Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 73 (2023) 103351

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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jretconser

“What goes around comes around”: Activating sustainable consumption

with curvilinear effects of karma determinants
Cong Doanh Duong
Room 1008, 10th floor, A1 building, National Economics University, Hanoi, 100000, Viet Nam

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Prof. H. Timmermans The role of karma in sustainable consumption remains unknown. This study thus offers a karmic perspective of
pro-environmental consumption, wherein consumers’ personal (moral) norms regarding being more pro-
Keywords: environment are activated by three karma dimensions: duty orientation, indifference to rewards, and equa­
Karma dimensions nimity. Drawing on the norm activation model, a sample of 552 participants recruited in the five largest cities in
Green consumption
Vietnam using the mall-intercept survey approach, and an emerging analysis technique – polynomial regression
Personal norms
with response surface analysis, the findings show that three karma dimensions individually and jointly activate
Ascription of responsibility
Awareness of consequences consumers’ personal moral norms, which in turn stimulate consumers to consume in a more environmentally
friendly manner. Moreover, the ascription of responsibility is significantly related to consumers’ pro-
environmental intentions and behaviors, while awareness of consequences is only significantly correlated with
intentions to behave in a pro-environmental manner. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed in
the context of sustainable consumption.

1. Introduction
“What goes around comes around that seems so true.
For we only receive the karma we are due.
And if to help out others you go out of your way.
Good karma will be yours to enjoy one day” (Francis Duggan, 2008).
Good deeds lead to good things happening, bad deeds lead to bad
thing happening, and these causal complicated interrelations are etched
into the fabric of the universe, according to White and Norenzayan
(2019). The belief that “what goes around, comes around” is a widely
held belief in many worldwide religions (Mo et al., 2022; C. J. M. White
et al., 2019a,b). This belief is fundamental to the worldview depicted by
traditional religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, and
Falun Gong, and these religions have a total of 1.5 billion believers and
followers (White and Norenzayan, 2019). The belief also extends to
spiritual and New Age movements, which are pervasive in Western
cultures. If pro-environmental consumption is regarded as a good act
that is beneficial for the environment and related to collective benefits
(Mo et al., 2022), according to the logic of the karma doctrine, in­
dividuals who believe in the metaphysics of karma tend to invest in
“good” karma by behaving in pro-social and pro-environmental ways
(Chen et al., 2022; Muralidharan, 2022). They also curtail their egotistic
acts and unsustainable consumption (Kulow and Kramer, 2016; Roy
et al., 2019) in order to gather good karma, since they believe that good
things will happen as a result of previous good karmic deeds (White and
Norenzayan, 2019). In this vein, karma constructs (i.e., duty orientation,
indifference to rewards, and equanimity) can develop consumers’ moral
obligations to be environmentally friendly, and then drive them to adopt
sustainable consumption.
Karma is often known as the naturalistic power of the “moral law of
causation” that governs the “unseen” universe, such that individuals’
punishments or rewards in this life or the next are consequences of their
sinful or virtuous acts (Kulow and Kramer, 2016). However, karma itself
does not remunerate or penalize; it simply helps to rebalance the energy
sources of the universe that are produced by people’s behaviors (Mulla
and Krishnan, 2013). Consequently, when a person engages in a
behavior that is in harmony with the naturalistic principle of the uni­
verse (e.g., charitable donations, pro-environmental consumption),
karma will balance his/her “good” energy by establishing an equivalent
quantity of “good” energy toward his/her future (Chen et al., 2022).
Although the concept of karma is widely accepted (White and Nor­
enzayan, 2022), research on its systematic impact on consumer behavior

