ROPE AND KNOTS

ROPE: A flexible cord of tightly inter twined hemps and other fiber.
 A length of the strong cord mode by twisting together strands of hamps.
Sisal, nylon or similar material.
 A strong, thick cord made if twisted fiber.
HISTORY: The history of rope is as old as man himself. A men needed something to tie with he
found. The branches and barks of tree and grass at hand from which he made ropes and string for
various purpose.
Even today ropes are made of various fiber and tree barks as the village use. Then jute was
cultivated and devolved which become a commercial product as men made progress. The rope was
also improved and present climbing rope is the result of many years had and continuous work and
research.
Mountaineering originated in Europe where climber used ordinary manila ropes and in the
progress with many accidents when they fall down due to breaking of the rope. Manila replaced by
rope made of artificial and synthetic fiber likes nylon.
 1st nylon rope made by climbing company DuPont (Polyamide) 1935 strong than the
previously used natural fiber such as manila and hemps.
 The present climbing ropes made of nylon are good strong and easy to handle have greater
amount of elasticity and posed more shock observing properties.
 Rope is also known as life line of the climber.
Verities of climbing rope:
1. Dynamic rope: dynamic rope achieve low impact forces by stretching under the force of all
and less force will be impacted on to the fallen climber, the belayer and anchor system.
2. Static rope: static rope barely stretch and they have low capacity for observing the energy of
impact. Usually uniform in white color (color identification).

Different types of Dynamic rope:

1. Single rope: large diameter 9mm to 11mm (sports climbing)
2. Half rope : 8 to 9mm thinner diameter. (ice climbing expedition)
3. Twin rope: 7 to 8 mm thinnest diameter and light weight (reduced weight and advance
mountaineering)
Static: as fixed rope they are mostly used and single ropes to climbing in vertical environments.
Material in use:
Climbing rope (PM-Polyamide)
Fix rope (PP-polypropylene)
Care and maintenance of rope:
1. Don’t put it on the ground.
2. Always avoid friction.
3. Let it dry in the shade and store in the dry cool environment.
4. Use it only for climbing.
5. Verify it regularly.
6. Coil it in loops as just loose in a rope bag.
7. We careful with chemical and acid products.
8. Don’t keep it the sun unnecessarily while use.
9. While carrying the rope it should kept in the ruck-suck.
10. To protect it from rain and dust and sharp things.
11. During the climbing it should be kept clean off the ground as for a possible.
12. Don’t drag.
Knots:
Types Climbing knots Anchoring knots Joining knots Special knots
1. Guide man knots Clove Hitch (A/N) Single fisher man Double bow
(equal diameter) line/bow line on
the bite/glacier
knot
2. Middle man knots Figure of 8 (A/N) Double fisherman triple bow
(equal diameter) line/chest
harness/
welthathen
3. End man knots Handcuff Reef knot (equal Prussic knot
diameter)
4. Bow line/ universal Better fly Single sheet band French prussic
knot (unequal diameter) knot
- - - Double sheet band Water
(unequal diameter) knot/tape knot/
tie knot
- - - - Girth hitch

Coiling:
1. Climbing coil.
2. Butterfly coil.
3. Causality coil.
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ROCK CLIMBING

Rock climbing is very natural activity and to begin with few specialized techniques are required. Using the
hands for balance while stepping up using the legs is the basic of much rock climbing. Some people pick-up
these method of movement very quickly and other have to work hard to perfect their techniques. But at the end
the result may be climber of equal ability.

ATTITUDE: Rock climbing is not simply about physical ability. To climb well you must have mental control to
complement the desire. With determination ,hard work, training and time spent on the rock your standard will
improve.

USING THE EYE : It has been said with great deal of truth that you climb first with your eyes. Seeing and
recognizing is essential. The eyes leads the way, holds must be used correctly.

BODY POSITION : Correct body position is essential for efficient climbing. The upright position, centre of
gravity and space between body and rock is necessary.

BALANCE : much of climbing is balance and this means standing. Body position and foot work are two main
ingredients. Balance in climbing is continual shifting of body position to allow progress to make efficient climb.

Precautions:

DO’S

1. Selection of Leader
2. Selection of area/route
3. Considering local weather system
4. Proper knowledge of knots/belay
5. Physical & Mental fitness
 6. Proper dress
7. 3 point climbing
8. Never climb alone
9. Never climb on wet rock
10. Clean the boot sole
11. Check the holds (Hand holds or Foot holds)
12. Avoid leg crossing
DONT’S
1. Do not hold grass/bushes articles on the rock
2. Never bend your knees
3. Do not lie down on the rock surface
4. Use proper communication while climbing
5. Do not create panic while climbing
6. Avoid show off
7. Don’t drag body
8. Don’t climb without safety gears
9. Avoid un rope too quickly
10. Avoid leg stretching
11. Avoid climbing beyond your capability
12. Avoid alone climbing
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ANCHORING & BELAYING ON ROCK

Anchor A point where the rope is secured to the snow, ice or rock to provide protection against a fall.
Belay A safety technique where a stationary climber provides protection by means of ropes,
anchors and braking devices or techniques, to an ascending or descending partner
Types of Anchors
Natural anchor
A natural anchor is a secure natural feature which can serve as a climbing anchor by attaching a
sling, lanyard, or cordelette and a carabiner. Examples of natural anchors include trees, boulders,
lodged chock stones, horns, icicles, and protrusions.
Artificial anchor
An artificial anchor consists of man-made climbing gear placed in the rock. Such gear
includes spring-loaded camming devices, aluminum chock stones, steel expansion bolts, and pitons.
Artificial anchors may be permanent or removable.
Types of belay
1) Direct Belay: belay rope is passed directly through the belayer body, in case of fall whole impact
and friction is on belayers body (HIP BELAY & SHOLDER BELAY)
2) Indirect Belay: belay rope is passed through the separate object piton, karabiner or any belay
device used, in case of fall whole impact and friction is on belay device.
3) Semi Direct Belay: belay rope is passed through the karabiner & any belay device used which is
clipped to the harness of the belayer, in case of fall whole impact and friction is on belay device.
COMMUNICATIONS

 Climber: That's me! The belayer above is taking in all the slack rope before putting it into her
belay device. The climber calls this when he is tugged by the rope from above, indicating that
there is no more rope to take in.

 Belayer: Belay on! The belayer is anchored in and has the rope set up through her belay
device. She calls this command to let the climber know she's ready to belay.
  Climber: Slack! The climber needs extra rope in order to make the first move or to finish
taking apart his belay anchor.

