosion of of the
the reinforcement
reinforcement as as this
this reduced
reduced the
the deflection
deflection capacity
capacity and
and
the yield.
the yield. Here
Here the
the first
first sign
sign of
of crack
crack was
was at
at 59
59 kN.
kN. Flexural
Flexural crack
crack followed
followed subsequently
subsequently
after 68
after 68 kN.
kN. After
After the
the maximum
maximum load, load, the
the beam
beam behavior
behavior could
could not
not be
be observed
observed as as the
the
UTM machine gauge returns back to zero after maximum load, hence
UTM machine gauge returns back to zero after maximum load, hence the reason for the the reason for the
graph curve stopping at peak peak level.
level. The maximum load was observed observed to to be
be at
at 113.76
113.76 kN.
kN.
Materials 2021, 14, 6711 11 of 15
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

120
120
100
100
80
(kN) (kN)

80
60 Deflection A (mm)
ForceForce

60 B (mm)
Deflection A
40
C (mm)
Deflection B
40
20 Deflection C (mm)

20
0
0 5 10 15 20
0
0 5
Deflection
10
(mm) 15 20
Deflection (mm)
Figure 10. Load deflection plot for corroded un-strengthened beam.
Figure 10. Load deflection plot for corroded un-strengthened beam.
Figure 10. Load deflection plot for corroded un-strengthened beam.
3.1.3. Retrofitted Corroded Beam
3.1.3. Retrofitted Corroded Beam
3.1.3.Figure 11 shows
Retrofitted the load
Corroded deflection plot for bamboo laminate corroded beam. Using
Beam
Figure 11 shows the load deflection plot for bamboo laminate corroded beam. Using
a single bamboo laminate in the tensile regionforincreased the beamcorroded
capacity beam.
up to Using
21.1%
a single bamboo laminate in the tensile plot
Figure 11 shows the load deflection region bamboo
increased laminate
the beam capacity up to 21.1%
greater than the corroded beam. Though 20% lesser than the control beam, this can be
a singlethan
greater bamboo laminate in
the corroded the tensile
beam. Though region
20%increased
lesser than thethe
beam capacity
control up to
beam, 21.1%
this can be
attributed
greater to the
than mass loss of the
corroded steelThough
beam. rebar. The
20% curve
lesser repeated
than the the samebeam,
control pattern with
this canthis
bethis
attributed
sample,
to
with
mass
the
loss
first
of the
appearance
steel
of
rebar.
a crack
The curve
appearing
repeated
at 68.6 kN.
the
The
same pattern
flexural crack
with
began
attributed
sample, to mass
withafter
the 98 loss
first of the
appearance steel rebar. The curve
of a crack appearing repeated
at 68.6 kN.the same
The pattern with this
flexuraldeflections
crack began
appearing
sample, with kN,
the98first and the maximum
appearance of a crackload is at 144.16
appearing at 68.6kN.kN.The
Themid-span
flexural crack began
appearing after
for the laminate kN,
sample and the
werethe maximum
also bigger when load is at
compared 144.16
to kN.kN. The
the corroded mid-span deflections
un-strengthened
appearing
for after
the laminate 98 kN,
sample and maximum
weredeflection
also bigger load is at
when compared144.16 to theThe mid-span
corroded deflections
sample, with the mid-span at maximum (22.7 kN) being slightlyun-strengthened
similar to the
for the laminate
sample, with the sample
mid-span weredeflection
also biggeratwhen compared
maximum (22.7 tokN)
the corroded
being un-strengthened
slightly similar to the
control beam (22.93 kN).
sample, with the mid-span deflection at maximum (22.7 kN) being slightly similar to the
control beam (22.93 kN).
control beam (22.93 kN).
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
(kN) (kN)

100
80 Deflection A (mm)
LoadLoad

80 Deflection A
B (mm)
60
Deflection B
C (mm)
60
40 Deflection C (mm)

40
20
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
0 5 Deflection
10 (mm)
15 20 25
Deflection (mm)
Figure 11. Load deflection plot for bamboo laminate corroded beam.
Figure 11. Load deflection plot for bamboo laminate corroded beam.
Figure 11. Load deflection plot for bamboo laminate corroded beam.
 Evidence of corrosion on beams is presented in Figure 12. After the beam had under-
gone flexural testing, the beam was demolished, and three samples each for both the 16
Materials 2021, 14, 6711 and 12 mm rebar were removed, cut to a length of 550 mm, and then weighed. This 12 of was
15
done for the three beam samples.
However, due to combining two methods of corrosion acceleration process, namely
cyclic wet and drying with the impressed current technique, the mass loss was derived by
Evidence of corrosion on beams is presented in Figure 12. After the beam had under-
comparing the final weight or mass of the tensile steel with the original weight of the steel.
gone flexural testing, the beam was demolished, and three samples each for both the 16
The control beam was used as a reference and the weight were compared to determine
and 12 mm rebar were removed, cut to a length of 550 mm, and then weighed. This was
the mass loss. Weight variation and mass loss in embedded reinforcement bars in beams
done for the three beam samples.
is presented in Table 3, and Table 4 shows the statistical description of mass loss data.

Figure
Figure 12.12. Evidence
Evidence ofof corrosion
corrosion onon beams:
beams: (a)(a)
AtAt early
early stage;
stage; (b)(b)
atat maturity.
maturity.

Table 3. Steel reinforcement

However, sampletwo
due to combining weight and mass
methods loss.
of corrosion acceleration process, namely
cyclic wet and drying with the impressed current technique, the mass loss was derived by
Mass Loss of
comparing the final weight Sample Diameter
or mass Samplesteel
of the tensile Weight Sample
with the Weight
original weight of the steel.
Sample Name Tensile Steel
The control beam was used as(mm) a reference and the weight wereAverage
(Kg) compared to determine the
(Kg)
(%)
mass loss. Weight variation and mass loss in embedded reinforcement bars in beams is
Control in
presented beam
Tablerebar
3, and Table 4 shows the statistical description of mass loss data.
12 0.35 0
12 weight and mass
Table 3. Steel reinforcement sample 0.35loss. 0.35 0
12 0.35 0
Sample Diameter Sample Weight Sample Weight Mass Loss of Tensile
Sample Name
(mm) (Kg)16 0.55 (Kg)
Average Steel (%) 0
16 0.55 0.55 0
Control beam rebar
16 0.55 0
12 0.35 0
Corroded beam un-
12 0.35 0.35 0
strengthened with
12
bamboo laminate 0.35 0
16 0.5512 0.34 0 2.86
16 0.5512 0.33
0.55 0.33 0 5.71
16 0.5512 0.32 0 8.57
Corroded beam
16 0.53 3.64
0.53
un-strengthened with 16 0.53 3.64
bamboo laminate
Materials 2021, 14, 6711 13 of 15

Table 3. Cont.

Sample Diameter Sample Weight Sample Weight Mass Loss of Tensile

Sample Name
(mm) (Kg) Average (Kg) Steel (%)
12 0.34 2.86
12 0.33 0.33 5.71
12 0.32 8.57
16 0.53 3.64
16 0.53 0.53 3.64
16 0.54 1.82
Corroded beam rebar
strengthened with
bamboo laminate
12 0.34 2.86
12 0.33 0.33 5.71
12 032 8.57
16 0.54 1.82
16 0.53 0.53 3.64
16 0.53 3.64

Table 4. Statistical analysis of mass loss data.

Standard
N Total Mean Sum Minimum Median Maximum
Deviation
A 18 2.91556 2.81876 52.48 0 2.86 8.57

3.2. General Comparative View of the Tested Beam Samples

As shown in the results, the beam laminate sample performed slightly better than the
corroded beam in terms of strength and deflection but less than the control beam. Clearly,
the condition of the steel has a significant role in the sample’s strength and deflections.
The bamboo laminate was responsible for the corroded retrofitted beam’s strength and
deflection increase, as can be deduced from the results.

3.3. Comparisons to Parallel Research

Most research on retrofitted beams dealt with various failure modes from flexural
failure, concrete cover separation, and interfacial debonding [25,36]. Chin et al. [22] research
on the strengthening of RC beams in flexure with bamboo plates showed that retrofitting
increased the beam’s original capacity up to 98% of the control beam. Additionally, the
research showed that the bamboo plates managed to alleviate and change the failure
mode from brittle to more ductile behavior. This ductile behavior was also observed for
the corroded retrofitted beam as nearly as ductile as the control beam. Due to the UTM
machine dial gauge inability to crush beyond maximum load, the failure mode of the
retrofitted beam could not be observed with absolute certainty. However, the signs of
interfacial crack debonding were seen for the retrofitted beam as the bamboo laminate had
a rupture in its middle.
Hafizah et al. [25] research also showed that retrofitting beams with natural fibers
increases beam deflection and stiffness, which is similar to the findings by Chin et al. [22].
This was confirmed by this research also, as deflections for the corroded retrofitted beams
increased by 22% compared to the un-strengthened corroded beam.
Most beams designed to fail in flexure fail in flexure bending, except for retrofitted
beams which exhibit a totally different failure mode, mostly cover debonding [22,25].
Hwoever, this research was different in terms of its retrofitted beam failure mode. It
Materials 2021, 14, 6711 14 of 15

failed by interfacial cracking debonding, which could result from the corrosion of the
steel reinforcements.
The level of corrosion-induced for 33 days in this research was significantly lower
compared to the level of corrosion employed by Banu et al. [3], whose research showed that
33 days of the corrosion inducement caused 20% of mass loss in steel reinforcements. The
reason for this could be attributed to the cathode bar being an external component from
the beam, which implies that the corrosion loss would be shared by all four reinforcements,
including the stirrups in the beam samples.

4. Conclusions
This study focused on the structural retrofitting of corroded reinforced concrete beams
using bamboo fiber laminate. The following conclusions were drawn from the study:
i. The retrofitting capacity of bamboo laminate was evidently demonstrated. The
bamboo laminate increased the ductility and strength of the corroded beam, thus
aiding the load resistance of the beam. The retrofitted beam exhibited strength
somewhat close to that of the control beam. Thus, it is practically shown that
bamboo fiber laminate has significant structural application on distressed elements.
ii. The control beam and corroded un-strengthened beam failed by way of a flexural
failure, while the bamboo-strengthened beam exhibited cracking debonding. The
sudden change in the cross-section at the end of the laminate contributed to this.
iii. The corroded un-strengthened beam exhibited the highest number of cracks, with
the control beam exhibiting the lowest number of cracks. Again, the impact of
the fabricated laminate is demonstrated by the delay of cack development in the
distressed member.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, project supervision, writing—review and editing P.O.A.;

formal analysis, investigation, writing—original draft preparation T.A.N.; writing—review and
editing B.S., L.M.B.R., I.M. and K.P.A.; writing—review and editing I.M.; writing—review and
editing, funding acquisition, J.-W.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This work is supported by the Korea Agency for Infrastructure Technology Advancement
(KAIA) grant funded by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (Grant 21CFRP-C163381-01).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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