Abbreviations: GPB, Green purchase behavior; GPI, Green purchase intention; PN, Personal norm; AOR, Ascription of responsibility; AOC, Awareness of conse­
quences; KDO, Duty orientation; KIR, Indifference to rewards; KE, Equanimity.
E-mail address: doanhdc@neu.edu.vn.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2023.103351
Received 4 January 2023; Received in revised form 13 March 2023; Accepted 29 March 2023
0969-6989/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C.D. Duong
is limited (Kulow and Kramer, 2016). This is especially surprising
considering the recent emphasis on other usual and irrational beliefs and
their significance effects on the marketplace (Kramer and Block, 2008;
Seger-Guttmann, 2019). To address this lacuna, our study focused on the
context of pro-environmental behavior for two reasons. Firstly,
pro-environmental behaviors, such as green consumption, are a way for
individuals to act environmentally friendly and to achieve positive
future outcomes, i.e., karmic rewards (for those who believe in karma).
Secondly, while beliefs in karma have crucial implications for marketing
strategies (Kulow and Kramer, 2016; Mo et al., 2022), it remains unclear
how enterprises and marketers can effectively frame their appeals to
activate consumers’ personal (moral) norms and maximize their influ­
ence on consumer responses.
Vietnamese core values are deeply rooted in the principles of
Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism (Ha et al., 2014; Vuong et al.,
2019), emphasizing the importance of filial piety, reverence, concord,
family allegiance, and collectivist values (Duong et al., 2021; Taylor,
2018). While the Vietnamese people may not necessarily identify as
Buddhists, they tend to accept many of the core tenets of Buddhism, such
as the concepts of “sinh tử luân hồi” (rebirth/reincarnation) and “nghiệp
quả” (karma) (Ha et al., 2014). According to these doctrines, Vietnamese
people believe that individuals who engaged in virtuous behaviors in
past lives will experience a happier rebirth, whilst those who committed
wrongdoings will be punished by being born into a lower status, and
may face other punishments (Mai, 2021; Phan, 1993). Moreover, in
Vietnam, the concepts of pro-environmental consumption and green
product are receiving increased interest from both scholars and practi­
tioners (Duong et al., 2021; Mai Hoa et al., 2023; Nguyen et al., 2022;
Nguyen et al., 2018). However, to the best of our knowledge, none of the
extant studies on pro-environmental consumption in Vietnam suggest
that karmic dimensions can activate consumers’ personal (moral)
norms, which in turn inspire their environmentally friendly
consumption.
Consistent with individuals’ moral development derived from karma
dimensions, such as duty orientation (KDO), indifference to rewards
(KIR) and equanimity (KE), the norm activation model (NAM) offers a
valuable framework to explain the moral norms that drive individuals to
behave in a pro-environmental or pro-social manner (Schwartz, 1977).
Indeed, the NAM is flawlessly aligned with the current research for the
following reasons. First, the NAM is one of the most influential
social-psychological theories that explains why individuals and organi­
zations behave in environmentally friendly and pro-social ways
(Choudhary et al., 2022; Nketiah et al., 2022). Therefore, it has also
been widely applied and validated in a body of prior studies to explore
the antecedents of individuals’ green consumption behaviors (Han,
2020; Song et al., 2019). Second, the doctrine of karma establishes a
valid model for individuals’ nuanced relationships with the dimensions
of moral development (Huebner and Garrod, 1991; Mulla and Krishnan,
2013), while the NAM highlights the moral needs that drive individuals
to behave in pro-environmental/social ways (Schwartz, 1977). The
NAM thus provides a sufficiently moral and emotional (personal) lens
through which to investigate the nuanced relationships between three
the karma dimensions (KDO, KIR, and KE), personal (moral) norms, and
environmentally friendly consumption.
This study aims to apply the NAM theory in order to provide crucial
contributions to the investigation of the underlying mechanisms that
drive the nuanced and direct impacts of three karma dimensions (KDO,
KIR, and KE) on consumers’ personal (moral) norms to motivate
behaving in an environmentally friendly manner, which in turn moti­
vates their pro-environmental consumption intentions and behaviors.
Further to that, by using a state-of-the-art analysis technique – poly­
nomial regression with response surface analysis – the current study
offers nuanced insights into the complementary, balanced and imbal­
anced effects of karma dimensions (KDO, KIR, and KE) on consumers’
personal (moral) norms regarding pro-environmental consumption.
Moreover, the research can add to the debate about pro-environmental
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 73 (2023) 103351
consumption by producing novel insights into this neglected area, where
practitioners might benefit from being able to help promote consumers’
sustainable purchasing with low-cost sales promotions. To specify, the
present research aims to fill the above-mentioned research gaps by
answering four specific research questions: (i) is the NAM appropriate
for exploring the effects of karmic perspectives on pro-environmental
consumption and for addressing the “green gap” in this research
area?; (ii) Can the three karma dimensions of KDO, KIR and KE be
individually, complementarily, congruently, and incongruently acti­
vated to trigger consumers’ personal (moral) norms to engage in pro-
environmental consumption?; (iii) What is the underlying mediation
mechanism of personal (moral) norms in receiving the nuanced effects
of the karma dimensions of KDO, KIR, and KE, then transferring these
effects to consumers’ intentions and behaviors to be pro-environmental
consumers; and (iv) What should practitioners do to activate their
consumers’ willingness to be more pro-environmental, based on their
religious beliefs?
We outline the theoretical background and hypotheses in the next
section, then describe the sample, measures, and analytic approach in
section 3. Then in sections 4 and 5, we present the results of hypothesis
testing, discussion, and implications of the study. Section 6 concludes,
demonstrates the research’s limitations, and makes suggestions for
future studies.
2. Theory and hypotheses
2.1. Pro-environmental consumption: the green gap
According to Peattie (2010), the meaning of the term “green con­
sumption” is not always straightforward or consistent. This term has
been used to mean a variety of concepts, such as socially responsible
consumption (Engelland, 2014; Webb et al., 2008), environmentally
conscious consumption (Tsarenko et al., 2013), sustainable consump­
tion (Bhattacharyya et al., 2023; De Guimarães et al., 2023) environ­
mentally friendly consumption (Takahashi, 2021), and
pro-environmental consumption (Hand, 2020). Additionally, the term
“green consumption” itself might be problematic since “green” connotes
preservation of the environment, whilst “consumption” suggests some
degree of harm or destruction (Nguyen et al., 2018). However, Peattie
(2010) suggests that the term “green” can be understood more broadly
as being oriented toward sustainable development. Thus, “green con­
sumption” is used to describe the act of purchasing and consuming
products and services in a manner that addresses environmental and
resource issues, inspired not only by personal needs but also by a focus
on the well-being of society and the community as a whole (Nguyen
et al., 2018). Indeed, Steg and de Groot (2010) state that
pro-environmental conduct is deemed to be a pro-social behavior, as it
benefits others, even though engaging in such behavior does not
necessarily result in any direct individual benefits.
Emerging economies have been placing significant emphasis on
green consumption (De Guimarães et al., 2023; Duong et al., 2021). This
trend might have originated from the ecological movements of the
1960s (Nguyen et al., 2018; Nguyen, 2021), which took into account the
problems related to pollution and energy conservation in advanced
economies (Wang et al., 2019). Nguyen et al. (2018) state that green
marketing has been acknowledged as a means of gaining a competitive
edge in both the commercial and political realms. Indeed, studies have
shown that by concentrating on an environmentally friendly approach,
enterprises can generate mutually beneficial strategies that result in
operational and financial gains, while also benefiting the environment
(Bhattacharyya et al., 2023; Nguyen et al., 2022). Additionally, green
consumption has been acknowledged as a top priority on the agendas of
numerous international public administrations since the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 (Nguyen et al.,
2018). The policies and business strategies involved in consumption are
being reevaluated to prioritize environmental conservation, due to the
C.D. Duong
growing concern of empowered consumers in many developing econo­
mies in Asia, where rapid resource exploitation and heavy pollution
have been associated with the recent economic growth (Li et al., 2023).
These concerns have translated into a growing interest in green con­
sumption and other sustainable behaviors in the literature (Yang and
Thøgersen, 2022), and this interest aligns with researchers’ ongoing
efforts to understand consumers’ pro-environmental consumption
(Bhattacharyya et al., 2023; De Guimarães et al., 2023; Duong et al.,
2021).
However, among the pro-environmental consumption literature,
ElHaffar et al. (2020) reviewed 58 research studies and argued that
almost all of them had focused on explaining the attitude-intention link.
In these works, it is assumed that intention and behavior are the same
construct. This supposition can result in some confusing conclusions. For
example, if intention and behavior can be interchangeably understood,
it would be difficult to elucidate why some consumers have a strong
intent to buy environmentally friendly products, but do not behave in a
pro-environmental manner (Nguyen et al., 2018). Additionally, such a
supposition may divert us away from seeking the motives that translate
behavioral intention into actual behavior (Lin and Shi, 2022). A signif­
icant relationship has been found between behavioral intention and
behavior in several recent studies on general sustainable consumption,
but unity is still never reached, leading to an intention-behavior gap or
“green gap” (ElHaffar et al., 2020). In fact, behavioral intention has been
found to only explain between 27% and 39% of the variance in actual
behavior for general domains in some meta-analyses (Armitage and
Conner, 2001), leaving a high percentage of variance in actual behavior
unsolved (Park and Lin, 2020; Rhodes and de Bruijn, 2013). Moreover,
behavioral intention sometimes poorly predicts actual behavior (Ran­
dall and Wolff, 1994). In other words, the intention-behavior correlation
is far from perfect (Duong et al., 2021; Nguyen et al., 2018), and thus
many more studies are needed to close the intention-behavior gap
(Sultan et al., 2020). With this in mind, ElHaffar et al. (2020) called for
further studies to bridge this green gap.
In accordance with the above, it is hypothesized that in the context of
Vietnam, consumers’ green purchase intention (GPI) significantly pre­
dicts their green purchase behavior (GPB).
H1. GPI is positively correlated with GPB.
2.2. The norm activation model
The NAM was introduced by Schwartz (1973) and it provides a
framework to explain human altruistic behaviors through an underlying
mechanism for the transference of moral norms into pro-social and
environmental actions. It is commonly applied to investigate
pro-environmental and pro-social deeds, such as energy conservation
(Goh et al., 2022), mask-wearing in the COVID-19 period (Si et al.,
2021), recycling (Nketiah et al., 2022), fruit and vegetable waste man­
agement behaviors (Obuobi et al., 2022), and green consumption (Yeow
and Loo, 2022), as well as the drivers of these actions (He and Zhan,
2018). The NAM is considered to be a sequentially linear model that
suggests that behavioral intention and behavior are the consequences of
three cardinal antecedents: personal norms (PN), which refer to a per­
son’s moral obligation to conduct pro-environmental behavior; the
ascription of responsibility (AOR), which refers to a person’s perception
of accountability for the harmful ecological consequences caused by
nongreen actions; and awareness of consequences (AOC), which refers
to a person’s level of awareness of the adverse ecological consequences
of not performing a pro-ecological action (Schwartz, 1977; Stern, 2000).
According to the NAM, individuals are more morally inclined to take
accountability for pro-environmental behavior when they are aware of
the harmful consequences of nongreen actions (Nketiah et al., 2022;
Talwar et al., 2022). Indeed, individuals tend to act in an environmen­
tally friendly and pro-social manner when they feel a personal moral
obligation to perform this behavior, understand the adverse
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 73 (2023) 103351
consequences of not performing the behavior, and feel a personal re­
sponsibility for this behavior (Han, 2020). The extant literature has
explored the relationships between AOC, AOR, PN and intentions
and/or behaviors in different areas of pro-environmental behaviors
(Goh et al., 2022). For instance, Nketiah et al. (2022) revealed that the
recycling intention was derived from individuals’ AOC and PN, while
Song et al. (2019) demonstrated that the purchasing of energy-saving
appliances could be significantly and directly predicted by PN, which
was stimulated by AOR and AOC. However, to the best of our knowl­
edge, empirical evidence for the effects of the three core constructs in
the NAM (i.e., AOR, AOC, and PN) on general green intention and be­
haviors is scant. Additionally, our study focuses on examining the effects
of AOR, AOC, and PN on GPI and GPB, rather than re-testing the causal
relationships between the three cardinal variables in the NAM (i.e., the
direct impacts of AOR and AOC on PN). The reasons for this are as fol­
lows. First, although the NAM has been extensively utilized to investi­
gate the reasons behind individuals’ involvement in pro-environmental
actions (Goh et al., 2022; Kiatkawsin and Han, 2017; Nketiah et al.,
2022), often these studies did not test the effects of AOR and AOC on PN
concurrently. For example, Nketiah et al. (2022) argue that some studies
found AOR to be harmful since it can be linked with subjective norms,
which could compromise the reliability and validity of the data analysis.
Second, a body of previous studies that applied the NAM to explain
behavioral intentions and behaviors did not re-test the correlations be­
tween AOR, AOC, and PN. Instead, they focused on the effect of PN on
behavioral intention and/or behavior, in order to simplify the frame­
work and avoid bias in their findings (Choudhary et al., 2022; Filimonau
et al., 2023; Lopes et al., 2019; Nayum and Thøgersen, 2022; Nordlund
et al., 2018; Shi et al., 2017). In the current research, we therefore attend
to the impacts of AOR, AOC, and PN on GPI and GPB. In other words, it is
argued that moral needs make consumers more pro-environmental
(Schwartz, 1977). Consumers feel morally bound to purchase green
products when they understand the adverse impacts of unsustainable
consumption (Govaerts and Olsen, 2022). Put another way, the higher
the awareness of negative consequences, the higher the personal re­
sponsibility related to environmental problems, and the higher the
personal moral obligation to be pro-environmental. Thus, these con­
sumers are more likely to consume in an environmentally friendly
manner.
H2. PN is positively associated with GPI.
H3. AOC is positively associated with (a) GPI and (b) GPB.
H4. AOR is positively associated with (a) GPI and (b) GPB.
2.3. Dimensions of karma
Several studies have used the term “karma-yoga” in place of “karma”
(Mulla and Krishnan, 2012, 2013; Rastogi et al., 2020). The origin of the
word “karma” can be traced back to the Sanskrit root “kri”, which means
all forms of human activity, including physical, verbal, and mental ac­
tions, while the term “yoga” is derived from the Sanskrit root “yuj”,
which refers to the idea of joining (Mulla and Krishnan, 2013). As such,
the term “karma-yoga” refers to technique for performing action intel­
ligently. However, some recent studies have used the term “karma”
rather than “karma-yoga” to emphasize the perspective of religious be­
liefs and its role in individuals’ moral development, instead of focusing
on aspects related to the technique of intelligent action (Mo et al., 2022;
Srikanth and Thakur, 2022). Therefore, the two terms “karma-yoga” and
“karma” are used interchangeably in our study.
The theory of karma is a primarily religious doctrine that was orig­
inally derived from religious traditions, such as Buddhism, Hinduism,
Jainism, and Sikhism (White and Norenzayan, 2019). The doctrine of
karma is not only documented as the central philosophy in Asian
countries (Mulla and Krishnan, 2013), but it also exists worldwide (Mo
et al., 2022; Srikanth and Thakur, 2022). It advocates that causal
C.D. Duong
relationships are engraved into the fabric of the universe many times
over, and in many lives (White and Norenzayan, 2022). The funda­
mental tenet of karmic faith suggests that good/bad outcomes are a
result of individuals’ past good/bad behaviors, and that good behaviors
today will lead to good things in the future, and vice versa (Huebner and
Garrod, 1991). Individuals thus invest in “good” karma because they
believe that their investment in good actions will circle back as karmic
rewards, or that their bad actions will result in karmic publishment in
the future (C. J. M. White et al., 2019a,b). Beliefs in karma share certain
characteristics with other irrational beliefs like superstition, magical
thinking, and belief in fate (Kulow and Kramer, 2016; Cindel J. M. White
et al., 2019).
In contrast with Eastern cultures, most individuals who live in
Western cultures would not readily admit to holding irrational beliefs.
However, recent studies have begun to investigate the ways in which
such beliefs can influence everyday decision making, such as retail
pricing strategies (Yang, 2011), purchase behaviors (Seger-Guttmann,
2019), and charitable appeals (Kulow and Kramer, 2016). Similarly, the
belief in fate – which posits the existence of an external force beyond
one’s control that determines positive or negative life outcomes – has
been found to impact individuals’ choices, particularly with regard to
indulgent behaviors, among those who believe they can alter their fate
(Kramer and Block, 2008). The karmic perspective seems to play a
crucial role in consumption (Roy et al., 2019), as research has indicated
that consumer behaviors can be significantly correlated with karmic
beliefs (Kulow and Kramer, 2016; Mo et al., 2022). Nonetheless, mar­
keting scholars have yet to investigate whether the karma dimensions
(KDO, KIR, and KE) can activate consumers’ personal moral norms
regarding pro-environmental consumption, in turn stimulating their GPI
and GPB.
Mulla and Krishnan (2013) conducted a study on the verses of the
Gita and established the three dimensions of karma. The first is KDO.
The Gita explains that actions driven by desires can bind the soul to the
cycle of birth and death. To avoid this, individuals must view all their
actions as a repayment of past debts and fulfill their obligations toward
those in their immediate surroundings without any extrinsic incentives.
The second component of karma is KIR. This is when an individual
distinguishes between the eternal (soul) and the transient (body) and
identifies more with the soul; their actions then become spontaneous
and free from material desires. This leads to indifference toward external
rewards since outcomes are determined by a cause-and-effect chain
beyond their control. The individual views their actions as natural and
performed through their bodily organs as instruments, rather than as a
product of their ownership. The third component of karma is KE. The
Gita explained that the senses interact with material objects and create
perceptions of happiness or pain, leading to desire. However, desires
continue to grow and it perpetuates the cycle of desire and action. To
break free, one can either renounce all actions or control the mind and
remain neutral to sensory experiences. By doing what needs to be done
without desiring any specific outcome, with mental control, and with
equanimity toward pain and pleasure, one can perform actions without
fear of unhappiness. It is recommended that people control their senses
and perform actions for the benefits of others; believing in the eternal
nature of the soul and the inherent divinity of all beings can foster a
sense of inner balance, and counter physical and mental disturbances.
2.3.1. Individual effects of karma duty orientation, indifference to rewards,
and equanimity
The metaphysical explanation of the karma doctrine suggests that
individuals’ moral development is related to three dimensions of karma:
KDO, KIR, and KE. Personal (moral) norms can therefore be positively
activated by these three dimensions for the following reasons. First, KDO
is not only defined as the foundation for moral sensitivity and judgment,
but it is also the extent to which people execute their key accountability
and fulfill righteous and virtuous expectations (Mulla and Krishnan,
2013). People can determine their appropriate obligations by sensitively
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 73 (2023) 103351
corresponding with the needs of particular circumstances and condi­
tions, thus settling on the right course of behavior (Mulla and Krishnan,
2007). Therefore, those who internalize this belief can feel a moral sense
of obligation and responsibility to be pro-social and pro-environmental
(Srikanth and Thakur, 2022) and to avoid harmful actions (Mo et al.,
2022). Second, KIR refers to the moral motivation that causes in­
dividuals to behave altruistically without any expectations of extrinsic
or intrinsic rewards (Mulla and Krishnan, 2013). KIR can be closely
related to personal (moral) norms regarding environmentally friendly
purchases, since most individuals behave pro-socially or
pro-environmentally when they are internally and selflessly activated by
feelings of moral obligation to perform this behavior without the ex­
pectations of material or extrinsic outcomes (Mulla and Krishnan, 2012;
Schwartz, 1977). Third, KE is the extent to which individuals stick with a
settled course of behavior without vacillating, regardless of difficulties
with carrying out the obligation; it can therefore constitute a (personal)
moral norm (Mulla and Krishnan, 2013). In the context of
pro-environmental consumption, KE can thus help to develop con­
sumers’ (personal) moral obligation to act pro-environmentally. Last,
prior studies reported that PN not only receives the effects of different
antecedents, such as environmental concerns (Shi et al., 2017), feelings
of compassion, and family upbringing (Filimonau et al., 2023), response
efficacy, injunctive social norm, and descriptive norms (Nayum and
Thøgersen, 2022), but that it can also transfer these impacts to
pro-environmental intentions and/or behaviors. Consequently, in this
study, we predict that the three dimensions of karma (KDO, KIR and KE)
directly and interactively activate consumers’ personal (moral) norms,
which in turn increases their pro-environment purchase intentions and
behaviors.
H5. PN is positively and directly associated with (a) KDO, (b) KIR, and
(c) KE.
H6. GPI is indirectly associated with (a) KDO, (b) KIR, and (c) KE
through PN.
H7. GPB is serially and indirectly associated with (a) KDO, (b) KIR, and
(c) KE through GPI and PN.
2.3.2. The complementary effects of karma duty orientation, indifference to
rewards, and equanimity
There are some causal interrelations between the karma dimensions
of KDO, KIR, and KE, such as independent, cospecialized, and comple­
mentary relationships, although these relationships have not been
strictly identified (Reichenbach, 1988). An independent relationship is
when variation in one karma dimension (e.g., KDO) does not change the
value of others (e.g., KIR or KE). A cospecialized relationship is when
one karma dimension (i.e., KIR) is of little or no value without the
presence of others (e.g., KDO or KE). A complementary relationship is
when the value of one karma dimension (e.g., KE) is augmented by the
existence of others (e.g., KDO or KIR). We expect that these three di­
mensions of karma will be complementary to each other and trigger
consumers’ personal (moral) norms regarding pro-environmental pur­
chases. These dimensions of karma can interact with each other to attain
complementarity in two ways. First, KDO can facilitate the impacts of
KIR and KE on individuals’ moral development (Mulla and Krishnan,
2013). Specifically, KDO can strengthen the effects of KIR and KE on
consumers’ personal (moral) norm to behave pro-environmentally
because it affects how well consumers activate their moral motivation
to altruistically perform pro-social/environmental actions, without
expecting inner or outer rewards, troubles or entitlements (Mulla and
Krishnan, 2012). Second, consumers may leverage their senses of duty
and obligation toward pro-social/environmental behavior, thus acti­
vating moral judgment and an empathic response to
pro-social/environmental needs (Mulla and Krishnan, 2012). Without
the effects of KDO, it is impossible to develop individuals’ KE and KIR
(Mulla and Krishnan, 2013), or activate their personal (moral) norms
C.D. Duong Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 73 (2023) 103351