 Climber: Up rope! The climber no longer needs the slack in the rope. Asks belayer to take it
in. (This can be used at any point in the climb to signal to the belayer to take up slack.)

 Climber: Climbing! The climber signals that he is ready to start climbing.

 Belayer: Climb on! or Climb! The belayer again signals she is ready for the climber.

 Climber: Watch me! The climber is making a move in which he might fall. Asking the belayer
to be ready to catch him.

 Climber: Tension! Same as above.

 Climber: Falling! The climber is falling and putting sudden stress on the rope. Belayer should
have the rope locked off and be braced for any shock.

 Belayer: Halfway! The belayer lets the climber know that he has half the rope's length left to
use.

 Belayer: Feet-three-oh! four-oh, etc. (30 or 40 feet of rope left.) The belayer lets climber
know how many feet of rope are left for him to use.

 Climber: Off belay! The climber is tied in to the rock with a personal anchor and no longer
needs the belayer.

 Belayer: Belay off! The belayer has taken the rope out of the belay device and is no longer
watching the climber.

________________________________________________________________________________
Rappelling (Roping down/Abseil)
Definition: Rappelling is quick descending method for any steep face of rock, snow and ice by sliding
through a rope which is anchored from one side. Rappelling is also known as abseil. Abseil is
German word. Ab means down and sail means rope.
Importance: Save energy and time and thrill.
History: 1st time Jeans Charlet –French Climber-1879
Chomonix – mount petit dru (3753 mtr)
Equipment: rope, seat harness, carabiner, desender, mitton, rope sling and tape sling.
Types of rappelling:
1. Classical method.
2. Mechanical rappelling
1. Classical Rappelling: this method is used in moderate slope and short patch because in this
method total frictions create in our body. Classical rappelling is divided in two parts.
a. Shoulder Rappelling or S method or Dalfersitz
b. Arm Rappelling or side rappelling.
2. Mechanical Rappelling: in this method we used mechanical device for this kind of rappelling.
In this method most of friction create on the mechanical device and minimum friction create our
body part which is attached with the rope.
Improvised method of rappelling:
a. Carabineer brake.
b. Piton brake.
 c. Italian hitch.
d. Carabineer wrap and carabineer twist.
Safety points before rappelling:
1. Anchor should be firm and stable.
2. Always use 2 or 3 piton for artificial anchor.
3. Never relay on single piton.
4. Rappelling rope should be rich where your base is.
5. Rope should be clear.
6. Clothing should be proper never use nylon clothes.
Precautions while rappelling:
1. Avoid jumping.
2. Use mitton.
3. Keep in your body in L shape.
4. Use flat foot.
5. Don’t rappel without belay.
6. Proper distance between both legs.
7. Breaking hand always use master hand.
8. Belayer should be anchored.
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JUMARING

One such ascender device is a jumar, named for its manufacturer Jümar Pangit, a company in
turn named after jumar inventors Adolph Jüsi and Walter Marti. The first iteration of the tool
was sold in 1958. The device's name also engendered the verb "to jumar" for the process of
using such a device.
Jumar or ascender is a device (usually mechanical) used for directly ascending a rope, or for
facilitating protection with a fixed rope when climbing on very steep mountain terrain.
The first mechanical rope ascending devices were created by Henri Brenot, and were used in
France both for mountaineering and caving as early as 1934.
Jümar Pangit, a Swiss manufacturer located then in Reichenbach (Switzerland), was founded
by Adolph Jüsi and Walter Marti. Jüsi was studying eagles for the Swiss government and
needed to ascend on ropes in order to perform his work, so Marti developed the ascender for
him. In 1958, the first jumar was introduced to the climbing market.
French caver Fernand Petzl developed a mechanical rope ascender in 1968, and his
company Petzl continues to produce both handled and handleless models that are popular
with mountaineers and cavers today.
TYPES OF JUMARING TECHNIQUES

1) For climbing on with a fixed rope attached for security (for example, to snow anchors on
a steep slope) only one ascender is used, keeping the other hand free for holding an ice
axe.
2) Ascenders are usually used in pairs, so that one is free to be slid up the rope whilst the
other bears the weight of the climber. The ascender which has just been slid upwards is
then made to take the climbers load, so locking him to the rope, and freeing the other
one so it, too, can then be slid upwards too. The process is then repeated to ascend the
rope.
In place of mechanical ascenders, one or more thin rope slings (or prusik loops) may be used
which can be slid along the thicker climbing rope when not under tension. These friction knots
 will lock under load to enable the climber to use the strength of their leg to step up and ascend
the rope.
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RIVER CROSSING
Rivers and streams are the major obstacle in the wilderness. There are certain techniques to cross
the rivers/streams in Mountain side safely.
Techniques of River Crossing: 1. Physically (through water)
2. Artificial (install of Rope Bridge)
SIGHT SELECTION : Reconnaissance of the crossing area is necessary. Walk along the bank for
the sight selection from where the crossing is possible and safe. This exercise is never waste.
1. PHYSICAL CROSSING : look for the area where the river is wide, the water volume, depth
and the current will be less.
TYPES OF PHYSICAL CROSSING:
 Single pole crossing
 Long pole crossing
 Mutual support crossing
2. ARTIFICIAL BRIDGE : look for the area where the river is narrow and banks are
high/elevated, the span of the rope is less which.
TYPES OF CROSSING:
 Launching aluminum ladders
 Launching log woods
 Rope bridge ( Tyrolean traverse)

Precautions
1. Cross the river before noon
2. Face upstream side
3. Take small steps
4. Keeps your boots on
5. Avoid loose baggy clothing
6. Cross the river is separated area of water
7. Use the safety rope/belay
8. Keep observing the water flow
________________________________________________________________________
Ice axe
An ice axe is a multi-purpose hiking and climbing tool used by mountaineers both in the ascent and descent of
routes that involve frozen conditions with snow and/or ice. An ice axe can be held and employed in a number of
different ways, depending on the terrain encountered.

