Contents

Acti
Introduction..
Act
Section A :Experiments
ExpejmeDt AE I
To determine the resistance per cm of agiven wire by plotting a graph of potential Act
difference versus current.
Eorment AE 2 Act

To find resistance ofa given wireusing ametre bridge and hencà determine the specifc
resistance ofthe màterial. Acti

Experiment AE S/.
To xerify the laws of combination of resistances (in
series and parallel) using a metre
bridge.
Eyperiment AE 4
To compare the emfs of two given primary cells
potentiometer. (ILeclanche and Daniell) using ExF
Experiment AE 5 foca
Todetermine the internal 35
resistance of a given primary cell by using ExF
Experiment AE 6 potentiometer.
(a) To determine the 39
resistance of a
(b) To find the figure of merit of thegalvanometer by half-deflection method.
u ar

deflection. galvanometer and hence the current for full scale ExF
Experiment AE 7 (A)
To convert the given galvanometer (of Exp
ammeter of a desired range (say 0to 30known
44
mA) and to resistance and figure of merit) into an
Experiment AE 7 (B)
verify the same. ExF
To convert a given galvanometer into
the same. voltmeter of desired range 47
(say 0to 3 V) and verify
Experiment AE 8 ExF
To find the frequency of the ac mains with a
sonometer. 52
Exp
Section A: Activities
Activity : AA 1...
To measure the resistance and impedance ofan
a Exp
inductor with or .57
without iron core. Exp
 59
To measure resistance, voltage (ac/dc),
current (dc) in an electric circuit using a multimeter.
Activity : AA 3... 64
To assemble a household circuit
and a power source.
comprising of three bulbs, three (on-off) switches, a fuse
Activity : AA 4. . 65
To assemble the componentsof a given electrical
circuit.
Activity :AA 5.. ..66
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a
steady current.
Activity : AA 6.. ..68
To draw the diagram of the given open circuit comprising of at least a
rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not battery, a resistor/
proper order and also correct the circuit and the circuit diagram. connected in

Section B:Experiments
Experiment BE 1 .69
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find
the
focal length.
ExperimefDt BE 2 74

Lind the focal length of aconvex lens by plotting graphs between object distance
u and image distance v and between 1 and
Experiment BE 3 80
To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
Experiment BE 4 83
To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens.
Experiment BE 5a... .87
Rdeterríne the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by plotting a graph
beween the angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
Experiment BE 6 .92
To determine the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
Experiment BE 7(A).... . .96
To find the refractive index of water using a concave mirror.
Experiment BE 7(B). ..98
Tofind the refractive index of a liquid by using a convex lens and plane mirror.
Expeygon BE 8.. .. 101
To draw the characteristic curveof a p-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.
 PERmgh

Section A:Experiments
EXPERIMENT- AE 1
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT
To determine the resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL
Apieceofhigh resistivity wire nearly 50 cm long, adc voltmeter (0 -5 V), a dc ammeter (0-2A), a rheostat (10N2A),
plug key, battery eliminator (6V) or dry cells, connecting wires (DCC22), sand paper and a metre scale.
PRINCIPLE
IOhm's law states that at constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor varies directly as the potential
difference between its ends.
I If7be the current flowing througha conductor and V, the potential difference across itsends, then according to Ohm's law
IocV
or V ocI -= Constant.

This constant is known as the

resistance R of the conductor. Rheostat

The electrical resistance (R) depends

upon the dimensions such as length and Plug key
area of cross section of the conductor. 6V 6V

Further R also depends upon the

material of the conductor. R is Dry-cells
expressed in ohm (2) whereas V is Resistance
wire
expressed in volt () and I is expressed
in ampere (A). For a given wire of
length l and area of cross section A, if R Connecting
wire
be its resistance, then the resistance
R
per unit length will be Ammeter
Voltmeter

Fig. AE1.2: Assembly of various components

to find the resistance of a wire.

B Rh
Fig. AE1.1: Circuit diagram to find the resistance of a
wire where A is the dc ammeter, V is the dc voltmeter, B
is the battery, K is the plug key, R is the resistance of
the gíven wire and Rh is the rheostat.