(Huebner and Garrod, 1991). Finally, the karmic worldview, with its level, individuals may lack a sufficient sense of duty and obligation to be
emphasis on belief in the law of cause and effect (Mo et al., 2022; Sri­ pro-social/environmental or to leverage equanimity and indifference to
kanth and Thakur, 2022), allows individuals to develop KDO under the rewards, which can damage their personal (moral) norm. It is therefore
effects of KE and KIR. In other words, KE and KIR can increase KDO by predicted that the imbalance caused by one dimension (i.e., KDO)
allowing individuals to focus on the task at hand without being increasing more than another dimension (i.e., KIR or KE) will be unfa­
distracted by potential rewards or benefits. When individuals are vorable for the activation of consumers’ personal (moral) norm.
inspired by KDO, they are driven by a sense of responsibility to fulfill
H12. The degree of PN is lower when the imbalance between (a) KDO
their obligations and commitments, regardless of external motives
and KIR, (b) KDO and KE, and (c) KIR and KE increases in either
(Nayak, 2022; Srikanth and Thakur, 2022). KE can allow individuals to
direction.
remain calm and composed even in challenging situations, enabling
them to perform their obligations to the best of their ability and capacity The hypothesized model is exhibited in Fig. 1.
(Jijina and Biswas, 2022; Rastogi and Prakash Pati, 2015). KIR also helps
to ensure that individuals are not swayed by the promise of personal 3. Methods
gains when carrying out a certain behavior, but rather that they are
inspired by the intrinsic value of the action itself (Ansong et al., 2022; 3.1. Research context
Mulla and Krishnan, 2007). By cultivating KE and KIR, individuals can
strengthen their sense of obligation and become more committed to Since 1986, Vietnam has undergone a transition from a planned
fulfilling their responsibilities. We therefore argue that the three di­ economy to a market-oriented one (Nguyen et al., 2022; Nguyen, 2021).
mensions of karma (KDO, KIR, KE) can interact with each other to Essentially, “Đổi Mới” (reform) has led to the development of a dynamic
activate consumers’ personal (moral) norm to behave in environmen­ economy and a large consumer market of approximately 100 million
tally friendly ways. consumers (Duong et al., 2021). As is the case with other emerging
economies, there is growing interest among scholars, marketers, and
H8. Together, KDO and KIR have a complementarily positive impact
policymakers in the concepts of “pro-environmental consumption” or
on PN.
“sustainable consumption”; while still relatively new and emerging in
H9. Together, KDO and KE have a complementarily positive impact on Vietnam, these are gaining traction (Duong et al., 2021; Nguyen, 2021).
PN. In terms of business practices, the Massan Group corporation – one of the
biggest private-sector groups in Vietnam – has implemented programs in
H10. Together, KIR and KE have a complementarily positive impact on
Vietnam that aimed to promote sustainable consumption and offer green
PN.
products to enhance consumers’ awareness of environmental issues. The
Vietnam Textile and Apparel Association aims to achieve sustainability
2.3.3. The congruent and incongruent effects of karma duty orientation,
by reducing energy and water consumption by 15% and 20%, respec­
indifference to rewards, and equanimity
tively, by 2023. Their long-term goal is to transform the industry into a
Given the importance of the karma dimensions to individuals’ moral
more environmentally friendly one by 2030. Moreover, Winmart, a
development, previous studies have contended that individuals can
retail chain now also owned by the Massan Group, has taken steps to
pursue a balance between them in order to activate internal process
promote green products and encourage pro-environmental consumption
related to the different types of cognitive-affective collaborations, which
habits among its consumers (Duong et al., 2021). More importantly,
together produce moral actions (Mulla and Krishnan, 2012). As
karmic beliefs are an integral part of Vietnamese culture and they have
mentioned above, all three dimensions of karma (KDO, KIR, and KE) are
deep roots in the country’s religious and philosophical traditions (Mai,
necessary for activating the personal (moral) norm effectively and suf­
2021). Belief in karma is not only presented in Buddhism, but it also
ficiently. The karma dimensions allow consumers to constantly recon­
exists in other Vietnamese religious practices, such as Confucianism and
figure both altruistic and egoistic motivations for behaving in a more
Taoism (Phan, 1993; Taylor, 2018). In Vietnamese society, this belief is
pro-social/environmentally friendly way (Kulow and Kramer, 2016),
also linked to a strong sense of social responsibility and community
which is the foundation for changing from conventional to greener
harmony (Mai, 2021; Phan, 1993). It is thus believed that Vietnam can
consumption (Yang and Thøgersen, 2022). Combinations of the karma
provide a rich context for our research.
dimensions (KDO, KIR, and KE) can develop sensitivity and motivation,
Vietnam’s urbanization has been rapidly increasing since the “Đổi
and thus activate consumers’ personal (moral) norm, resulting in
Mới” policy. The urbanization rate increased from 3.4% during the
pro-social/environmental actions. Conversely, when the balance of the
2000s to approximately 41% in 2021, and it is predicted to reach at least
karma dimensions is low, consumers will have difficulty activating their
45% by 2025 and over 50% by 2030 (O’Neill, 2023). However, this
personal (moral) norm regarding pro-environmental behavior. There­
rapid urbanization has also resulted in various social economic chal­
fore, we expect that when the three karma dimensions (KDO, KIR, and
lenges, particularly environmental problems, which are most evident in
KE) increase in a balanced manner, the level of PN will increase.
the large cities (Nguyen et al., 2022; Nguyen et al., 2018). Although the
H11. The degree of PN is higher when the degree of balance between Vietnamese government has attempted to participate in international
(a) KDO and KIR, (b) KDO and KE, and (c) KIR and KE is higher than conventions on sustainability and to introduce laws and regulations to
when the degree of congruence is low. protect the environment, their efforts have not been in line with the
country’s sustainable growth potential, due to the large population
Not all individuals may express a highly congruent degree of the
(Duong et al., 2021). Fortunately, commercial reports show that there
three karma dimensions (KDO, KIR, and KE). In other words, an indi­
has been a significant increase in the sales of environmentally friendly
vidual is often proficient or deficient in one or more of these dimensions
products, with many Vietnamese consumers willing to pay more for
(Mulla and Krishnan, 2012), depending on his/her understanding and
green and/or organic products (Nguyen et al., 2018; Vu et al., 2021). As
capacity. For example, an individual may express high moral sensitivity
a result, many large cities have launched campaigns to raise awareness
(KDO), but poor moral motivation (KE). Hence, it is necessary to discuss
of environmentally friendly consumption and to promote the use of
the impacts of an imbalance in these dimensions on consumers’ personal
green products (Nguyen et al., 2018; Nguyen, 2021). For this reason, the
(moral) norm regarding pro-environmental purchasing. Incongruence
country’s largest cities were targeted for participant recruitment in our
can be exhibited in two directions: a higher degree of one dimension (i.
study.
e., KDO) with a lower degree of another dimension (i.e., KIR or KE).
Mulla and Krishnan (2013) argue that when duty orientation is at a low