1 PICK
2 HEAD
3 ADZE
4 LESSH
5 LEASH STOP
6 SHAFT WITH RUBBER GRIP
7 SPIKE
HISTORY
The antecedent of the ice axe was the alpenstock, a long wooden pole with an iron spike tip, used by shepherds for
travel on snowfields and glaciers in the Alps since the Middle Ages. On 8 August 1786, Jacques Balmat and Michel-
Gabriel Paccard made the first ascent of Mont Blanc. Balmat, a chamois hunter and crystal collector, had
experience with high mountain travel, and Paccard had made previous attempts to climb the peak. Illustrations show
Balmat carrying two separate tools that would later be merged into the ice axe – an alpenstock (or baton) and a
small axe that could be used to chop steps on icy slopes.
According to the earliest manufacturer of ice axes, Grivel, these two tools were merged to create the first true ice
axe around 1840. Early ice axes had a vertical adze, with the cutting edge aligned with the direction of the shaft, as
in a conventional axe. This design lasted until at least 1860, but eventually the adze was rotated to the current
position, perpendicular to the direction of the shaft.
In the late 19th century, the typical ice axe shaft measured 120–130 cm (47–51 in) in length. British climber Oscar
Eckenstein started the trend toward shorter ice axes with a lighter model measuring 85–86 cm (33–34 in).
Early ice axes had picks and adzes of about equal lengths. By the beginning of the 20th century, the pick
lengthened to about twice the length of the adze.
In 1978, the Safety Commission of the Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) established formal
standards for ice axe safety and performance. This led to the replacement of the traditional wooden shaft by metal
alloy shafts. Ergonomically curved handles became widespread in 1986.Use of modern aluminum alloys have led to
a dramatic reduction in the weight of some ice axes.

Ice-axe maintenance
Modern metal-shaft ice axes require very little special care. Inspect the shaft before each use for deep dents
that might weaken it to the point of failure under load (but don't worry about minor nicks and scratches). Clean
mud and dirt off the axe after each climb and remove any rust.

Check the pick, adze, and spike regularly. To sharpen, use a small hand file instead of a grinding wheel, which
could change the temper and strength of the metal.
________________________________________________________________________________________
CRAMPON
DEFINATION: Crampons are metal plate with spikes fixed to boot for walking on ice or hard snow.
INVANTION : The first 10 points crampons were designed by Oscar Johannes Ludwig Eckenstien in
1908. This design was then made commercially available by the Italian Henry Grivel.
TYPES : Crampons can be categorized into three types:-
Flexible Semi rigid Rigid
 Flexible design to fit most walking  Semi-rigid design  Rigid design with solid links between
boots  Forward and rear units linked front and rear components
 Forward and rear units linked via via a more rigid metal bar  Usually Step-in or Hybrid binding
a flexible bar  Typically available with all 3 system
 Usually Strap-In or Hybrid binding binding systems  Typically 12 points or more
system  Typically 10-12 points with  Front points often interchangeable
 Typically 8-12 points twin front points between dual and mono-points
 Suitable for snow walking and  Suitable for general purpose  Technical crampons for climbing steep
light mountaineering mountaineering or vertical ice

MATERIAL :Crampons are made of steel alloys light weight aluminum, or combination of the two.
POINTS : Early 10 points crampons were used which lacked forward angled spiked and thus required step
cutting on steep terrain. In 1930’s two additional forward – slanting points were added bringing a
 revolution in front pointing. Currently there is range of models including specialized crampons
with as many as 14 points & models with single point fir ice climbing.
ATTACHMENTS :
Crampons is attached to the boots in a number of ways. It is important that your boots &
crampons are suitable for one another and – AS A RULE- your crampons should be no stiffer
than your boots. A rigid crampon with flexible boot is liable to falling off, causing ankle injuries.
BINDINGS : there are three main types of Crampon Binding-
1. “STEP IN”
2. “STRAP ON”
3. “HYBRID”
CARE & MAINTENANCE OF CRAMPON
Inspect the Bindings
 Prior to every outing, be sure to inspect your crampons before you put them in use.
 Check for loose screws and rivets. Tighten or replace as needed.
 Check for worn straps and buckles. Replace as needed.
 Ensure that the bails are in good shape and still fit the radius of your boots
 Consider your boot/crampon interface: Do your boot welts still ensure a secure toe and heel fit?
 Carry a wrench, bailing wire and spare parts such as straps, bails or screws.
Sharpen the Points
 Crampon points need to be sharpened after use, especially if you've crossed rock.
 Use a flat mil bastard (hand file), making sure to file in the direction of the file's teeth.
 Do not use a grinding wheel, as it generates heat that can weaken the metal by changing the temper of the steel.
 File the side and points as sharp as possible, being careful to maintain a straight line from frame to tip.
 Straighten any bent points if possible.
Protect Yourself Sharp teeth make crampons perform better on delicate ice, but they can also wreak havoc on
your clothes, skin and ropes.
Your protection options:
 Padded crampon case: The most convenient choice, usually made from puncture-resistant nylon.
 Rubber point covers: The less bulky, less expensive option.
Storage
Be sure your crampons are dry before storing. If you are storing them for the season, coat them with a light oil
or a water-displacement spray such as WD-40.
________________________________________________________________________________
SNOW SLOPE CLIMBING ASCENDING AND DESCENDING TECHNIQUES

SNOW CRAFT
When we do any activities on the snow slopes is called snow craft.
HOLDING OF ICE AXE ON SNOW
1) Cane position (a) Self arrest grasp position (b) Self belay grasp position
2) Cross body position.
3) Stake position.
ASCENDING AND DESCENDING OR STEP KICKING ON SNOW SLOPE
When we travel on snow bound area, we use following techniques for ascending and descending on of snow
slope.
ASCENDING TECHNIQUE ON SNOW
1) Marching –When we walk in normal way on snow slope is called marching.
2) Duck Step- When we walk in duck walk fashion on the snow slope is called duck step. This technique
used for gentle slope.
3) Zigzag or diagonally- When we across the slope zigzag or diagonally way. We should avoid this
technique if the snow condition is soft.
 4) Side step- In this technique our body remains sideways and we use the edges of the boot for the
climbing up.
5) Single vertical- We climb the snow slope vertically and frequently with the help of toe.
6) Double vertical – This technique used for steep section or when a climber carrying heavy a pack. In this
technique a climber places their toe in horizontal position.

DESCENDING TECHNIQUE ON SNOW

1. Marching 2. Side Step 3. Zigzag or Diagonally 4. Single vertical 5. Double Vertical
6. Plunging- It is a fast action of descending on the heel and ice axe remains in the position of self arrest
or cross body position in case of fall.
PRECAUTION WHILE SNOW CRAFT
1. Clothing should be proper.
2. Do not make a noise while climbing on snow.
3. Wear snow goggle and gloves.
4. Walk straight rather than traverse in soft snow condition.
5. Keep on watching mountain side for occurring an avalanche.

GLISSADE
Glissading is the act of descending a steep snow- or scree-covered slope via a controlled slide on
one's feet or buttocks. It is an alternative to other descent methods such as plunge stepping, and may
be used to expedite a descent, or simply for the thrill. Glissading involves higher risks of injuries than
other forms of descending.

METHODS

o SITTING GLISSADE
o STANDING GLISSADE
o CROUCHING GLISSADE
Sitting glissade
This is the easiest type of glissade and generally provides the greatest amount of stability. It is also
less tiring than a standing or crouching glissade in softer snow. To perform a sitting glissade one sits
down and slides on the slope usually holding on to an ice axe in a self-arrest position, especially
when the run-out of the slope is in question.
The major drawbacks to the sitting glissade are that one's outer layers get wet, and that there is less
control than in a standing glissade.
Standing glissade
The standing glissade is often the preferred method if the person glissading is skilled in doing so and
snow conditions allow. In this glissading position one has a better view of route hazards, and
increased maneuverability over a sitting glissade. In addition a standing glissade cuts down the wet
and abrasive forces of the sitting glissade. The standing glissade is best performed over firm snow
with a soft top layer.
Crouching glissade
The crouching glissade is similar to the standing method except the climber sits back and drags the
spike of their ice axe (held in self-arrest grip) in the snow. The method is slower but more controlled
than the standing glissade. A disadvantage to this technique is the tiring of the legs.
RULES FOR GLISSADING
 NEVER GLISSADE ON GLACIER
  NEVER GLISSADE WHILE ROPE UP
 NEVER GLISSADE WITH CRAMPONS ON
 ALWAYS HAVE A CLEAR AND VISIBLE RUN-OUT

SELF-ARREST

Self-arrest is a technique employed in mountaineering, in which a climber who has fallen and
is sliding down a snow or ice-covered slope arrests the slide by themselves without recourse to
a rope or other belay system. Self-arrest can be performed by using ice axe and a combination
of a climber's boots, hands, feet, knees and elbows. Use of an ice axe greatly increases the
probability of effectively stopping a fall down a snow field, ice field, or glacier.

There are four distinct scenarios to correct your fall with a self arrest; all of which can save
your life:

HEAD UPHILL, FACE DOWN: This is already the desired position to self-arrest. Get your
body over the shaft of the ice axe and apply pressure down until you slow to a halt.

HEAD UPHILL ON YOUR BACK: This is an easy position to parlay into a proper position for
self arrest. Roll toward the head of the axe and jab the pick into the snow. Always roll toward
the axe head, not the spike, as doing the latter can wrench the axe from your hands

HEAD DOWNHILL, FACE DOWN: On a face first fall, you will have to swing your feet in the
downhill direction. Do this by reaching downhill and off to the axe head side and get the pick
into the snow to serve as a pivot to sing around. Be sure to never jab the spike into the snow
and pivot on that end of the axe as the result would be the pick and adze of the axe crossing
directly with your slide path risking your head and face.

HEAD DOWNHILL ON YOUR BACK: Hold the axe across your chest and jab pick into the
snow , twist, then roll towards it. Do everything in your power to roll towards the axe head as it
will help your legs to swing around and point downhill.

__________________________________________________________________________

CRAMPONING - TECHNIQUES OF CLIMBING

FLAT FOOTING (FRENCH TECHNIQUE) French technique is the easiest and most efficient method of
climbing gentle slopes of ice and hard snow up to 50°~55°. Good French technique demand
balance, rhythm and the confident use of crampons.

Sr. ASCENDING TECHNIQUES DESCENDING TECHNIQUES

No. Techniques Use of Axe Techniques Use of Axe
01 Duck step Cane Position Heal walking Cane Position
02 Single vertical step Cane Position Single vertical step Cane Position
03 Side step Cane Position Side step Cane Position
04 Side step cross body position Side step cross body position
05 Zigzag step Cane Position Zigzag step Cane Position
06 Zigzag step cross body position Zigzag step cross body position
07 Double vertical step sport position Double vertical step Stake position
08 Banister Position sport position
 09 Plunge step Anchor position

FRONT POINTING (GERMAN TECHNIQUES)

Front Pointing Techniques are use on steeper slopes (50° onwards)

Sr.No. ASCENDING TECHNIQUES DESCENDING TECHNIQUES

01 Cane Position Cane Position
02 Anchor Position Anchor Position
03 Low Dagger Low Dagger
04 High Dagger High Dagger
05 Single Traction Single Traction
06 Double Traction Double Traction
FIX ROPE ON SNOW

Meaning...... Rope fix is a system on snow to prevent a climber from falling any significant distance. Its allows
safe, quick travel up to difficult stretch on snow ice and rock
Importance... Safe climbing is save your time and energy.
EQUIPMENTS:-Fix ropes, personal equipment, snow devices, rock devices, ice devices.
Techniques .
• Rope railing.
• progress along a fixed rope protected by ascenders or prusik hitches
• Progress along a fixed line using an ascender:
• Progress directly along a fixed rope (single rope technique.
•
1.Rope railing.............Used primarily during high altitude. The rope is firmly anchored on both ends at
minimum, but several anchor points may be added in the middle of the rope. However, installation of the rope
in terrain assumes that in the group of people there is at least one skilled member who can handle the
installation of the rope. The other climbers then advance along the rope, which they can clip into either using
locking carabineers or ascenders, if applicable using prussic hitches. ascending and descending for a default
part of snow in mountain or for safely point of view of team members
.
2.Rope railing...Progress along a fixed rope secured by ascenders or prusik hitches.A vertically mounted rope
is anchored by its upper end, and the climber only belays himself during free progress through the terrain or
when climbing along a cliff with an ascender; the ascender is fastened to his harness and during the ascent the
climber pulls it along the rope with him.
3..Progress along a fixed line using an ascender:
This way progress along an inclined slope is also protected, where you can advance by walking but in
locations where a potential fall would be dangerous. This method of belaying is often used when hauling heavy
loads up a steep slope. For this purpose a so-called hand ascender is used, which is equipped with a handle. If
you use a prusik hitch it is necessary that the sling be strong enough, i.e. thick, and attached to the rope using
a prusik sling that can support firm gripping of the rope even with thick diameter (e.g. double prusik or Machard
prusik).
4...Progress directly along a fixed rope (single-rope technique)
Progress is again made either along a rope railing or along a vertical rope anchored in a so called rope route.
Belaying is carried out using an ascender or prusik hitch, which of course at the same time serves for climbs
during which the climber can hang on the rope as well. Single rope technique is the basic method in
speleoalpinism (climbing through caves). In mountaineering it is used as an auxiliary method, e.g. ascent by a
second using the Yosemite ascent method, ascent from a glacial crack, etc.
Precaution:Risk always should be calculated.
• Before fixing the rope make a plan. A leader should be very teqnical.
• All kind of the mechanicaldevice. Knowledge of rope and knots. Route always should be according to
the team members.
 • while walking or working in snow bound area all technical gears should be attach with your
(climber)harness. Self-anchor and jumar should be attach yourself while you moving.
• distance of the two anchor always according slope gradient.
• check the anchor where the rope has been tied properly. between two anchor one member will there.
conclusion: Rope is a safety while the fixed in a route/ terrain. it will gives you a safety and confidence.

Safety in an important concern in Mountain Activities.

GLACIER TRAVEL
It is to negotiate snow covered or bare glacier while climbing the mountain.
Principle 1. Rope management (roping up)
2. Proper equipments/techniques

Rope Management :
1. Equal distribution of climbing rope among the climbers
2. Carry adequate Technical (snow/ice) with all members
3. Proper snow/ice clothing
Precaution:
1. While travelling on the glacier all the members should be ropes up
2. While travelling there should not be any slack in rope
3. Never travel on glacier without crampon
4. Every member should carry minimum technical snow/ ice equipment
5. Experience member should be in front to open the route on glacier
6. Carry the proving stick
7. Proper observation of hidden/ open crevasse
8. Cross the open wide crevasse by ascending and descending techniques
9. Install the proper/firm Rope Bridge and use the Aluminum ladder
10. Control the fall of climber by Arrest Techniques.

CREVASSE RESCUE
This is to retrieve the climber from the crevasse with proper Rescue Techniques.
Type of Crevasse Rescue: All the techniques is to apply on the spot according to situation of
the fallen climber in the crevasse by different Rescue systems and Techniques.
1. Main force : This techniques is apply only if the climber not fallen deep and not injured.
2. Self Rescue :If the climber did not get any more injury and can climb up himself with the help
of Jumar/Ascender.
3. C Pulley Rescue System: If the climber fallen deep and got some injury and requires pulling
help from the top of crevasse. Then he should be given sporting help with providing rope
attached with karabiner.
4. Z Pulley Rescue System: This technique applied when the climber fallen quite deep and
stuck/wedged in crevasse and got injured and unable to climb up in that case he required to be
pulled up with rope by Z Pulley Rescue System.
 5. Running Rescue: This technique applied to provide first aid and examine the climber as fast
as possible.
Technical Equipments: Rope, Pulley, Karabiners, Jumar, Rope sling, Tape sling, Snow and Ice
Pitons.

Improvised stretcher – casualty carrying

 Fire men lift
 Arm seat
 Web carry
 Casualty coil
 Split casualty coil
 Improvised rope stretcher with pole
 Improvised rope stretcher without pole
 Improvised stretcher (pole & jackets)
 Improvised stretcher (pole & gunny bags)

________________________________________________________________________________

MOUNTAIN WALKING, MANNERS AND DO'S AND DO'S/WHILE IN MOUNTAIN.

1. MOUNTAIN MANNERS.

GREETING----- On meeting another climbing party or a local inhabitant,a cheerful greeting is recommended.
WALKING MANNERS : Making rhythm is very important while trekking. If proper rhythm is not maintained, one
is bound to get tired easily. Try to inhale at 1 step while exhale at other to make proper rhythm.
JUDGING DISTANCE: Maintain a steady pace but don’t be either too fast or too slow. Moving too fast will
make one tired easily and if too slow, you might be left behind. Try to walk at steady pace so that you reach
campsite before sunset.
Avoid jerky movements Making jerky movements like jumping can be risky and is So not good for joints.
Avoid body from getting overheated…After 20-30 minutes of starting the trek, remove excessive clothing if you
are sweating a lot. Maintain body temperature when resting by putting on a wind proof jacket. When taking
short breaks while walking, rest with rucksack on your back. Don’t Put it aside Try to move in zig zag fashion,
you would be less tired.
Respect faith of locals especially at a religious site ---Never hurt the religious sentiments of the locals, it’s
essential to respect the faith of other person.
PASSING INFORMATION..........Any Important information like land slide,abreachin the track. General
information ,which can be of value to another party or local villagers, should also passed on.
THROWING STONES...Putting stone down a slope and watching it hurtle sown may appear away appear
good fun but everyone must desist from doing.
HUT MANNERS: ...Treat the accommodation occupied by you always respectfully.
RESCUE WORKS......It is the great traditional of all those who use mountain for their pleasure to readily offers
their help in the event of an accident.
PROFF OF ASCENT......Mountaineering world expect the mountaineer to prove his ascent rather than have
his report disproved at a later stage.

2. Do’s And Don’ts.

DO’S DON’TS
 During acclimatization work on higher altitude
and sleep at lower.
 Acclimatization is a must for mountaineers
operating above 9000 ft.
 Mountain climbers should progressively
increase their weight carrying capacity.
 Mountain climbers should be made to adjust to
cold winds, harsh climate and move during
night.
 Mountain climbers should practice movement
in bad weather.
 First aid kit should always be carried and
Nursing Assistant should always
accompany climbers undergoing
acclimatization walk.
 Electro/Glucose and salt should be carried.
 Use goggles in snow bound areas.
 Use sunscreen lotions and lip salve
 Select a site close to drinking water.
 Living area should be away from avalanche
prone slope, river and stream.
 camping site should be large enough to
accommodate helipad, radio operator
detachment, group antenna etc.
 Campsite should have good exposure to
sunlight and be away from direct wind.
 On glaciers camp should be established at a
place where there are no chances of
crevasses opening.
 Natural shelter should be used extensively.
 Shelter should be open from both ends to
enable ventilation.
 Shelter should be water proof and wind proof.
 Cook house should be sited in the folds of the
ground so that smoke/light can be concealed.
 Camp should be cleaned daily.
 A snow/ice wall should be constructed all
around the camp, if possible.
 Site latrines on the leeward side, away from
cookhouse and living area.
 Leave camp clean before moving out.
 Warm fluids should be consumed regularly.
 Avoid excessive sweating.
 Breathe through your nose and talk less while
climbing.
 Use sunglasses to avoid damage to eyes from
the UV radiation of the sun.
 Wash eyes regularly with clean water.
 Keep yourself warm.
 Wear loose fitting clothes so that clean air can
circulate in your body.
 Keep clothes dry from outside and inside.
 Keep your head on height while sleeping – use
pillows.
 Exercise your face muscles by pulling them in
all directions to avoid cold injuries.
 No medical discomfort should be hidden,
however small it may seem.
 Do not run or walk fast while climbing.
 Above 12000 ft, do not climb more than
about 2000 ft.
 Do not get tired. Conserve your energy.
 Do not walk empty stomach.
 Do not camp on low ground.
 Do not camp at a place visible to avalanche
prone slopes.
 Do not camp too close to an ice fall or
river/stream.
 Cook house should not be located close to
crevasse area as the heat produced may
open crevasses.
 Opening of the cook house should not face
wind direction.
 There should be no crevasse/stream in
between the camp site.
 Do not light a fire inside a snow shelter.
 Waste material should not be disposed of
close to camp site.
 Do not litter the area and leave tell-a-tale
marks.
 Do not cut trees, vegetation or cause
damage to the environment.
 Do not smoke or consume liquor.
 Do not lie on the floor or on warm surface.
 Do not wear tight fitting clothes as they do
not allow proper blood circulation.
 Avoid wearing wet clothes.
 Do not touch metal articles with naked skin.
 Do not use dirty or torn socks.
 Do not expose your body to cold weather,
wind, wet clothes or humidity.
 Do not rub your skin vigorously while taking
a bath.
 Do not overlook injuries, however small.
 Do not sleep wearing wet clothes, socks or
wet shoes.
  While entering a shelter, brush your shoes and
clothes of snow sticking to them.
 Wear hand gloves and keep them dry.
 Exercise all parts of the body and keep them
clean and dry.
 Keep your head covered as maximum heat is
lost by the body through the head
(40%).

MOUNTAIN HAZARDS

HAZARDS – The risk/ dangers in the wilderness which can cause harm or damage to
individual/team and property. One must know about these Hazards and precaution to
avoid & safety measurements to be kept in mind for safe adventure.
TYPES OF HAZARDS
OBJECTIVE HAZARDS( Natural Hazards) SUBJECTIVE HAZARDS
Risk of these hazards can be Are directly related with the movement and
minimized/avoided by past experience, use of activity of an individual, due precaution can
proper precautions, techniques avoid these hazards.
(a) weather (a) Slip &Fall
(b)Rivers (b)Sun-Burn
(c) Avalanche (c) Snow-Blindness
(d) Rock Fall (Berg fall) (d)Frost-Bite
(e) Crevasses (e) Benightment
(f)Lighting (f)Metal Bite
(g)Land Sliding (g) High Altitude sickness
(h) Thundering / White out (h)Dehydration
(i)Vertigo

________________________________________________________________________________________

CAMPING & CAMP HYGENE – LIVE AND STAY HEALTHY

Camping is an outdoor activity involving overnight stays away from home in a shelter, such as a tent. Generally
participants leave developed areas to spend time outdoors in more natural ones in pursuit of activities
providing them enjoyment, to be regarded as “Camping” a minimum of one night is spent outdoors,
distinguishing it from day- tripping, pick nicking and other similarly short term recreational activities. Camping
can be enjoyed through all four seasons.
EQUIPMENT CHECK LIST FOR BACK PACKING

FOOD, WATER AND CLOTHING MISCELLANEOUS

COOKING GEAR  Socks and spares (MANY ITEMS OPTIONAL)
 Water bottle  Briefs and regular underwear  Toiletry kit
 Water filter or purification  Shorts  Sunscreen
 Stove and repair kit  Pants  Repair items like spare
 Fuel  Shell pants buckles, sewing needle,
 Pots with lid  T – shirts thread, nylon cord, duct tape
  Pot gripper  Towel etc.
 Cups  Base shirts  Camp chair
 Spoons or flatware  Sweaters  Binocular
 Bowls  Vests  Camera
 Spice kit  Shell jackets  Book
 Food  Sun hat/Warm hat  Tent games
 Camp water bag  Gloves or mitts
 Camp shoes
SHELTER TREVAL EQUIPMENTS CAMP SITE HAZARDS
 Tent  Back pack TO AVOID
 Tarp  Boots  Wind
 Umbrella, sleeping bag  Trekking pole or hiking stuff  Rock fall
 Sleeping pad  GPS  Floods
 Maps  Bear habitat
 Insects (wasps, ants, ticks,
mosquitoes, black flies)
 Snake terrain and
Scorpion country
 Avalanche hazards

CHEK LIST FOR CAMP ARRIVAL THE TEN ESSENTIALS: CHECK LIST FOR SHUTTING
 Extra clothing DOWN CAMP
 Selection of area  Extra food  Gather water for morning,
 Choose site  Sun glass or use water bags
 Set up camp kitchen  Knife  Wash dishes and hang
 Set up tents  Fire starter foods
 Gather water  Matches in water proof  Gather and store anything
 Start stove/gas to heat/purify container or lighter lying around camp
water  First aid kit  Secure packs against rain
 Drink water  Flash light  Stake and tighten tents
 Care for feet  Map  Leave water, flashlights,
 Store gear  Compass
boots and emergency gear
 Eat light snacks within 45 such as bear spray or
minutes of arrival prescriptions at bedside
 Stuff pillow
 Set alarm if desired
 Sleep soundly , knowing you
are ready for anything

CAMP HYGIENE

Personal Hygiene Camp Hygiene Kitchen Hygiene

Bathing  Store food carefully and keep  Wash your hands

Regular bathing is important to
remove the sweat and grime that
naturally build up on a person's
body.
Hand Washing
Good hand washing, practiced
frequently, will reduce illness.
Always wash your hands after going
fresh food and stored water
in covered containers
 Dispose of waste food and
water in a small pit cut out of
the turf, well away from water
sources. Cover the pit with
the sod of turf after each use
to keep flies off. Or better,
 Be wary of fresh fruits and
vegetables
 Protect food from insects
and animals
 Cook food thoroughly
 Eat cooked food promptly
 Avoid leftovers
 Clean pots, pans, and
 to the restroom, after playing
outdoors and after handling animals
Nose blowing, coughing and
sneezing
These are ways germs can be
spread. You should always carry a
handkerchief so you can blow your
nose properly.
Eating Habits
Every camper needs to eat well,
and with careful planning you can. If
you eat correctly using portions
from all of the food groups, the food
you eat should do the following
three things:
Water Purification
A growing youth needs plenty of
fresh, pure water. This water will
help you to cool off, digest your
food, and maintain your health.
Most Doctors recommend you drink
six to eight glasses of water each
day.
Dishwashing
Plenty of hot water and a good dish
soap are what it takes to get dishes
clean. The soap will do a great job
in ridding the dishes of dirt and left
over food, but the bleach in the hot
water is what will sterilize them.
Fitness
Your body needs exercise to grow
and to be healthy. The body also
needs sufficient sleep to allow the
body to grow well and restore
energy.
carry waste food out and utensils
dispose of at home.  Keep kitchen surfaces and
 Foods such as sausages, utensils clean
bacon and eggs should be
cooked well as preserved
meats go off quickly.
Scramble eggs and cut
sausages lengthways to
ensure complete cooking.
 Have a set of personal
cutlery, bowls, plates and
cups. Always ensure they are
adequately cleaned. Try not
to share them communally.
 Clean cooking pans quickly
after use so food scraps do
not develop infectious germs
as it is difficult to ensure they
are removed after they have
developed. Also food scraps
attract flies, birds and vermin,
which act as vectors for
disease.
 Empty food containers should
be washed out, crushed and
stored in a sealed poly bag
until disposal.
 Hang up your food in a
strong, sealed, poly bag
where rats cannot get to it.

________________________________________________________________________________
FIRST-AID

It is the initial process of assessing and addressing the need of someone who has been injured or is in
physiological distress chocking, a heart attack, allergic reaction, drugs or other medical emergency.

FIRST AID TREAT

BURNS, CUT AND BITES:-
Place the burn area under running cool water for at least 5 minutes to reduce swelling. Apply in antiseptic
spray, antiseptic ointment, to sooth the area. Loosely warp a gauze bandage around the burn. To relieve pain
take analgesic tablets.
CHEST PAIN:- HEART ATTACK
SYMPTOMS
 Changes in mental status, especially in older adults.
 Chest pain that feels like pressure, squeezing, or fullness. The pain is most often in the center of the
chest. It may also be felt in the jaw, shoulder, arms, back, and stomach. It can last for more than a
few minutes, or come and go.
 Cold sweat.
 Lightheadedness.
 Nausea (more common in women).
 Numbness, aching, or tingling in the arm (usually the left arm, but the right arm may be affected
alone, or along with the left).
 Shortness of breath.
 Weakness or fatigue, especially in older adults and in women.
FIRST AID
If you think someone is having a heart attack:
 Have the person sit down, rest, and try to keep calm.
 Loosen any tight clothing.
 Ask if the person takes any chest pain medicine, such as nitroglycerin, for a known heart condition,
and help them take it.
 If the pain does not go away promptly with rest or within 3 minutes of taking nitroglycerin, call for
emergency medical help.
 If the person is unconscious and unresponsive, call 911 (or your local emergency number), then
begin CPR.
 If an infant or child is unconscious and unresponsive, perform 1 minute of CPR, then call 911.
DO NOT
 Do NOT leave the person alone except to call for help, if necessary.
 Do NOT allow the person to deny the symptoms and convince you not to call for emergency help.
 Do NOT wait to see if the symptoms go away.
 Do NOT give the person anything by mouth unless a heart medicine (such as nitroglycerin) has been
prescribed.

FRACTURES AND SPRAINS

A fracture is a break or crack in a bone that can be caused by an accident, fall, or blow.
Symptoms include a snapping sound as bone breaks, bone protruding from skin, detectable deformity
of bone, abnormal movement of bone, grating sensation during movement, pain and tenderness,
difficulty in moving or using the affected part, swelling, and discoloration.
A sprain refers to stretched or torn tendons, ligaments, and blood vessels around a joint and can be
caused by an accident, fall, or blow. Symptoms of a sprain include pain, tenderness, swelling, and
discoloration in the joint area.
SEEK MEDICAL ATTENTION IMMEDIATELY. Call for EMS, or transport victim to emergency room
after immobilizing affected area. Wait for EMS and DO NOT attempt to transport victim if you suspect
head, back, or neck injury; if there's a visible deformity of bone; or if the victim cannot be splinted or
transported without causing more pain.
1. Suspect back or neck injury if victim is unconscious or has head injury, neck pain, or tingling in
arms or legs. If neck or back injury suspected, DO NOT move victim unless necessary to save
victim's life. See back or neck injury.
2. Immobilize and support affected bone in position found. DO NOT try to push protruding bone
back into body or let victim move or use affected area.
3. Control any bleeding through direct pressure, but DO NOT elevate affected area.
See bleeding, external.
4. If bone is protruding, cover with clean cloth once bleeding is controlled.
5. Observe for shock (see shock). DO NOT give victim anything to eat or drink.
6. Immobilize injured area, and, if no open wound present, apply ice pack wrapped in clean cloth.
IMMOBILIZING FRACTURED BONE:
1. Check for sensation, warmth, and color of toes or fingers below suspected break.
2. Place padded splint under area of suspected break:
3. -Use board, rolled newspaper or magazines, broomstick, or rolled blanket for splint.
-Wrap splint in cloth or towels for padding.
-Bind splint to limb using neckties, cloth, belts, or rope. DO NOT bind directly over break.
4. Recheck often for sensation, warmth, and coloring. If fingers or toes turn blue or swell, loosen
binding.
5. For arm or shoulder injury, place splinted arm in sling, with hand above elbow level. Bind arm
to victim's body by wrapping towel or cloth over sling and around upper arm and chest; tie
towel or cloth under victim's opposite arm.
BLEEDING:-
Apply direct pressure on the cut or wound with a clean cloth, tissue, or piece of gauze until bleeding stops.
If blood soaks through the material, don’t remove it. Put more cloth or gauze on top of it and continue to apply
pressure. If the wound is on the arm or leg, raise limb above the heart, if possible, to help slow bleeding. Wash your
hands again after giving first aid and before cleaning and dressing the wound. Do not apply a tourniquet unless the
bleeding is severe and not stopped with direct pressure.

UNCONCIOUSNESS:
Unconsciousness is when a person suddenly becomes unable to respond to stimuli and appears to be asleep.
A person may be unconscious for a few seconds — as in fainting — or for longer periods of time.
Common causes of unconsciousness include: a car accident, severe blood loss, a blow to the chest or head, a
drug overdose, alcohol poisoning.
If you see a person who has become unconscious, take these steps:
Check whether the person is breathing. If they’re not breathing, have someone call local emergency
services immediately and prepare to begin CPR. If they’re breathing, position the person on their
back. Raise their legs at least 12 inches above the ground. Loosen any restrictive clothing or belts. If
they don’t regain consciousness within one minute, call 911 or your local emergency services. Check
their airway to make sure there’s no obstruction. Check again to see if they’re breathing, coughing, or
moving. These are signs of positive circulation. If these signs are absent, perform CPR until
emergency personnel arrive. If there’s major bleeding occurring, place direct pressure on the bleeding
area or apply a tourniquet above the bleeding area until expert help arrives.
HOW DO YOU PERFORM CPR?
CPR is a way to treat someone when they stop breathing or their heart stops beating.
If a person stops breathing, call your local emergency services or ask someone else to. Before
beginning CPR, ask loudly, “Are you OK?” If the person doesn’t respond, begin CPR.
1. Lay the person on their back on a firm surface.
2. Kneel next to their neck and shoulders.
3. Place the heel of your hand over the center of their chest. Put your other hand directly over the first
one and interlace your fingers. Make sure that your elbows are straight and move your shoulders
up above your hands.
4. Using your upper body weight, push straight down on their chest at least 1.5 inches for children or
2 inches for adults. Then release the pressure.
5. Repeat this procedure again up to 100 times per minute. These are called chest compressions.
TO MINIMIZE POTENTIAL INJURIES, ONLY THOSE TRAINED IN CPR SHOULD PERFORM
RESCUE BREATHING. IF YOU HAVEN’T BEEN TRAINED, PERFORM CHEST COMPRESSIONS
UNTIL MEDICAL HELP ARRIVES.

________________________________________________________________________________________

MOUNTAINSICKNESS/ ALTITUDE SICKNESS

Altitude sickness (or altitude illness) is a disorder caused by being at high altitude. It more commonly occurs
above 8,000 feet (2,440 meters).
Sometimes called “mountain sickness,” altitude sickness is a group of symptoms that can strike if you
walk or climb to a higher elevation, or altitude, too quickly.
WHY IT HAPPENS
The pressure of the air that surrounds you is called barometric pressure. When you go to higher
altitudes, this pressure drops and there is less oxygen available.
TYPES
There are three kinds of altitude sickness:
ACUTE MOUNTAIN SICKNESS (AMS) is the mildest form and it’s very common. The
symptoms can feel like a hangover – dizziness, headache, muscle aches, nausea.
HIGH ALTITUDE PULMONARY EDEMA (HAPE) is a buildup of fluid in the lungsthat can be very
dangerous and even life threatening.
HIGH ALTITUDE CEREBRAL EDEMA (HACE) is the most severe form of altitude sickness and
happens when there’s fluid in the brain. It’s life threatening and you need to seek medical attention
right away.

SYMPTOMS
You might have:
 Headache
 Dizziness
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Fatigue and loss of energy
 Shortness of breath
 Problems with sleep
 Less appetite
Symptoms usually come on within 12 to 24 hours of reaching a higher elevation and then get better
within a day or two as your body adjusts to the change in altitude.
You may also have:
Loss of coordination and trouble walking

 A severe headache that doesn’t get better with medication

 A tightening in your chest
If you develop a severe form of altitude sickness like HAPE or HACE, you might have:

 Confusion
 Shortness of breath even at rest
 Inability to walk
 A cough that produces a white or pink frothy substance
 Coma

PREVENTION
The best way you can lower your chance of getting altitude sickness is through acclimatization. That
means you let your body slowly get used to the changes in air pressure as you travel to higher
elevations.
You’ll want to climb to higher altitudes gradually. Going slowly helps your lungs get more air through
deeper breaths and allows more of your red blood cells to carry oxygen to different parts of your body.
Some of the basic guidelines for acclimatization are:

 Start your journey below 10,000 feet. If you have to fly or drive somewhere that’s higher up, stop
at one destination that’s lower for at least a full day before going any higher.
  If you walk, hike, or climb over 10,000 feet, only go up an additional 1,000 feet per day. For every
3,000 feet you climb, rest at least a day at that height.
 “Climb high and sleep low”: If you have to climb over 1,000 feet in a day, make sure you come
back down to a lower altitude to sleep.
 Drink 3-4 quarts of water every day and make sure about 70% of your calories are coming from
carbs.
 Don’t use tobacco, alcohol, or other medications, such as sleeping pills.
 Know how to identify the first signs of altitude sickness. Immediately move to a lower elevation if
you start to develop these symptoms.

COLD INJURIES
Frostbite and cold weather-related injuries definitions and facts
 Cold weather-related injuries occur with and without freezing of body tissues.
 Cold weather-related injuries include chilblains, trench foot, frostnip, and frostbite.
 Signs and symptoms may include
o tingling,
o numbness, and
o changes in the color and texture of the skin.
 Treatment generally includes moving out of the cold environment, removing wet clothing, and
rewarming the affected area.
 Frostbite is a serious cold weather-related injury that requires immediate medical attention and
rapid rewarming. Do not thaw the affected area if there is the risk of refreezing.
 Certain individuals, such as the elderly, children, alcoholics, and the homeless, are at
increased risk of developing cold weather-related injuries.
 Prevention of cold weather-related injuries is best accomplished through proper planning and
preparation for cold weather.
WHAT ARE THE SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF FROSTBITE?
The signs and symptoms of frostbite depend on the extent and depth of tissue injury. Individuals with
superficial frostbite may experience the following signs and symptoms to the affected area.
 Pain
 Burning
 Tingling
 Numbness
 Pale colored skin
 Clear-colored skin blisters may develop
 Firm-feeling skin with soft underlying tissue which can move over bony ridges
As the degree of injury progresses to involve deeper tissue structures, the signs and symptoms of
deep frostbite can develop, which may include
 complete loss of sensation,
 pale, yellowish, bluish, gray, or mottled skin color,
 formation of blood-filled skin blisters, and
 firm-feeling skin and underlying tissue, with the affected area feeling hard and solid.
With advanced frostbite injuries, the affected area can subsequently appear blackened and gangrene
can develop, placing the affected individual at high-risk for infection.
FROSTBITE
Results from the freezing of tissue
It is a disease of morbidity, not mortality
 Risk correlated with temperature and wind speed
Risk is <5% when ambient temperature (includes wind chill) is > –15C (5F)
Most often occurs at ambient temperature < –20C (–4F)
Can develop within 2-3sec when metal surfaces that are at or below –15C (5F) are touched
Most commonly affects distal part of extremities, face, nose, and ears
High-risk groups: outdoor workers, elderly, homeless, drug or alcohol abusers, psychiatric disease
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Freezing alone is usually not sufficient to cause tissue death
Thawing contributes markedly to the degree of injury
Endothelial damage, beginning at the point of thaw, is the critical event in frostbite
Resulting damage results in swelling, platelet aggregation, vessel thrombosis
HOW TO TREAT FROSTBITE AT HOME & IN THE WILD
Frostbite is no joke whether you’re at home or in the wild. Your location doesn’t matter. You need to
get to an emergency room ASAP. To treat frostbite, you can follow the same steps as shown above
for frostnip, but there are some key differences.
1. Get to an emergency room immediately. This is so important it’s worth repeating. You’re
working with minutes or hours here. The sooner you get medical help the better your chances
of saving body parts. If you go longer than 24 hours without help from a doctor, things get ugly.
2. If feet are frostbitten, do not let your child walk. