Directional Drilling

Training course
Mud Pulse Telemetry, survey error
Prepared By: A.khaleghi
Agenda

• Introduction to Compass

• Mud Pulse Telemetry

• Survey error Model

• Anti-Collision

• Map Projection

• Geodesy
2
Landmark Well Construction
CasingSeat™ »
StressCheck™ »
WellPlan™ »
CasingWear™ » Casing Wear™ »
WELLCAT™ » WELLCAT™ »

COMPASS™
Well Cost
OpenWells® »

Phase 1 : Plan
Reservoir target, well planning, cost estimation
Phase 2: design
Wellbore design, casing seat, cement design, tubular design
Phase 3: Execute
Monitoring and optimization.
Phase 3: Review
Monitor performance, compare it against what was planned, and even foresee
upcoming nonproductive time.
3
Compass Main Functions
1. Survey
I. Calculate wellbore trajectory
II. Advance survey tools selection
III. Assess survey data . (varying
curvature)
2. Planning
I. Design the shape of proposed
wellbores.(2D,3D,Slant,S
Shape,…..)
3. Anti-Collision
I. Check the separation of surveyed
and planned wellbores from
offset well with spider plots,
ladder plots, traveling cylinder,
well proximity scans.
4. Wall plot composer

4
Compass view
Menu Shortcut

Well Status Well Explore Window

Associated Data view

Company properties
• How to Add company and user Logo?!!!!!

6
Data Structure
• What is company and User ?
Company : Client assume you are working for NISOC project
User: its mean you and your company Database

• Wellbore Company
• A Wellbore may have many Surveys
• A Wellbore may have many Plans ... Project
• ...but only one Principal Plan
• A Wellbore may have a Definitive Well path Site
• At the Planning Stage, The Definitive Wellbore may be the Principal Plan
… Well
• …but while Drilling, it would be a combination of the most accurate
Surveys
Wellbore

Design

7
Company properties
• Survey error Model
• ISCWSA
• Cone of Error
• Systematic Ellipse
• Anti-collision setting
• Scan method
• Closest 3D approach
• Travelling cylinder
• Horizontal Plans
• Travelling cylinder north
• Error surface define shape of uncertainty
• Combined Pedal Curve
• Combined Separation
• Projected vector
• Ellipsoid Separation
• Pedal Curve
• Major Axis

8
Company properties
• Error System
• Wellbore position uncertainty
• Scan Method
• Distance between wellpaths
• Error Surface
• Calculating dimension of error surfaces between wellpaths
• Warning Method
• Criteria for reporting separation

9
Mud Pulse Telemetry
• Why Survey?
• Survey instrument Type
• Definition of toolface
• Magnetic Declination
• Grid Convergence

10
Why Survey?
• There is no such thing as a vertical well
• It is quiet a question of how deviated?
Don’t be in the wrong place
• Basic requirement are: at the wrong time !!

• Where are we
• How did we get there
• Where do we need to go
• Survey required for :
• Avoid other wells
• Legal Reason(boundary restriction)
• Hit other well
• Hit Targets
• …………….

11
Survey• Three
Instrument Type
basic telemetry:
• Positive Pulse
• Momentarily restrict a portion
of the mud flow through an
orifice in the tool.
• Negative Pulse
• Momentarily vent a small
portion of mud from interior of
the drill string to the annulus.
• Continuous Wave
• Use a rotary valve to create a
continuous pressure wave in the
mud column
• Electromagnetic Telemetry
• Electromagnetic propagation to
transmit data through the
formation.

12
Gyro Survey Tools
• Surface readout Gyro (SRG):
• Any Gyro system that sends survey data to surface via wire line
• Unlike NSG, has no independent direction finding capability, line up to a known bearing
• Not recommended above 20 degree inclination or below 1500 ft
• North seeking Gyro (NGS):
• Align with the direction of true north by sensing the rotation of the earth
• The tools senses earth rotation as torque. Function of latitude and orientation
• Very accurate except where
• the latitude exceeds 70° north or south
• Drill string is not held stationary in the well
• NSG can be run in
• Cased Hole wire line up to 60 degree
• For inclination more than 70° inclination becomes less accurate than standard MWD(CNSG must be run)
Gyro Survey Tools
• Continuous north seeking Gyro (CNSG):
• The tool measure displacement in two planes from a known local initialization point
• Collect data dynamically at speed of up to 200 ft/min. in
❖NSG and CNSG Require independent depth reference input, wire line depth counter
▪ Each of available north seeking Gyro can be run with CCL and Gama
• Gyro Survey Mode:
• Memory Mode
• Benefit : high accuracy survey with relatively little rig time
• Disadvantage: surface confirmation of successful survey, Gross error of running inside drill pipe, systematic
misalignment and SAG errors
• RealTime Mode
• Surface readout
• MWD mode GMWD
• Primarily aimed at low angle surface kick off, cost saving for deep water application
• Prone to surface noise and vibration problem
• Not recommended for inclination more than 20 degree
Signal Strength
• The bigger the pressure drop across modulator, the strongest the
signal
• As the signal travels up the mud column it loses energy
• In continuous wave signal strength can be controlled by gap size

15
Data Encoding
• The MWD encode Binary 0s and 1s within a wave by shifting
BPSK QPSK
frequency or the phase of the wave

MSK

16
Data Encoding
• Bandwidth generated frequency disruption(noise) at surface can be filtered.

17
Reliability
• Probability of a product preforming without failure.

𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 (𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠)

• 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑀𝑇𝐵𝐹 =
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠

• Shock and Vibration • Downhole Temperature • Drilling Practice

• Factors affecting are:System
• Telemetry • Training • Quality assurance

18
Why Do we need an error model?
• All measurements have errors.
• Errors that are not corrected for result in an uncertainty applicable to
measurement.
• The uncertainty may exceed the allowable tolerance for particular
application.
• Error Source:
• Something physical that can be identified as introducing an error into the measurement.

• Error Term:
• Provides a low level description of how an aspect of an error source contributes to error in the measurement.
• A set of “error terms’’ makes a full description of a tool ‘’error model’’

19
Error Model
• The error model are:
• The cone of uncertainty model
• MWD Survey might provide uncertainty of 7 ft/1000 ft at 15° inclination

• The wolf and De wardt

• Use 5 separate source of error, compass references error, drill string magnetization error, inclination error, depth
error.
• Tools were classified as gyro or magnetic and either good or poor quality

• The system error model

• Consider the equipment running condition, the location of the well, the background magnetic field accuracy

• The ISCWSA Error Model

20
How error propagate:
• Error in measurement system can propagate randomly or systematically.
• Random error:
• tends to have a cancelling out effect over multiple observation
• Unrelated from one measurement to the next
• Example: a misalignment error, effect is tool face dependent and surveys will have a scatter of tool face throughout the
survey
• Systematic error :
• The one that generally expand to dominate the error envelope since their effect is the same from observation to observation
• Correlated from one measurement to the next within one single tool run
• Example : azimuth error, largely created by the uncertainty of the magnetic field direction
• Well-By-Well
• Correlated from one measurement to the next within an entire well.
• Example: vertical reference
• Global
• Always correlated, including well to well
• Example : declination error
The effect of randomization
A 10 per 100 error will grow as:
Depth Systematic Random
0 0 0
100 10 10
200 20 14
300 30 17
400 40 20
500 50 22
  
1,000 100 32

22
 ISCWSA
The Industry steering Committee for wellbore survey accuracy
pronounced (Ick-swa) survey position

23
ISCWSA

• The Industry Steering Committee for Wellbore Survey Accuracy (ISCWSA) (also known as the SPE Wellbore
Positioning Technical Section) has developed an error model in an attempt to quantify the accuracy or uncertainty
of downhole surveys.

• This error model consists of a body of mathematics for evaluating the uncertainty envelope around the survey

• The aim is to provide a method of evaluating well bore position uncertainties based on a standardized and
generalized set of equations, which will cover most scenarios and which can be implemented in a consistent
manner in well planning and directional software.

24
Normal Distribution

25
Normal Distribution
• This normal distribution of parameter whose range are not same
• Any probability on the slopes of this mountain will therefore be
elliptical

26
Major Corrections
• Depth Correction
• There are many sources of error affecting both drill pipe and wireline length
downhole but depth correction will usually address the mechanical and thermal
stretch. These account for the major depth errors and can be as much as 0.2%
• Sag Correction
• This is an inclination correction to allow for the natural bending of the BHA under its
own weight. It increases with inclination and can be 0.5 degrees or more.
• IFR Correction
• This usually refers to the local correction of magnetic declination and is derived from
an In-Field Referencing survey of the oilfield. This can be up to 1 degree in places
• Magnetic Interference
• This applies to azimuth only and corrects for the magnetic influence of the BHA
itself. It is particularly important when using short non-mag collars.

27
Depth error

• Mechanical Stretch

• Survey Resolution

• Tool misalignment

• Temperature Effects

• BHA Deflection (sag)

28
Mechanical Stretch
Survey Resolution
What is Sag?

Collar
Stabilizer

Xº
Actual Inc

Xº = Sag Error

31
Magnetic field – magnetic Dip
• Horizontal component = H x Cos (Dip)

32
Magnetic field – magnetic Dip
• It is the horizontal component that supplies the
direction to Magnetic North.
• Varies with the cosine of the Dip Angle.
• In Alaska: 57,510 gammas X Cos (80.6°) = 9392
gammas
• Gulf of Mexico: 50,450 gammas X Cos (59.7°) = 25,250
gammas
• Where the magnetic dip is high the horizontal
component is low.
• Areas where the horizontal component is low,
accuracy is low

33
Triaxial measurements
• ‘’g’’ is primarily a function of latitude, depth/altitude and regional fluctuations
• MWD measure :
• its own orientation in space relative to vector g, three accelerometer
• 𝐺𝐹𝐻 = 𝐺𝑥 2 + 𝐺𝑦 2 + 𝐺𝑧 2

34
Triaxial measurements
• MWD measure :
• Earth magnetic field along 3 axis
• 𝐻𝐹𝐻 = 𝐻𝑥 2 + 𝐻𝑦 2 + 𝐻𝑧 2
• HFH remain constant at each survey point
• To determine the direction of magnetic field, the H split in 2 component, vert,
Horizontal
• The horizontal component (HC) is a function of the magnetic field vector (H)
and the magnetic dip angle.
• 𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻 × 𝐶𝑂𝑆(𝐷𝑖𝑝 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒)

35
Survey Measurement
Inc Azm Gtf Mtf Ghf Hfh
GX X X X X
Gy X X X X X
Gz X X X X X
Hx X X X
Hy X X X
Hz X X X

36
Magnetic survey error

37
Variations in the Earth’s Magnetic Field

• One problem with the Earth’s Magnetic

Field is that it will not stand still
• In geological time scales this change is
very rapid. It is referred to as the
‘Secular’ variation.
• In order to keep track of this movement,
several global model are maintained.
(BGGM,IGRF)

39
Earth magnetic fields
• This requires correcting the MWD survey
using geomagnetic reference values of
the magnetic declination, dip and total
field.
• The geo-magnetic reference value are
modeled in process called in-field
referencing.

40
In-Field Referencing
• The biggest source of error in MWD is usually the crustal variation.
• The global models such as the BGGM can only take into account the
longer wave length variations in the Earth Field and cannot be
expected to allow for the localized effects of magnetic rock in the
basement formations.
• IFR is a technique that measures the strength (Field Strength),
direction (Declination) and vertical angle (Dip Angle) in the vicinity of
the drilling activity to give the MWD contractor a more accurate
reference to work to.

41
Di-urnal Field
• Caused by solar activity www.spaceweather.com
1.5 • Spectacular but limited effect
Declination Variance 24th May 2000 (Stormy Day)

1.0
Declination Variance (deg)

0.5

0.0
00:00 04:00 08:00 12:00 16:00 20:00 00:00

-0.5

Lerwick Declination Variance (deg)

Bangui Declination Variance (deg)
-1.0

42
Additional magnetic effects
• What can’t be corrected
• Formations
• Drilling Environment – mud properties (hematite), casings swarf etc.
• ‘Hot’ collars

43
Magnetic Declination
• Magnetic survey need to be corrected to true north
• True north is the geographic north or map north
• Magnetic north is compass north
• Magnetic north changes over time
• The Angle between true north and magnetic north as measured from
true
• Easterly Declination (clockwise)is positive
• Westerly Declination (Anticlockwise)is negative

44
Grid convergence
• Definition: the angle between true north and grid north as measured
from true north
• Easterly convergence (clockwise) is positive
• Westerly convergence (anticlockwise) is negative

45
Total correction Example

46
Total Correction
• Corrected Surveys are corrected from magnetic north to grid north

47
Magnetic Declination
• Definition: The angle between True North and Magnetic North as
measured from True.
• Easterly Declination (clockwise) is positive.
• Westerly Declination (anticlockwise) is negative.
• Declination is added to Magnetic Azimuth

48
Example
• Change magnetic survey N40°E Magnetize azimuth, calculate True
north?

49
Example
1.If an observed magnetic survey point is located at N38°W, and the
Magnetic Declination is 3.4° West, correct the direction to True North
2.If the observed magnetic survey direction is N38°W, and the
Magnetic Declination is 5° West, and the Grid Convergence is 3° East,
correct the direction to Grid North.
3.If the observed magnetic survey direction is S40°W and the Magnetic
Declination is 8° East, and the Grid Convergence is 10° East, correct
the direction to Grid North.

50
Error System-company Properties
• Cone of Error
• Systematic Ellipse (SPE 9223)
• also known as Wolff & de Wardt
• ISCWSA (SPE 56702)
• Industry Steering Committee for WellBore Survey Accuracy

51
Separation factor
• The point in an adjacent well at which min Sep occurs is where the
separation vector hits the well at right angles.
• There are three main method of defining the separation factor and
depending on how it is defined, the results change.
• Separation vector method
• Pedal curve method
• Scalar method

52
Separation vector method

53
Pedal curve method
• The second method for calculating separation factor is the pedal
curve method.
• Overcome previous problem by projecting the extremities of the
ellipse onto the separation vector

54
Scalar Method
• The separation factor is simply the factor by which the ellipses are expanded or contracted.
• The calculations required to generate the separation factor using the scalar method are best left to the computer.
• The same safety rules developed for use with the older methods can still be used. But the scalar method has the advantage of
never calculating optimistic or pessimistic separation factors no matter what the 3D geometry.

55
Separation Factor

56
Separation factor and probability based rules
• A separation factor

based rule is purely

geometric

• Probability rule relates

to actual risk
SCAN METHOD

58
Error System-cone of error
• Tool code error may increase with inclination
• Radius of sphere around previous observation + MD interval x survey tool error coefficient / 1000
• The starting error around the wellbore is the well error plus the top borehole radius. The survey tool error coefficient depends on
the current tool inclination and the values contained in the Inc/Error grid for that survey tool.

59
Error System-systematic ellipse
• Combines the following survey tool errors
• Relative Depth Error
• Error in measuring along hole depth e.g. stretch in a wireline.
• Misalignment Error
• Error due to instrument misalignment in the wellbore
• True Inclination Error
• Error in inclination reading
• Compass Reference Error
• A constant error in direction due misalignment e.g. gyro foresight error or error in magnetic
declination.
• Drill string Magnetization
• Magnetic interference cause by “hot spots”
• Gyrocompass
• Error due to gyro gimbal drift

60
Anti-collision Setting
• Define How separation is compute as below option :
• Closest Approach 3D
• Travelling Cylinder
• Horizontal Plane
• Trav Cylinder North
• Error Surface
• To define shape of uncertainty envelope about the wellbore
• Warning level rule
• Error ratio
• Risk ratio
• Rule base

61
Anti-collision-Scan method
• 3D Closest Approach
• Imagine an expanding bubble projected from a point on the reference Wellbore

62
Anti-collision-Scan method
• Travelling cylinder
• This scan method uses a plane perpendicular to the reference Wellbore and intercepting offset Wellbores as they cut through the
plane interpolation interval.
• The surface resembles a cylinder with the size of the maximum scan radius

63
Anti-collision-Scan method
• Travelling cylinder North

64
Traveling Cylinder Plot
AC Tools-Traveling Cylinder Plot

North
0
340 20
150

320 40
125

100

300 60
75

50

280 80
25

Subject Well

25
Subject well survey

25
Well C West

50

50
260 100

75

75
0

16
10
Offset Well

10

28
5

0
12

16 150
12
0

51
15

40
65
240 120

16 68
MD Subject Well

3
16 7
65
16
7
16
220 140

90
17
Well C West

02
17
200 160

15
180

No-Go Zone
67
Shape Of Error
• Elliptical Conic:

68
SHAPE• The
OFpedal
ERROR –Pedal
curve method
Curve
assume that there is no
confidence in the direction
of reference well relative
to the offset well (it can
approach from any
direction).
• Yet we have quantified the
position error to the
confidence shown in the
ellipse shape.
• The errors in inclination
and azimuth
measurements are
generally not cumulative
with depth

69
Anti-collision setting
• No- casing diameter not applied
• Add- add casing to the error radii in the ratio calculation
𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
(𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 + 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 + 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 + 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠)

• Sub- center to center will be physical separation between wellbore

𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 − 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 − 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
(𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 + 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 + 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 + 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠)

• TBR-use the slot radius on the location tab

𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
(𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 + 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 + 2 ∗ 𝑇𝐵𝑅)
How to Run Anticollision in COMPASS
How to Run Anticollision in COMPASS
How to Run Anticollision in COMPASS
Anti-collision report review
Common AC Mitigation Methods
1) Use a rock bit in preference to a PDC or diamond type.

2) Where a drilling motor is used, use low speed in preference to high speed.(Jetting Assembly)

3) Where there are mud returns, monitor for the presence of cement,

4) Where there are mud returns, install a ditch magnet upstream of the shale shakers and monitor for the presence of metal shavings.

5) Control the ROP to reduce the potential for damage should a well collision occur

6) Closely monitor drilling torque.

7) Annular pressures on potentially intersecting wells should be monitored continuously for fluctuations and any such fluctuations reported

immediately.

75
Common AC Mitigation Methods
8) Closely monitor drilling torque.

9) Annular pressures on potentially intersecting wells should be monitored continuously for fluctuations and any such fluctuations

reported immediately.

10) A listening device may be used on the wellhead of the nearby well that is at risk from collision.

11) When drilling in close approach situations, ensure that the top stabilizer and not just the bit has safely passed the potentially

intersecting well, before drilling ahead at full speed.

12) Monitor MWD (H) Magnetic Interference

76
Avoiding Collision Risk
• Avoid risk by increasing Separation Factor:

• Increase Center-Center Distance (Planning)

• Improve survey accuracy (make ellipses smaller)
▪ Re-survey offset wells with Gyro’s
▪ Plan for accurate survey tools while drilling, or in intermediate stages.

77
Risk Management
Risk = Probability * Severity (of
Consequences)
$, Well Control, HSE

Severity
Low Med High

SF<5 Low

Probabilit
SF<1.5

y
$ Med

SF<1 High

78
Risk Management
Schlumberger’s role

• Risk = Probability * Severity

assesses the collision probability (SF) and investigates options to reduce this
(by Avoiding the risk).

investigates and advises Mitigation actions in case a collision might

occur.

assessment and judgment of the residual risk.

79
Anti-collision Alert

80
Latitude and Longitude
UTM
• UTM Project 3D to 2D surface
• limits of north America 84 degree
of north latitude and southern
limit of continent of Antarctica
80 degree south latitude
• Longitude is divided into 60
zones each 6°wide. The zones
are bounded by meridians
3°either side of a central
meridian.
82
UTM Projection
• As the name suggest, the universal
transverse Mercator is based on the
cylinder transverse Mercator projection.
• The cylinder in the transverse Mercator
projection is tangent along a meridians (line
of longitude) or its secant, in which case it
cuts through the earth at two standard
meridians.
• In the UTM projection the transverse
cylinder rotates by 6° increments, thus
creating 60 (360 ° /6 °) strips or projection
zone.
• Instead of projecting the complete globe
into a flat surface each of 60 strips or zones
• The meridian at the center of each zone is called central
gets projected onto a plane separately meridian.
minimizing scale distortion within each
• Cylinder is secant in the UTM projection.
zone.
• Intersect the globe creating two standard meridian that
are 180 km to each side of the central meridian

83
UTM Zone

84
reference's
• http://geokov.com/Education
• https://www.timeanddate.com/time/dateline.html
• https://gisgeography.com/
• https://www.for.gov.bc.ca
• https://www.measureevaluation.org/

Prepared by Ashkan Khaleghi

• https://pubs.usgs.gov
• https://www.luomus.fi
86
Prepared by Ashkan khaleghi 86
What is geodesy?
science which is dedicated to the study of the shape
and size of the earth

87
Geodesy
• Two different model of geodesists are

• Geoid
• An equipotential surface that is irregular and approximate to mean sea level(MSL)

• Ellipsoid
• A regular model surface that approximates the geoid, created by rotating an ellipse about the polar axis. Used to simplify the computational
complexity of the Geoid

Prepared by Ashkan khaleghi 88

Geodesy
Geodetic Datum
UTM and Datum
• A coordinate system may be based on
different datums. Different maps may refer to
different datums, or the datum referenced by
the GPS receiver may not correspond to the
one for the map. For example older maps in
North America are based on NAD 27 datum
while recent maps are based on NAD 83. The
default datum for GPS receivers is usually
initially set to World Geodetic System of 1984
(WGS 84). And interactive maps such as
Google Maps and Bing Maps use the WGS 84
datum.
• It is important to state the datum when
working with geographic data. Guidebooks
usually specify the datum for the coordinates
they provide. The datum in GPS receivers can
be set to correspond to the desired map's
datum. The datum is printed on the margin of
topographic maps, sometimes along with
information for conversion of coordinates
between two different datums by addition to
or subtraction from northing and easting
values;

Prepared by Ashkan khaleghi 91