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Fig. 1. Hypothesized model.

3.2. Participants and data collection

Table 1
Demographic profiles of the respondents.
In order to test the hypothesized model, we collected data from
consumers who were residing in the five largest cities in Vietnam by Variables Frequency % Overall distribution in
Vietnam (%, GSO, 2020)
population (Hanoi, Hai Phong, Da Nang, Ho Chi Minh city, and Can
Tho), based on the mall-intercept survey approach. The data collection Gender Male 214 38.8 49.8
was undertaken between 20th September and October 20, 2022. The Female 338 61.2 50.2
Age <20 years 21 3.8 8.9
particular rationale for choosing the five largest cities is that environ­ old
mental problems are often more urgent and imperative in urban areas, 20–29 years 154 27.9 20.7
specifically in emerging economies (Nguyen et al., 2018), and many old
consumers in large cities are highly aware of environmental issues and 30–39 years 270 48.9 22.1
old
pro-environmental consumption (Duong et al., 2021; Nguyen, 2021; Vu
40–49 years 92 16.7 17.7
et al., 2021). Additionally, environmentally friendly products and ser­ old
vices are more available in urban than in rural areas (Duong, 2022; 50–59 years 14 2.5 14.8
Nguyen et al., 2018). Thus, large cities could provide the necessary old
conditions for green consumption (Vu et al., 2021). These conditions >60 years 1 0.2 15.8
old
may include a significant number of consumers with a higher level of Monthly <15 million 98 17.8 N/A
environmental knowledge, higher living standards, and the availability income VND
of green products on the market (Duong, 2022; Nguyen, 2021). A mega 16–25 116 21.0
mall in each city (i.e., Vincom mega mall, Aeon mall) was randomly million VND
26–35 308 55.8
selected for the data collection. At each mega mall, trained interviewers
million VND
arrived and randomly selected one out of every four shoppers to kindly 36–45 24 4.3
inquire if they would complete the questionnaire. Trained interviewers million VND
verbally clarified the concise meaning of the key concepts in the ques­ >45 million 6 1.1
tionnaire, announced the noncommercial purpose of the academic VND
Cities Hanoi 183 33.2 38.1
research, and then read each question/statement from the questionnaire
Hai Phong 75 13.6 9.2
and wrote down the participants’ responses. A total of 573 consumers Da Nang 45 8.2 5.1
agreed to participate in the survey, but 21 questionnaires were excluded Can Tho 43 7.8 6.9
from further analyses because of missing data. Consequently, 552 valid Ho Chi Minh 206 37.3 40.7
city
responses were then used as the final sample in our study. Table 1
presents the demographic profiles of the respondents. Note: N = 552, 1 USD = 23,605.00 VND (exchange rate on March 14, 2023).
Given that the respondents’ perceptions were unpredictable and the
population size was very large, our study determined the sample size by calculate the minimal sample size:
utilizing the most conservative approach, as suggested by Babbie
(1989). It assumed an equal likelihood (50/50) of positive (p = 0.5) and Z 2 p(1 − p) 1.962 0.5 (1 − 0.5)
Nm = = = 384
negative (1-p = 0.5) attitudes among the respondents (Pappas, 2023). e2 0.052
The calculation of the sample size was based on the requirement of The minimal acceptable number of participants was 384, while our
obtaining more than 20 respondents in the sample, resulting in a Z-score valid sample comprised 522 respondents. As such, the sample is
of 1.96 (Sekaran and Bougie, 2020). Akis et al. (1996) suggested that in appropriate for further analyses.
order to ensure a maximum statistical error of 5% and a minimum Based on the information provided, the research sample appears to
confidence level of 95%, the following formula should be used to be representative of the population of Vietnam in terms of age and

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C.D. Duong Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 73 (2023) 103351

geographic location. Particularly, the proportion of respondents from Table 2

the five biggest cities of Vietnam – Ho Chi Minh city (37.3%), Hanoi Measures.
(33.2%), Hai Phong (13.6%), Da Nang (8.2%), and Can Tho (7.8%) – is Constructs Indicators Standardized
similar to those of the overall population in Vietnam (GSO, 2020). The Loadings
largest number of respondents (270, 48.9%) were aged from 30 to 29 GPB Green purchase behavior (α = 0.971; CR = 0.972;
years old, followed by: 20–29 (27.9%), 40–49 (16.7%), <20 (3.8%), AVE = 0.896; MSV = 0.750; MaxR(H) = 0.973)
50–59 (2.5%), and >60 years old (0.2%). These proportions were also GPB1 When I want to buy a product, I look at the 0.936
similar to the overall age distribution in Vietnam. However, the gender ingredient label to see if it contains things that
are environmentally-damaging
distribution of the sample is not representative of the population, as the GPB2 I prefer green products over nongreen products 0.955
majority of respondents are female (61.2%). In Vietnam, as in many when their product qualities are similar
other Asian cultures, there is a tendency for women to engage in more GPB3 I choose to buy products that are 0.959
frequent shopping than men. This trend is consistent with the findings environmentally friendly
GPB4 I buy green products even if they are more 0.935
reported by Nguyen et al. (2022). Therefore, because the survey was
expensive than the nongreen ones
conducted at mega malls, it is logical to expect that the majority of re­ GPI Green purchase intention (α ¼ 0.959; CR ¼
spondents will be female. 0.956; AVE ¼ 0.814; MSV ¼ 0.750; MaxR(H)
¼ 0.960)
GPI1 I plan to buy green products (organic foods or 0.872
3.3. Scales and validation
energy-saving products) in the next month
GPI2 I am willing to consider switching to other brands 0.935
The current study measured the latent variables, displayed in Fig. 1, for ecological reasons
via the reflective latent constructs adopted from previously published GPI3 I am willing to pay more for a product which is 0.931
studies. Particularly, the three dimensions of karma, KDO (6 items), KIR healthy or helps protect the environment
GPI4 I will consider buying green products because 0.890
(6 items), and KE (6 items), were adopted from the study of Mulla and
they are less polluting
Krishnan (2013). Three constructs in the NAM, PN (4 items), AOR (3 GPI5 I intend to buy green products in the coming time 0.880
items), and AOC (3 items), were adopted and slightly modified from the PN Personal norm (α ¼ 0.907; CR ¼ 0.909; AVE ¼
research of Onwezen et al. (2013) and Han (2020), while a 4-item scale 0.770; MSV ¼ 0.483; MaxR(H) ¼ 0.912)
PN1 I feel morally obliged to purchase green products 0.866
measuring GPB and a 6-item scale measuring GPI were adopted from the
instead of a conventional product
research of Lee (2008) and Chan (2001), respectively. The validity of all PN2 I feel personally obligated to purchase a green 0.905
the scales adopted in our study was tested and validated by numerous product
prior studies. For example, the scales measuring KDO, KIR, and KE were PN3 I would feel guilty if I didn’t do anything to 0.860
validated by the studies of Srikanth and Thakur (2022), Mulla and protect environment
AOR Ascription of responsibility (α ¼ 0.925; CR ¼
Krishnan (2012), and Mulla and Krishnan (2013) while the scales
0.927; AVE ¼ 0.808; MSV ¼ 0.483; MaxR(H)
measuring GPB and GPI were validated by the studies of Nguyen (2021) ¼ 0.929)
and Duong (2022). Some scales, such as PN and AOR, were slightly AOR1 Every consumer is jointly responsible for 0.920
modified to be appropriately aligned with Vietnamese culture and lan­ environmental problems caused by their
guages. Moreover, a back-translation approach between Vietnamese and consumption
AOR2 Every consumer is partly responsible for the 0.904
English and a reversed question were used to minimize the response environmental problems caused by their
bias. The multi-item constructs employed in our research are described consumption
in Table 1. All the items, except for those requesting demographic in­ AOR3 Every consumer must take responsibility for the 0.872
formation, were marked on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 environmental problems caused by their
consumption
“strongly disagree” to 7 “strongly agree”.
AOC Awareness of consequences (α ¼ 0.911; CR ¼
To test the reliability and validity of the adopted scales, we examined 0.915; AVE ¼ 0.781; MSV ¼ 0.387; MaxR(H)
the values of Cronbach’s alpha and performed confirmatory factor ¼ 0.919)
analysis (CFA). The results of the Cronbach’s alpha testing revealed that AOC1 Consumption activities causes pollution, climate 0.867
the corrected item-total correlation of GPI6 (a reversed question) and change, and exhaustion of natural resources
AOC2 Consumption activities causes environmental 0.916
PN4 were − 0.388 and 0.173, <0.3, respectively. These items were then deteriorations (e.g, solid/food waste, excessive
eliminated from the original constructs (GPI and PN), as suggested by use of energy/water)
Fornell and Larcker (1991). Initially, the CFA reported that the mea­ AOC3 Consumption activities generates the 0.868
surement model satisfactorily fitted with the data. However, the stan­ environmental impacts on the neighboring areas
and wider environment
dardized loadings of KDO3, KIR1, and KE4 were lower than the cut-off
KDO Karma duty orientation (α ¼ 0.954; CR ¼
value of 0.5. These items were also excluded from the KDO, KIR, and KE 0.954; AVE ¼ 0.805; MSV ¼ 0.187; MaxR(H)
constructs before re-performing the CFA. The re-performed CFA yielded ¼ 0.964)
high indices of fitness: χ2 = 1325.452, df = 444, χ2/df = 2.985, GFI = KDO1 I am aware of my obligations to others 0.828
0.869, AGFI = 0.835, CFI = 0.963, TLI = 0.956, NFI = 0.946, and KDO2 I feel it is my duty to contribute to others 0.863
KDO4 I willingly do whatever task is assigned to me 0.939
RMSEA = 0.060. Table 2 reports the satisfactory values for Cronbach’s KDO5 I gladly perform all duties that are allotted to me 0.852
alpha, standardized factor loadings, AVE, and CR, while Table 3 in­ KDO6 Once I agree to do a task, I make sure that I 0.899
dicates that the square roots of the AVE of the variables were above the complete it
intercorrelated values. Thus, the validity and reliability of the adopted KIR Karma indifference to rewards (α ¼ 0.971; CR
¼ 0.972; AVE ¼ 0.874; MSV ¼ 0.061; MaxR
constructs were affirmed in this research (Hair et al., 2020).
(H) ¼ 0.976)
Statistical checks were then performed to manage the common KIR2 While working, I keep thinking about what I will 0.923
method bias. First, the data were tested employing Harman’s single- get in return (negatively scored)
factor test and unrotated factor solution; the cumulative percentage KIR3 I work only when I see that there is some personal 0.912
accounted for 35.973%, which was lower than 50% (Podsakoff et al., benefit for me (negatively scored)
KIR4 I cannot work when I know that I will not get 0.968
2003). Second, all the adopted items of eight constructs were con­ anything in return for my efforts (negatively
strained in a single-factor CFA, yielding poor indices of fitness: χ2 = scored)
17177.378, df = 629, χ2/df = 27.309, GFI = 0.289, AGFI = 0.205, CFI = (continued on next page)
0.332, TLI = 0.293, NFI = 0.325, and RMSEA = 0.219. Additionally, the

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Table 2 (continued ) 4. Results

Constructs Indicators Standardized
Loadings Multiple linear regressions were performed to test the individual
KIR5 When I am given a task, I first think about how I 0.956
effects. Some control variables (gender, age, income) were added to
will benefit from it (negatively scored). ensure the reliability of the statistical analyses. Table 4 reveals that GPB
KIR6 When I do something well, I expect recognition 0.913 is strongly and positively related to GPI (β = 0.834, p < 0.001) and AOR
from others (negatively scored). (β = 0.203, p < 0.001), but it is not significantly correlated with AOC (p
KE Karma equanimity (α ¼0.973; CR ¼ 0.972;
> 0.05). GPI was also found to be significantly and positively associated
AVE ¼ 0.875; MSV ¼ 0.157; MaxR(H) ¼
0.975) with PN, AOR and AOC (β = 0.314; β = 0.302; β = 0.174, respectively,
KE1 I am neutral toward success and failure. 0.936 all p-values <0.001). H1, H2, H3a, H4a, and H4b were therefore sup­
KE2 Compared to others, I get less depressed if I fail 0.953 ported while H3b was not supported. Moreover, KDO, KIR, and KE were
on a task found to be significantly and positively related to PN (β = 0.286, p <
KE3 Compared to others, I get less excited by my 0.908
success
0.001; β = 0.058, p < 0.01; β = 0.100, p < 0.001, respectively).
KE5 I do not get distracted by physical discomforts 0.959 Consequently, H5a, H5b, and H5c were supported. The result of the
when I am working mediation analyses (see Table 8) showed that KDO and KE had indirect
KE6 I can remain concentrated on my work even if I 0.920 effects on GPI through PN (β = 0.2290, 95% CI [0.1379, 0.3379]; β =
am uncomfortable
0.1306, 95% CI [0.0814, 0.1899]), and that they serially and indirectly
Notes: N = 552. α: Cronbach’s alpha; CR: Composite Reliability; AVE: Average affected GPB through two mediators (GPI and PN) (β = 0.0415, 95% CI
Variance Extracted; MSV: Maximum Shared Variance; MaxR(H): Maximal [0.0160, 0.0730]; β = 0.0137, 95% CI [0.0042, 0.0281]). However, KIR
Reliability. was not found to be indirectly associated with either GPI or GPB as the
95% confidence intervals of these indirect coefficient paths contained a
difference in the standardized loadings was less than 0.2, representing zero value. H6a, H6c, H7a, and H7c were supported whereas H6b and
the absence of common method bias in our research. H7b were not supported.
It is deduced that the three dimensions of karma, KDO, KIR, and KE,
3.4. Analytical approach interacted with each other to positively affect consumers’ PN. Consistent
with H8 and H10, the analysis results in Table 5 and Table 7 illustrate
After performing the preliminary examination (Cronbach’s alpha, that consumers’ PN would be increased as a consequence of the com­
CFA, and common method bias) with the use of SPSS 28.0 and AMOS bination of KDO and KIR (β = 0.057, p < 0.05) or KIR and KE (β = 0.056,
25.0, we used multiple linear regression, polynomial regression with p < 0.001). Yet, inconsistent with H9, the results in Table 6 show that
response surface analysis (PRA), and the PROCESS macro approach to integrating KDO and KE did not lead to an increase in consumers’ PN (p
test the developed hypotheses. PRA is an advanced technique used to > 0.05). Hence, H8 and H10 were supported while H9 was not sup­
test the complementary, congruent, and incongruent effects of two ported. Additionally, the mediation analyses in Table 8 revealed that the
predictors on an outcome variable and it depicts these curvilinear in­ compound combinations of KDO and KIR (BV1) and KIR and KE (BV3)
terrelations in a three-dimensional (3D) graph (Edwards, 1994; Shanock had indirect effects on GPI via PN (β = 0.0160, 95% CI [0.0072, 0.0237];
et al., 2010). It was found that PRA was more effective than traditional β = 0.0156, 95% CI [0.0079, 0.0224], respectively) while the combi­
regression analysis in explaining the curvilinear relationship between nation of KDO and KE was not found to be indirectly related to GPI
the precursor variables and an outcome variable (Guo et al., 2021; through PN.
Shanock et al., 2010). Also, similar to prior studies that adopted the H11a, H11b, and H11c suggested that consumers’ PN would increase
PRA, scale-centered measures were computed in our study to minimize when the balances between KDO and KIR, KDO and KE, or KIR and KE
potential multicollinearity (Qiu et al., 2020; Tsai et al., 2022). More­ were high, rather than when these balances were low. To test these
over, we estimated the single coefficients that correspond to the joint hypotheses, the surfaces along the KDO-KIR, KDO-KE, and KIR-KE lines,
effects of the polynomial terms, which were combined into block vari­ which shifted from the front to the back corners in the KDO-KIR, KDO-
ables (BV) by multiplying the polynomial regression coefficients with KE, and KIR-KE planes in Figs. 2–4, respectively, were examined. These
the raw data. BV1, BV2, and BV3 represented ϵ0 + ϵ1 + ϵ2 + ϵ3 + ϵ4 + ϵ5, figures display the plots for 3D response surface trajectories, along with
ω0 + ω1 + ω2 + ω3 + ω4 + ω5, φ0 + φ1 + φ2 + φ3 + φ4 + φ5, respectively. perfect balanced lines (KDO = KIR, KDO = KE, and KIR = KE, respec­
Model 4 of the PROCESS macro was employed to test the indirect effects tively) and perfect imbalanced lines (KDO = - KIR, KDO = - KE, and KIR
with a bias-corrected confidence interval of 95% and 5000 boot­ = -KE, respectively). The results in Table 5, Table 6, and Table 7
strapping samples, as suggested by Hayes (2018). revealed that the slope of congruence lines (Ϭ1, ξ1, and ϴ1) were sta­
tistically significant and positive (β = 0.320, p < 0.01; β = 0.620, p <
0.001; and β = 0.280, p < 0.01, respectively) while the curvature of the

Table 3
Correlation matrix.
Constructs Mean S.D. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1. Gender 1.612 0.488 n.a

2. Age 2.868 0.836 0.079 n.a
3. Education 1.980 0.383 0.143** 0.196** n.a
4. Income 2.500 0.871 0.060 0.405** 0.275** n.a
5. AOR 5.809 0.772 0.057 0.205** 0.128** 0.258** 0.899
6. KDO 5.586 0.905 0.045 0.296** 0.205** 0.297** 0.427** 0.897
7. KIR 2.997 1.567 0.070 0.168** 0.011 − 0.018 0.029 − 0.234** 0.935
8. KE 5.049 1.468 − 0.075 0.264** 0.060 0.163** 0.227** 0.379** − 0.149** 0.935
9. GPI 5.638 1.148 0.108* 0.298** 0.190** 0.441** 0.511** 0.438** − 0.010 0.189** 0.902
10. GPB 5.618 1.304 0.115** 0.319** 0.207** 0.418** 0.515** 0.409** 0.091* 0.163** 0.829** 0.946
11. AOC 5.662 0.860 0.096* 0.174** 0.154** 0.282** 0.575** 0.388** − 0.133** 0.171** 0.454** 0.418** 0.884
12. PN 5.700 0.849 0.046 0.278** 0.114** 0.341** 0.659** 0.419** 0.014 0.314** 0.538** 0.557** 0.522** 0.877

Notes: N = 552. The italic diagonal elements are the square root of the AVE values, *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01.

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C.D. Duong Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 73 (2023) 103351

Table 4
Hierarchical multiple regression.
Variables Personal norm (PN) Green purchase intention (GPI) Green purchase behavior (GPB)

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

β SE t p-value β SE t p-value β SE t p-value

Constant 2.744*** 0.245 11.189 <0.001 − 0.158 0.329 − 0.481 0.630 − 0.705** 0.262 − 2.687 0.007
Gender 0.039 0.065 0.609 0.543 0.126 0.077 1.627 0.104 0.060 0.063 0.949 0.343
Age 0.039 0.044 0.895 0.371 0.092 0.050 1.842 0.066 0.092* 0.040 2.278 0.023
Income 0.202*** 0.040 5.056 <0.001 0.319*** 0.049 6.494 <0.001 0.061 0.041 1.480 0.139
KDO 0.286*** 0.040 7.123 <0.001
KIR 0.058** 0.021 2.705 0.007
KE 0.100*** 0.024 4.203 <0.001
PN 0.314*** 0.062 5.065 <0.001
AOR 0.302*** 0.069 4.376 <0.001 0.203*** 0.051 3.976 <0.001
AOC 0.174** 0.055 3.157 0.002 − 0.012 0.045 − 0.279 0.780
GPI 0.834*** 0.034 24.592 <0.001
R2 0.266 0.421 0.706
Adjusted R2 0.258 0.414 0.702
F Change 32.938*** 65.926*** 217.629

Notes: N = 552, all coefficients are unstandardized. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Table 5 Table 7
Polynomial regression and response surface analysis for the effect of Karma duty Polynomial regression and response surface analysis for the effect of Karma
orientation and indifference to rewards on personal norm. equanimity and indifference to rewards on personal norm.
Variables Personal norm (PN) Variables Personal norm (PN)

Model 4 Model 6

β SE t p-value β SE t p-value

Polynomial terms Polynomial terms

ϵ0: Constant − 0.158** 0.053 − 3.007 0.003 φ0: Constant − 0.321*** 0.060 − 5.369 <0.001
ϵ1: KDO 0.404*** 0.067 6.077 <0.001 φ1: KE 0.353*** 0.052 6.762 <0.001
ϵ2: KIR − 0.085 0.047 − 1.817 0.070 φ2: KIR − 0.077 0.048 − 1.610 0.108
ϵ3: KDO2 0.057* 0.028 2.074 0.039 φ3: KE2 0.103*** 0.023 4.512 <0.001
ϵ4: KDO x KIR 0.057* 0.024 2.340 0.020 φ4: KE x KIR 0.056*** 0.013 4.316 <0.001
ϵ5: KIR2 0.053** 0.018 2.960 0.003 φ5: KIR2 0.049** 0.018 2.630 0.009
Surface tests Surface tests
Congruence line (KDO = KIR) Congruence line (KE = KIR)
Ϭ1: Slope (ϵ1 + ϵ2) 0.320** 0.090 3.420 0.001 ϴ1: Slope (φ1 + φ2) 0.280** 0.080 3.297 0.001
Ϭ2: Curvature (ϵ3 + ϵ4 + ϵ5) 0.170*** 0.040 4.070 0.000 ϴ2: Curvature (φ3 + φ4 + φ5) 0.210*** 0.030 6.506 0.000
Incongruence line (KDO = - KIR) Incongruence line (KE = - KIR)
Ϭ3: Slope (ϵ1 - ϵ2) 0.490*** 0.070 7.134 0.000 ϴ3: Slope (φ1 - φ2) 0.430*** 0.050 7.840 0.000
Ϭ4: Curvature (ϵ3 - ϵ4 + ϵ5) 0.050 0.040 1.292 0.198 ϴ4: Curvature (φ3 - φ4 + φ5) 0.100*** 0.030 3.003 0.003

Notes: N = 552, all coefficients are unstandardized. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p Notes: N = 552, all coefficients are unstandardized. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p
< 0.001. < 0.001.

congruence lines (Ϭ2, ξ2, and ϴ2) were also significant and positive (β =
Table 6 0.170, p < 0.001; β = 0.110, p < 0.05; and β = 0.210, p < 0.001,
Polynomial regression and response surface analysis for the effect of Karma duty
respectively). These results indicated that when KDO and KIR, KDO and
orientation and equanimity on personal norm.
KE, KIR and KE were in agreement, PN would increase, the same as when
Variables Personal norm (PN) KDO and KIR, KDO and KE, KIR and KE increased. The highest degree of
Model 5 PN is at the back corners of Figs. 2–4, where KDO and KIR, KDO and KE,
β SE t p-value KIR and KE are high, and they are lowest at the front of these figures
where KDO and KIR, KDO and KE, KIR and KE are all low. These findings
Polynomial terms
ω0: Constant − 0.201*** 0.054 − 3.720 <0.001
indicate that additive models of karma dimensions, wherein PN is
ω1: KDO 0.346*** 0.066 5.244 <0.001 activated by forms of karma in combination. Moreover, the significant
ω2: KE 0.277*** 0.051 5.463 <0.001 and positive curvatures of PN (Ϭ2, ξ2, and ϴ2) suggest that the effects of a
ω3: KDO2 0.016 0.028 0.581 0.562 balance between the three karma dimensions (KDO, KIR, and KE) were
ω4: KDO x KE 0.008 0.025 0.330 0.742
more complex than expected (Guo et al., 2021). As displayed in
ω5: KE2 0.085*** 0.022 3.834 <0.001
Surface tests Figs. 2–4, the levels of PN firstly decreased, and then increased as the
Congruence line (KDO = KE) karma dimensions (KDO, KIR, and KE) increased in balance, illustrating
ξ1: Slope (ω1 + ω2) 0.620*** 0.050 11.457 0.000 U-shaped interrelations. These results also affirmed that the levels of PN
ξ2: Curvature (ω3 + ω4 + ω5) 0.110* 0.040 2.505 0.013 were high when the karma dimensions were balanced at either a low or
Incongruence line (KDO = - KE)
ξ3: Slope (ω1 - ω2) 0.070 0.010 0.659 0.511
high degree, and that these levels were higher when the karma di­
ξ4: Curvature (ω3 - ω4 + ω5) 0.090* 0.040 2.138 0.034 mensions were high, compared to when these dimensions were low.
H11a, 11b, and H11c were thus supported.
Notes: N = 552, all coefficients are unstandardized. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p
H12a, H12b, and H12c predicted that the larger the imbalance be­
< 0.001.
tween KDO and KIR, KDO and KE, or KIR and KE, the lower the degree of
PN. To test these hypotheses, we examined the KDO = -KIR, KDO = - KE,

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C.D. Duong Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 73 (2023) 103351

Table 8
Mediation analyses.
Mediation regression coefficient paths Effects BootSE Bootstrap 95% CIs

LLCI ULCI

AOC → GPI → GPB 0.5546 0.0822 0.3974 0.7204

AOR → GPI → GPB 0.6614 0.0806 0.5014 0.8173
PN → GPI → GPB 0.6165 0.0618 0.4931 0.7372
KDO → PN → GPI 0.2290 0.0515 0.1379 0.3379
KIR → PN → GPI 0.0054 0.0211 − 0.0387 0.0438
KE → PN → GPI 0.1306 0.0274 0.0814 0.1899
BV1 → PN → GPI 0.0160 0.0042 0.0072 0.0237
BV2 → PN → GPI − 0.0187 0.0107 − 0.0410 0.0012
BV3 → PN → GPI 0.0156 0.0037 0.0079 0.0224
KDO → PN → GPI → GPB 0.0415 0.0145 0.0160 0.0730
KIR → PN → GPI → GPB − 0.0007 0.0035 − 0.0086 0.0054
KE → PN → GPI → GPB 0.0137 0.0061 0.0042 0.0281
BV1 → PN → GPI → GPB 0.0005 0.0006 − 0.0007 0.0018
BV2 → PN → GPI → GPB − 0.0054 0.0024 − 0.0106 − 0.0013
BV3 → PN → GPI → GPB 0.0010 0.0006 − 0.0001 0.0023

Note: N = 552, results are based on trimmed scales. LLCI: Lower level of confidence interval. ULCI: Upper level of confidence interval. SE: Standard errors.

Fig. 2. Response surface for the effect of KDO and KIR on PN.

and KIR = -KE lines, which moved from the left to the right corners of the imbalanced (KE = -KIR) line is curved upward (U-shaped). This means
KDO-KIR, KDO-KE, and KIR-KE planes in Figs. 2–4, respectively. As seen that consumers’ PN would increase when the imbalance between KE and
in Table 4, Ϭ3 was significant and positive (β = 0.490, p < 0.001) while KIR became larger. H12c was thus not supported.
Ϭ4 was insignificant (p > 0.05). Thus, H12a was not supported. How­
ever, an unexpected significant slope (a significant and positive Ϭ3) 5. Discussion, implications, and conclusions
indicated that PN was higher when the direction of the imbalance was
such that KDO was higher than KIR, compared to the other way round. If This research attained new insights into the marketing literature by
we imaged KDO on the KIR-axis and KIR on the KDO-axis in Fig. 2, we examining the role played by karma dimensions in activating con­
would have the same results. Fig. 2 also shows the situation where PN is sumers’ personal (moral) norm, and then driving them to engage in pro-
similarly reduced by dips in both KDO and KIR. An insignificant cur­ environmental consumption actions. In so doing, the current study offers
vature along the imbalanced KDO-KIR line indicates that moving away important theoretical and managerial implications.
from the center of Fig. 2, PN would decrease, similar to when the
imbalance between KDO and KIR increases in either direction. Table 6
5.1. Discussion of the results
reports that ξ3 is insignificant (p > 0.05) while ξ3 is significant (β =
0.090, p < 0.05). The curvature of the PN surface along the perfect
The findings indicate that GPI positively and strongly affects GPB,
incongruent (KDO = -KE) line is positive and significant, and the level of
pertaining to tightening the “green gap” referred to by systematic
PN decreases similarly toward the surface along the perfectly incon­
literature reviews in the pro-environmental area of study (ElHaffar et al.,
gruent (KDO = -KE) line in the right bottom of Fig. 3, where the
2020; Kumari et al., 2022). In fact, this finding is in line with some prior
imbalance between KDO and KE increases, supporting H12b. Finally, as
studies that reported GPI to be a strong predictor of GPB (Park and Lin,
illustrated in Table 7, ϴ3 is significant (β = 0.430, p < 0.001) while ϴ4 is
2020; Sultan et al., 2020; Yang and Thøgersen, 2022). In advanced
also significant (β = 0.100, p < 0.01). The slope at the point where KE =
economies, with the high availability of green products, consumers’
0 and KIR = 0 is positive, and the PN convex surface along the perfectly
pro-environmental intentions are more likely to become actual

10
C.D. Duong
Fig. 3. Response surface for the effect of KDO and KE on PN.
Fig. 4. Response surface for the effect of KE and KIR on PN.
behaviors (Nguyen et al., 2018), while the wide gap between GPI and
GPB is found in emerging Asia economies, such as Vietnam (Duong,
2022; Nguyen et al., 2022). The findings of this study can therefore
advance our understanding of the relationship between GPI and GPB in
the context of one of the most dynamic markets in Asia.
Another important finding is the roles of three core components of
the NAM in predicting GPI and GPB. Particularly, the findings show that
three antecedents of the NAM, AOR, AOC, and PN, are significantly
correlated with GPI, while AOR is found to be strongly related to GPB.
More importantly, the mediation roles played by GPI in transferring the
effects of three antecedents of the NAM (AOR, AOC, and PN) are
empirically evidenced in the findings of our study. While most prior
studies either attempted to explain the direct effects of these three an­
tecedents on behavioral intentions (Nketiah et al., 2022; Si et al., 2021),
or endeavored to re-test the impacts of AOR and AOC on PN (Song et al.,
2019; Yeow and Loo, 2022), our findings help to explain how AOR, AOC,
and PN can predict GPI and GPB directly, as well as the mediation role of
GPI in the links between three antecedents of the NAM and GPB.
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 73 (2023) 103351
Significantly, our study is the first attempt to illustrate the individ­
ual, complementary, congruent, and incongruent effects of three karma
dimensions, KDO, KIR, and KE, on consumers’ moral (personal) norms
related to pro-environmental consumption. The findings demonstrate
that all three components of karma are not only directly and signifi­
cantly related to PN, but that they are also combined, balanced, and
imbalanced with each other to trigger PN, and then indirectly and
serially interrelated with GPI and GPB. The role of karma in consumer
behaviors has been highlighted in previous studies (Kulow and Kramer,
2016). Mo et al. (2022), for example, provided empirical evidence that
karmic beliefs may explain consumers’ purchase intentions for luxury
goods, while Roy et al. (2019) reported that karma can increase
middle-class consumers’ materialism and their life satisfaction under the
moderating effect of motivation. However, the important role of karma
in consumers’ pro-environmental behavior remains uninvestigated. Our
study therefore makes an important contribution by being the first to
examine the role of karmic perspectives in pro-environmental con­
sumption. The findings also affirm the appropriateness of applying the
C.D. Duong
NAM to explain the curvilinear effects of karma dimensions on the
activation of consumers’ moral (personal) norm, developing their green
consumption and bridging the green gap in the context of emerging
economies such as Vietnam.
5.2. Theoretical and managerial implications
5.2.1. Theoretical implications
Extending the extant marketing literature on the karmic perspective
in consumption, our study offers new insights into the underlying
mechanisms of moral development regarding sustainable consumption
derived from three karma dimensions: KDO, KE, and KIR. Drawing upon
the NAM theory and the doctrine of karma, the findings of this study
provide some noteworthy theoretical contributions as follows. First,
although the role of the karmic doctrine in consumer behaviors has been
highlighted (Kulow and Kramer, 2016; Mo et al., 2022), no prior studies
have examined its role in consumers’ pro-environmental consumption,
to the best of our knowledge. Our study is the first attempt to provide
empirical evidence that if individuals develop their moral obligations
toward pro-environmental consumption, derived from their karma be­
liefs about duty orientation, indifference to rewards, and equanimity,
they are more likely to consume in an environmentally friendly manner.
In other words, underlying the mediation mechanism of personal
(moral) norms, consumers who believe in the doctrine of karma are
more likely to invest in “good” deeds by engaging in pro-environmental
consumption.
Second, unlike the traditional regression analyses in prior studies
that examined interaction effects, our study used an advanced technique
– polynomial regression with response surface analysis – to provide
nuanced insights into the complementary, balanced, and imbalanced
effects of the three karma dimensions (KDO, KE, and KIR) on consumers’
development of their personal (moral) norm related to green con­
sumption. Particularly, our findings indicate that the three karma di­
mensions are combined, balanced, and imbalanced with each other to
activate consumers’ personal (moral) norm. They reconfigure altruistic
and egoistic incentives to change from a conventional to a more sus­
tainable consumption (Kulow and Kramer, 2016; Yang and Thøgersen,
2022), then indirectly and serially indirectly actuate consumers’
pro-environmental intentions and behaviors.
Third, this study also contributed to the pro-environmental con­
sumption literature by extending and validating the NAM in our con­
ceptual model to explain the complicated interrelationships between
karma dimensions (KDO, KE, and KIR) and consumers’ pro-
environmental consumption. Even though the NAM has been used to
investigate the determinants of green consumption in past studies
(Choudhary et al., 2022; Han, 2020), scant attention has been paid to the
direct role of AOC and AOR in pro-environmental purchase intentions
and behaviors, as almost all the prior studies have only examined how
AOC and AOR relate to PN (Goh et al., 2022; Yeow and Loo, 2022). In
addition, the findings of our study indicate that the application of the
NAM is perfectly aligned with clarifying the underlying mechanisms of
consumers’ moral development derived from karma dimensions; moral
needs, which drive individuals to be more pro-environmental, can be
emphasized in the NAM (Schwartz, 1977). Lastly, the application of the
NAM also helps the current research to close the “green gap” in sus­
tainable consumption.
5.2.2. Managerial implications
Practitioners must understand consumers’ religious beliefs and
moral incentives in order to develop appropriate polices to activate
consumers to be more pro-environmental. Thus, based on the findings of
this study, we suggest some practical recommendations as follows.
Because our results demonstrate that all three dimensions of karma
(KDO, KE, and KIR) activate consumers’ moral obligations to be more
pro-environmental, and thus motivate their purchases of green products,
all the karma components should be strategically employed in
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 73 (2023) 103351
marketing and communication campaigns for green products and ser­
vices. First, firms could use the insights obtained from our study to
develop marketing strategies and advertising campaigns that emphasize
the karma dimensions (KDO, KE, and KIR) underlying ecological con­
sumption. For example, firms can highlight these three dimensions of
karma by emphasizing consumers’ ethical and virtuous obligations to
make environmentally responsible purchasing decisions. These are
motivated by a desire to do good deeds for the environment, society, and
the community, rather than solely working toward personal gains. Sec­
ond, communication strategies, including advertising campaigns, should
pay attention to consumers’ intrinsic values and beliefs, which help
them to feel a moral sense of accountability and responsibility toward
pro-environmental purchase actions. This can be done by creating ad­
vertisements in which consumers are activated to feel moral obligations
when investing in “good” karma and avoiding bad deeds (i.e., “I must
have done something good”) (Mo et al., 2022). These advertising mes­
sages can help consumers to feel a sense of deservingness when pur­
chasing environmentally friendly products. For instance, the soy-based
snack bar company, SOYJOY, promoted its whole soy nutritional bars as
“a source of good karma” (Kulow and Kramer, 2016), while an adver­
tisement for Karma Kitchen stated “your meal was a gift from someone”
or “your meals are cooked and served with love, run by volunteers”
(Chen et al., 2022). Recently, Lululemon Athletica, a Canadian multi­
national athletic apparel retailer, tweeted “do something today that your
future self will thank you for” as its advertising message.
Moreover, in fact, consumers who believe in karma tend to behave in
a pro-social/environmental manner without the expectancy of material
or extrinsic rewards (Mulla and Krishnan, 2012). Thus, we believe that
spending too much money on external rewards, such as coupons or
discounts, is not necessary and is actually ineffective. In lieu of using
material rewards, sales promotions should take account into consumers’
intrinsic incentives, helping them to feel pleasure and self-reward when
investing in good karma by consuming green products and services. This
strategy not only helps firms to cut costs, but also increases the effec­
tiveness of promotion campaigns. Additionally, companies could
showcase how their products can help to reduce CO2 emissions or other
environmental pollutants, or emphasize the social benefits of products,
such as fairtrade status or worker welfare. This storytelling could build
more emotional and moral connections between firms and consumers,
making their consumption more pro-environmental. Lastly, in addition
to the attention paid to beliefs related to the karma dimensions, our
findings show that AOR and AOC play an important role in consumers’
pro-environmental consumption. Thus, promotions and advertisements
should aim to enhance consumers’ awareness of their responsibility to
be more pro-environmental, as well as their awareness of the conse­
quences of nongreen activities.
5.3. Limitations and future research directions
Notwithstanding the novel findings and crucial contributions to both
the theoretical and managerial aspects of marketing in general and pro-
environmental consumption in particular, several limitations of this
study should be acknowledged, along with some interesting future
research directions that they could lead to. Although our study recruited
consumers in Vietnam, where Buddhism is the most dominant religion
(Anh, 1993; Taylor, 2018), the principle of karma is not solely recorded
as a core belief system in Asian cultures; it is also present globally (Mo
et al., 2022; Cindel J. M. White et al., 2019). Thus, the generalization of
the effects of the karma dimensions on consumers’ pro-environmental
behaviors is limited. Future research might therefore investigate how
karmic beliefs in general, and the three components of karma that evoke
the development of moral (personal) norms, are related to behaving in a
pro-environmental manner and to sustainable consumption among
Westerners. Also, a cross-national study comparing Eastern and Western
cultures could provide interesting and favorable findings. Second, a
cross-sectional survey with self-reported seven-point Likert responses
C.D. Duong
has been used in our study. This can be considered as a shortcoming;
when observing an intention-behavior gap, it may be better if a time-lag
is used. Therefore, further studies could use longitudinal data to observe
the process of translating behavioral intention into actual behavior.
Third, a large proportion of the respondents in our survey were female.
This may have been because most shoppers in mega malls and super­
markets are females, especially in Asian cultures, including Vietnam
(Duong et al., 2021; Nguyen et al., 2022). Although the analysis results
did not report significant effects of gender on the outcome variables, the
generalization of our findings to all consumer groups might be limited.
Another data collection method should therefore be utilized in future
studies in order to balance males and females in the sample, as this
would provide more general insights. In addition, although the advan­
tages of using the mall-intercept survey are considerable (Nguyen et al.,
2022), Bush and Hair (1985) argue that this approach relies heavily on
convenience sampling due to the non-random selection of participants
(i.e., not all people have access to or visit malls). This can reduce the
representativeness of the sample, and future research might adopt more
random sampling methods so that the results can be generalized to
larger populations.
Declaration of competing interest
The author(s) declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
I have shared the data in attached file
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