PROCEDURE
1. Note the least count of the given dc voltmeter and dc ammeter.
2. The voltmeter and ammeter should read zero with zeroapplied voltage. If not, then correct the initial
reading of the meter suitably.

17
VK Lab Manual Physics-XIl
3. Clean the ends ofthe connecting wires by using sand paper and connect various
ofthese connecting wires according to the circuit diagram (Fig. AE 1.1). Componentsbythe he
4. Ensure that the deammeter is connected in series and dc voltmeter is connected in parallel
wire whose resistance is required to be determined. Take care that theterminals of
the with the gven
voltmeter marked positive are connected to the +ve terminal of the battery B(Fig. AE 19ammeter
5. Insert the plug key K. Slide the contact point of the rheostat to one of its extreme end such
will show least current in the circuit. Note the values of current and voltage that ammete
through the ammeter
voltmeter respectively.
6. Slowly slide the rheostat contact to the other
extreme end in steps and record the value of W
corresponding current I from the readings of the dc voltmeter and dc ammeter respectively. Take
that the voltage Vis increased in steps of 0.1 V.
7. Repeat the procedure (5) by sliding the rheostat contact in opposite
direction.
8. Remove the resistance wire from the circuit
Measure the length of the metre slide. arrangement (Fig.AE 1.2 ) and stretch it along the metre sak
OBSERVATIONS
1. Range of the voltmeter = .... V.
2. Least count of the
voltmeter = ..... V.
3. Range of the ammeter = ... A.
4. Least count of the
ammeter = .... A.
5. Length of the given wire = ..... cm.
6. Maximum resistance of the
rheostat =.... Q
7. Note the readings of the voltmeter and
ammeter in tabular form as shown below by taking care of propel
significant figures.
Table AEl.1: Variation of current () with
potential difference ()
across the ends of the given wire.
No. of Ammeter
Observations reading, I (A) Voltmeter reading, V(V)
For Current Increasing For Current Decreasing Mean V()

10

GRAPH
1. Plot a graph (Fig. AE1.3) between Vand I by choosing I along X-axis and Valong Y-axis by using che
readings of the voltmeter with the
corresponding
readings of the ammeter from Table AE 1.1.
18
 1
by theb
hthe 2. Discuss the nature of graph and
Oatnetamnet I~V
interpret it.

e ofV a 6.0

.Take a 4.0+

metre so 2.0C
Scale: x axs:1cm=0,10A
EY axs:1¢m=1.0y
0|20 030 0,40ol50

Fig. AE 1.3 Variation of potential drop V'

versus current ".

CALCULATION
1. Choose any two points, say Aand Con the I~V plot and draw a right angled triangle ABC (Fig. AE 1.3).
Calculate slope of that I ~ Vgraph as
AB Reading of the voltmeter at A -Reading of the voltmeter at C
slope = BC
re of prope Reading of the ammeter at A -Reading of the ammeter at C
The slope of the I~Vcurve gives the resistance of the given wirei . e . o
AV AB ib oiesd d
R=
BC
2. The resistance per unit length of the wire is obtained by dividing the resistance (R) with length of the wire
() i.e. resistance per unit length,
V() R
-=....2cm-1,

RESULTS
1. The resistance of the given wire, R =....
R
2. The resistance per unit length of the wire, TF....Q cm-l

> PRECAUTIONS
1. Use voltmeter, ammeter and rheostat of suitable range. Check the meters for zero readings.
2. Check the connections of the voltmeter and ammeter so that the voltmeter must be in parallel connection
and ammeter must be in series connection.

3. Check the connections of the terminals of voltmeter and ammeter so that their +ve terminal must be
connected towards the +ve potential of the battery.b
4. Don't use a run-down battery.
5. While connecting the specimen wire, see that only asmallportion of the wire remains under the binding
SCrew.

6. The unknown resistance of the specimen wire chosen should have high value i.e. its resistivity must be
higher.
using
the 7. Allconnections must be rigid. Any loose connections introduce additional resistance.

19
VK Lab Manual Physics-XIl
connections are made according to the circuit diagram or
8. Before plugging in the key, ensure that circuit
not.
otherwise the current flowing in the circuit will cause
9. Insert the plug key while making observations
unnecessary heating effect.

POINTS TO PONDER
this experiment.
can be obtained by using the value ofR determined in
The specificresistance p of the material of the wire radius of the wire by usingascrew gauge.
Hence the additional measurement to be done is the in the circuit. Ammeter
rheostat contact to include the maximum resistance
Before performing the experiment slide the move the slider of the rheostat to reduce
resistance to
this position. Now
and voltmeter willshow minimum reading in voltmeter and ammeter are nearly 75% of the full
scale. If not, either
minimum and see if the ranges covered over the
should be preferred.
meters of lower range or battery of higher voltage
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
components as used in this experiment to verify I ~Vand drawV~Icurve
Design a circuit byusing the similar
in a graph paper.

Viva-Voce
difference?
Q. 1. What ismeant by potential in an electric tield is obtained by the
amount of work
difference (p.d.) between two points
Ans. The potential points.
done in moving a test charge between these
current?
Q. 2. What is meant by electric electric current is given by
The flow of electriccharge will give rise to electric current. The magnitude of
Ans. across any cross section of the
conductor.
the rate of flow of charges
basic difference between electric potential and potential difference?
Q.3. What is the
potential is confined to a single charged body while potential ditterence is the differenceaf
Ans. The electric field.
potentials between two points in an electric
Q.4. State Ohm'slaw. thenotaal
temperature, the current flowing through a conductorIs dhecuY proportional to
 EXPERIMENT- AE 3
> AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT
To verify the laws of combination of resistances (in series and parallel) using a metre bridge.
APPARATUS AND MATERIALS
Metre bridge, twodifferent unknown resistances or resistance coils, Weston galvanometer, resistance box, jockey,
plug key, Leclanche cell, connecting wires (DCC22) and sandpaper.
PRINCIPLE

I IfR, and R, be the two given resistances, then according to the law of series combination, the equivalent resistance Re will
be given by
Rç =R +R
IAccording to the law of parallel combination, the equivalent resistance R, will be given by
1 1 1
+
R R R,
I Metre bridge is also called as slide wire bridge and is a form of Wheatstone
bridge Fig. AE 3.1. It consists of four resistances P, Q. R, and Sarranged to form a
closed quadrilateral ABCD. One pair of opposite junctions is connected through R

and l'ine agalvanometer and the other pair of opposite junctions is connected through a
cell. If the values of resistances are so adjusted that there is no deflection in the
galvanometer by pressing the key K, then there wll be no potential difference
between the points B and D. Hence the Wheatstone bridge is said to be B
K
balanced and under the balanced condition of the bridge, we have Fig. AE 3.1 Circuit diagram of
P R
Wheatstone bridge

IIf three resistances are known, the fourth one can be calculated by using the above equation.
IThere are two gaps AD and CD i.e. left hand gap and right hand gap in which the unknown resistance Sand aresistance box
(RB) are connected. ALeclanche cellEand agalvanometer Gare also connected across AB and BD, respectively (Fig. AE
3.2). Let the balance point be obtained at the position Bon the wire of the metre bridge. According to the principle of
Wheatstone bridge, we have
SP Resistance of length AB of the wire
RQ Resistance of length BC of the wire
Lfthe wire of the metre bridge is of uniform area of cross section, and the resistance per unit length of the wire is p, then
S_P(AB) AB
R p(BC) BC 100 -/
where AB =l, length of thewire of themetre bridge from the balanced position on the left side, and BC =1 00 -, length of
the wire of the metre bridge from the balanced position on the right side.
LFrom the above equation, we have
Ping
thea
enaryk
S=R| 100 -L)
Here S may be
RR,
roduces
Rg =R +Rz or R, =
andyeani R+R,
PROCEDURE
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram (Fig. AE 3.2). Ensure that all the connections should be
tight.
2. Check whether the connections are correct by taking out some resistance box (RB) and close the plug key
K. Then press the jockey at left extreme end Aof the metre bridge wire. Mark the direction of deflection on
e bie

27
VK Lab Manual Physics-XIl
the galvanometer. Again press the jockey at right extreme Cof the metre
direction of deflection on the galvanometer again. If the two deflections bridge write and are in
the connections are correct, otherwise check the connections. opposite mark the
3. Connectthe first resistor having resistance R,inthe right gap of the metre bbridge and
metre bridge. RBin the leit
hen directiorns,
4. Adjustthe value of Rfirom the RB in such a way that the balance point Bis obtained
the wire i.e. between 30 and 60 cm mark on the scale. nearly at the middlgaepckof
5. Replace the first resistor firomthe right gap of the metre bridge. Then connect the
secondB
resistance R, in the right gap of the metre bridge. Then determinethe balance point
byresistor having
(4).
6. Replacethe second resistor from the rightgap of the metre bridge. Make a series
thesetwo resistors i.e. by connecting one end of the first resistor to one end of the: second
fol owi
combination by
ng stey
3.2 (a)]. Connect the series combination of resistors in the right gap of the metre resistor [Figus,ingAE
bridge. Then
(4) for determining the balancepoint Bon the metre bridge wire.
R4 R
fol ow step
RE

S D
a b d

ateaan
10 3040 60 60 70 90 100

B Q
AR l cm (100 -)cm

K
Fig. AE3.2a: Circuit diagram for studying the laws of combination of
resistances by using a metre bridge

7. Replace the series combination of resistors from the right gap of the metre bridge. Make paral
combination of resistors i.e. by joining one end of each resistor to a common point [Fig. AE 32 6,
Connect the parallel combination of resistors in the right gap of the metre bridge. Then determine the
balance point B on the metre bridge wire by following step (4).
Required combination
R1 R2 Series or Parallel
www R.B.
Series combination

R4
R
a D d

Rz
Parallel combination l cm
(100 - ) cm

(a) E
Fig. AE3.2b: Circuit diagram for studying the (b)
laws of combination by using a metre bridge
(a) series combination (b) resIstae
parallel combination.

28
 > OBSERVATIONS
1. Note the balance point Bon the metre bridge wire when the first resistor is at the right gap of the bridge.
2. Note the balance point Bon the metre bridge wire when the second resistor is at the right gap of the bridge.
3. Note the balance point Bon the metre bridge wire when the series combination of resistors is at the right
gap of the metre bridge.

hngasiz 4. Note the balance point Bon the metre bridge wire when the parallel combinatíon of resistors is at the right
gap of the metre bridge.
5. Note the readings of all the above balance points in tabular form (Table AE 3.1) as shown below by taking
care of proper significant figures.
Table AE 3.1: Observations for determination of the equivalent resistance in series
combination and parallel combination of resistors.
Resistance, Position of Length, Mean
Length, S=R
R from RB the balance AB =l (cm) BC =100 -1 100-1
() point, B (cm) (2)
(cm)
When the first resistor
having resistance R 2 35 65 1.125 1.14
in right gap 22.5 77.5 1.161

When the second

resistor having 2 24.3 75.7 0.597 0.612
resistance R, in right 4 13 87 0.631
gap
When the series
combination of 48 52 1.846
resistors having 4 31.6 68.4 1.847 1.846
resistance
arall
Rs =R, +Ry in right
.2 (b gap
ne the
When parallel
combination of
resistors having 19.1 80.9 0.469
resistance 0.464
4 10.3 89.7 0.459
R, in right
R +R¡
gap

CALCULATIONS
1. Calculate the equivalent resistance Rç in series combination from the data by using the Table AE3.1.
2. Calculate the equivalent resistance R, in parallel combination from the data by using the Table AE3.1.
3. Compare the calculated value of Rç and R, with the experimental values by using Table AE3.1.

RESULT
1. The equivalent resistance in series combination of resistors having resistance R, =l14 Q and RÍ = 0.6122 is
R_ =18462.
2. The equivalent resistance in parallel combination of resistors having resistance R, = l142 andRÍ = 0.6122
is R, =0.4642.

29
VK Lab Manual Physics-XIl
PRECAUTIONS
1. The ends ofthe connecting wires should be cleaned with sandpaper.
2. Allthe connections should be tight.
8. If the deflection of the galvanometer is large, use a shunt wire.
4. The jockey should be pressed gently on the bridge wire.
5. First close the battery circuit and then press the jockey on the
wire.
POINTS TO PONDER
We have assumed that in a metre bridge the resistance of the
are negligible, but actually they are not so smallas copper strip and the soldering at the ends of the
to be neglected. Moreover the bridge wire may not bridge wie
metre long and the scale may not be exactly placed with be exactly one
respect
shorter or because of the difficulty of making the connections to the wire either because the wire is slightly longer or
ends of the scale. The effect of all these factors is to between the ends of the wire and the strips exactly at the
These resistances at the two ends of the wire are introduce some unknown resistance at the two ends of the wire.
called end resistance, the errors are called end errors and
corresponding connections are called end corrections. the

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
Study the dependence of resistance on length and area of cross
as SWG 28 of 3 m long, SWG 28 of 2 m long and SWG 24 of 3 section of a conductor by taking three wires such
m long.

Viva Voce
0. 1. What is metre bridge?
Ans. It is an instrument designed on the principle of Wheatstone bridge. In this instrument length of the
used is 1 m on which the bridge is balanced.
wire
Q.2. Of which material the metre bridge wire is taken:
Ans. For metre bridge a wire with high specific resistance and having low temperature co-efficient is used.
Commonly manganin or constantan wires are used for the purpose.
Q.3. What is a null point?
Ans. It is aposition of jockey on the wire of the metre bridge when galvanometer shows no deflection.
Q.4. Why in this experiment it is advised to take observations by interchanging the positions of known
resistance and the unknown resistance?
Ans. This minimises the end error, if any, present in the instrument.
Q.5. Which method for fnding unknown resistance is better: () Bridge method or (ii) Ohm's lavwa-12
Ans. The bridge method is better for finding the unknown resistance because it is a null point merhod
cross-section?
20. Why should the bridge wire be of uniform ss-section so that thee resistancee offered by a
 Physics- XII
VK Lab Manual
EXPERIMENT- BE 2
distance u and image
EXPERIMENT betweenobject
AIM OF THE
the length of a convex
focal
lens by plotting of graphs
distancev and
To find
betweenand

APPARATUS ANDMATERIALS
bench with three uprights, two needles, a
Adouble convex lens of and a
16cm, an
focal length aboutmetre scale.
optical
kriting
needle (indexneedle), a lens holder
PRINCIPLE spherical surfaces. A lens having both of its
lens is a block of transparent
medium bounded
convex
by two caoxial
lens. The line joining the
centres of curvature of the
the surfaces: are calledi
oppostsa
two spheri
the principal axis cuts
IA is called double
surfaces convex in nature points at which the poles
the principal axis. The incident on the face of a double convex lens L. Tha
surfaces of the lensis called 2.1)shows a parallel beam of light is through the lens is called
BE converge after refraction
after refraction in F which is called thesecondfirs
the lens. The diagram (Fig. axis
rays parallelto the principal
point Fto which the incident incident on the other surface, they converge lens. The plane passing symmetricaly
principal focus. If the rays are which is equal to OF' is the focal length of the
principal focus. The distance OF C,OC, is L
through the lens at right angles to point of
termed as the principal plane. The the axis is
intersection O of the principal plane with
called the optical centre of the lens.
convex lens
If an object O is placed in front of a C
(Fig. BE 2.1) beyondF', a real and inverted image is
formed. If the distance of the object from the lens
lens be
be u and the distance of the image from the
v, then the focal length fof the lens is given by Fig. BE 2.1 Parallel rays incident on a double convex lens.
1 1 1

f=

PROCEDURE
1. Mount the double
convex lens L on the Convex
lens
holder and then on its
upright such that its Image
principal axis is in the
horizontal plane and
the lens is at the
middle of the
bench (Fig. BE optical
2.2a). Object
Image
needle
2. Find the rough focal needle
length of the given
ConveX lens by
Fig. BE 2.2(a) Formation of image by a
focusing a sharp, clear double convex lens.
and inverted image.
3. Mount an object needle Oand the image needle I on thetwo sides of the lens placed onthe opticalbench
Ensure that thetip of the needle OandI and the centre of the lens IL on the optical benchshouldlieatthe
same height.

74
 L

F
2F

2F

Image
Object
Fig, BE 2.2(b) Formation of image by a double convex lens.

4. Findthe index correction between the object needle Oand the lens L. Also find the index correctíon
lens I
between the image needle I and the
Place the object needle O beyond 2f where f is the focal length of the lens and note its position, The
distance LO will give the object distance u.
phei
polesi
eThen looking from the other side of the lens, adjust the position of the image pin on the optical bench untíl
the tip of Ipin coincides with the tip of the image of O pin without parallax. Thedistance LI will give the
sLThe image distance v.

the firs 7 Measure the distance u and v by applying index correction and record it.
netria 8. Repeat steps 5 to 7 for five different positions of the object pin O by placing it beyond 2f.

ns

1 3 4 5 7
Fig. BE 2.3: Formation of real image due to a double convex lens

Again repeat the same procedure for another five different positions of the object pin O by placing it in
between f and 2f We will see that when the object is beyond 2f the image will be in between fand 2f.
Further, we will also see that when the object is in between fand 2f the image will be beyond f. In these
cases we will find the real image.

magei

Image
neede

Object
Image
bench

att
he

toadouble convex lens.

Fig. BE 2.4: Formation of virtual image due

75
VK Lab Manual Physics- XI|
Note: For obtaining the viual image, placethe object pin suficiently nearer to the lens so as to
side
and magnified image when viewed from the other through the lens with t
virtual, ered the focus and the lens. Noteethat the image is formed onn he eye
i.Now he objetis
betveen
theimage pin onthe axis and adjust its position until the he same loe
lens as the objed.
Neen above the lens
Place
coinides with the virtual image without parallax.
Measureposition
uandof.,ihe ste cf yj
Reipmeraatge bw
pin. (Fig. BE 24)
procedure for three ditlerent positions of the object
OBSERVATIONS

1. Approximate focal length of the lens, f=...cm

2. Length ofthe knitting needle used for index correction,a = .... cm
3. Observed distance between lens and object needle, b =.... cm
4, Observed distance between lens and image needle, c= ...cm
5. Index correction for u, N=a-b=t....cm
6. Index correction for U, y=a-C=t....Cm
7. Record the observed value of object distance u' andimage distance v' in atabular form
Table BE 2.1: Variation of image distance v with the (Table BE 2.1)
object distance uof a double convex lens.
No. of Position of Observed value of
obser Corrected value of Focal
vations Lens L Object Image Object Image u =u-x length of Mean
focal
(cm) needle O needle I distance, distance, (cm) (cm) the lens,|length,
(cm) (cm) u' (cm) v'(cm) f=
(cm)
(cm)

10

CALCULATIONS
Calculate the focal length of the given
double convex lens by using the
f= formula R
for different values of u
and v and find the
mean focal length.
GRAPHS
1. Plot a graph by
scale on the two taking u say
axes. along X-axis and the choosingthe
Interpret the nature of thecorrespondimg value
graph (Fig. BE
ofv along Y-axis,
2.5).

76
 R

(gm)
Fia, BE 2.5: Variation of v with u of a double convex
lens.

Draw a line OP from O making an angle of 45° with the

Xaxis. The line will intersect the graph at P. Draw PQ
and PR perpendiculars on X-axis and Y-axis respectively.
Then
0Q =OR =2f
0Q+OR or f=
OQ + OR
or 2f = 2 4

9 Mark the values of ualong X-axis and the values ofv along
Y-axis. Draw straight lines joining the values of u with
their corresponding values of v (Fig. BE 2.6). We will
notice that all these lines intersect at a common point, say
D. Draw DE and DF perpendiculars on X-axis and Y-axis
respectively. Then Fig. BE 2.6 Variation of v with uof a double convex
lens
OE +OF
OE =0F =f f

3. Plot a graph by taking along X-axis and the

1
corresponding values of along Y-axis, choosing the
same scale along the two axes. Interpret the nature of the
graph (Fig.BE 2.7). The graph willmeet the X-axis and
Yaxis, say at Band Arespectively.
OA =OB =f - B
(gmi!
0
cm
1 1
Fig. BE 2.7 Variation ofwith of adouble convex
or 11
f= OA or
f= OA OB V
lens
OB 2

}RESULTS
1. The calculated value of the focal length of the double convex lens, f =... cm.
2. The focal length ofthe double convex lens by using u ~vgraph, =.... cm.
3. The
focal length of the double convex lens by using
~Vgraph, f =.....cm.

77
 Manual Physics-XIl
VKLab
> PRECAUTIONS
and the centre of the lens must be atthe same height.
needles
1. The tips of the removed tip to tip.
2. Parallax should be distance of about 25-30 cm from theimage needle.
should be kept at a
3. The eve curvature.
having both the faces equal radius of
4, Use a double convex lens
POINTS TOPONDER
take the values of uuand v. Then plot agraph by taking ualong X-axis and u-
I By using Table BE 2.1, U-sthaped curve. Draw atangent ET to the curve at the minimum value u+v along Y-ai
Interpret the nature of the lens.
of u+v, paralel
the tangent will be four times the focal length of the convex
X-ax0s. The Y-coordinate of
Table
(Table BE 2.2) for real images formed by a double convex lens.
I Atypical set of observations are given below The
/uandl/vare expressed in the form of multiples of
I0 so that it is convenient to choose the scale valuesd
and then draw the
graph. The students are advised to draw the graph and interpret.
Table BE 2.2
1
Nature of image u(cm) v(cm) -(cm-) 1
-(cm-)
Real - 24.9 67.1 - 4016x 103 14.9x103
- 30.6 44.3 - 32.68 x 10-3 22.57 x10
-41.8 31.6 - 23.92 x 10-3 3172x 10
-46.2 29.6 - 21.65x 10-3 33.78x 10
- 50.7 28.2 -19.72 ×103 3545x 10
-55.1 26.9 -1815x 10-3 3717 x10
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
1.
2.
Determine the focal length of a double convex lens by
Determine the values of uand Uusing a double using a plane mirror.
convex lens if theimage is virtual, erect and magnified.
Viva Voce
Q. 1. What is a
Ans. Lens
lens?
 EXPERIIMENT- BE 5
efolin AIMOF THEE EXPERIMENT
determine the angle of
To
incidence minimum deviation for
and| angle of deviation. a given
glass prism by
APPARATUS AND MATERIALS plotting a graph between the
angle of
Glassprism, drawing board, pins, white paper
> PRINCIPLE sheets, sharp pencil, metre scale
and protractor.
| Aprisnm is a piece of transparent material
called base. The other two surtfaces are bounded by three
surfaces meet, is called the edge of the transparent and are rectangular surfaces forming atriangle. The
called refracting
(Fig. BE 5.I). prism. The e angle between the two surfaces. The line along which opaque surface is
refracting surfaces, is called the the
anglerefracting
ScopE, A
of prism

ith a

B
Fig. BE 5.1 Refraction of Light through
prism.
glass
| Let a ray of light PQ be incident on the face AB of a
glass prism ABC at
incidence i (Fig. BE 5.2). At Q the ray of light enters the glass, which is aangle of A

medium and hence bends towards the normal N. QR is thus a refracted ray.denser At R, Reracting
Refracting
edge
the ray enters the air medium which is a rare medium and bends away from the face
normal N after emergence. RS is thus the emergent ray which is inclined to the
normal at an angle e, known as angle of emergence. If the emergent ray RS is
produced backward and the incident ray PQ is produced forward, they will meet at
Mat an angle &Clearly, this is the angle through which the ray oflight has been
deviated from its original path. This angle is known as the angle of deviation.
ror a prism of large angle,the angle of deviation is not independent of the angle of
Incidence. As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation first decreases,
atains a minimum value and again begins to increase, as shown in Fig. BE 5.4. It is
ODserved that in minimum deviation position, the angle of incidence and emergence
are equal and the ray of light passes symmetrically through the prism.
º PROCEDURE F

1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of fixing Refracting
angle
pins. Fig. BE 5.2 Glass prism
2. Drawa straight line XX' parallel Ito the length of the paper nearly in the
middle of the
3. Mark the pointspaper.
KË, Ky, K, ....on the straight line XXat suitable distancess ofabout 5cm (Fig. BE 5.3).
4. Draw as shown in Fig. BE 5.3.
normal NK,,
N N, K,, N,Kq,... at points K,, K,, K, ....
87
 XI/
VK Lab Manual PhysicS
N N
NA

30 35
40
P. K
K Kg A A
C
F Fa
S D
P
C P, C
E
C

T, E Ez T; R
Fig. BE 5.3 Refraction through prism at different angle of incidence and studying angle of
5. Draw the lines I, K, I,K,, I,K3s.... naking angles of 30°, 35°, 40°,.... 60 deviation.
6.
N,K,, N,N,,
Mark one corner of the prism as Aand take it as the edge of the prism. Put the
respectively with the norma
AB on the line XX' and point K, , Kg, K_, Ky at the middle of AB. Mark the prism withnits
pencil.
7. Fix two pins P and P, vertically on the line R, K,. Take care that the
refracibyng lac
boundary of the priSm
minimum
should be 10 cm.
8. See the image of P, and P, through the face AC by
between the n distance
cdosing your left eye. Fix other pins P, and P. in
way that the pins P,, P, and images of pins P and P,, all appear in one straight line.
9. Remove pins P, and P, and encircle
to obtain the emergent ray S, their pricks on the paper. Join the positions of
1. pins P, and P, byaDeni
10. Repeat steps 6 to 9 with points
S, T,, S,T,,.... K,K3,... for i= 35°,40,.... 60° to obtain the emergent ras
11. Produce T, S,, T, S,, T,S, inward in the
produced incident rays I, K,I,K,, I,K3. atboundary of the prism through the face AC
points F ,F,3,.. to meet the
12. Measure the angle of deviation (5) i.e.
incidence. E, F T,, E,F, T, , ZE,F, T;, .....
corresponding to this ange t
OBSERVATIONS
1. Type of prism used:
2. Angle of the prism = 60°
equilateral glass prism.
3. Note the value of the angle of
form Table BE 5.1 as shown incidence iand the corresponding value of the angle of
below. deviation ot
Viv
Table BE 5.1: Variation of angle of
S. No. deviation Swith angle of incidence i.
Angle of incidence, i (degree)
1, Angle of deviation, ö (degree)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

88
 GRAPHS
Scae: 1O small diyisions in-a~is =20
1. Plot a graph between angle of incidence, i and angle of 60 15 stall dvisidnsín Yakis =|15
deviation, S along X-axis by using the observations from a)
Table BE5.1. You willget i ~ Scurve of aprism (Fig. BE 5.4). deviation
9 Discuss i~ Scurve and interpret it.
of
> CALCULATION Angle
At the lowest point M of the i~ Bcurve, draw a tangent parallel to tHeME
the X-axis such that the tangent meets the Y-axis at point D. Read
the angle of minimum deviation om corresponding to the lowest
point Mof the graph. et
209 A0P
RESULT Angle of incidence (i)
The angle of minimum deviation, S, =... degree Fig. BE 5.4 Plot of angle of deviation (6) versus
angle of incidence (i) for a equilateral glass
PRECAUTIONS prism

1. The position of the prism should not be disturbed on the

white paper sheet.
2. There should be no parallax between the image pins P,,P, and object pins P,,P2.
3. The minimum distance between two pins should be l0 cm.
4. The first pin P should be fixed very close to the prism.
5. All the pins should be fixed perpendicular to the white sheet paper.
>POINTS TOPONDER
deviation Sis minimum.
I There is only one unique value of angle of incidence ifor which the angle of
IIf the emergent ray is reversed, then the angle e becomes i andvice versa. The
reversed ray will have the same deviation as
before.
I Ifyou are getting the following readings with a given prism; i.e.,
A+ om =54°15' and A =30°.
refracting angle, A=60°; Sm =48°30', 2 2

I From table of natural sines, we get

sin 54°15' =0.8116
is obtained by using the equation
sin 30°=0.500, then the refractive index of the material of the prism
A
l=sin A+om sin=1.623.
2
2

Viva Voce
Q. 1. What is a prism? at a certain
portion of refracting material enclosed by three vertical planes inclined to each other
Ans. It is a
angle.
light as it passes through a prism?
2Z. What happens to a beam of gets deviated and dispersed.
through a prism then it
Ans. When a beam of light gets refracted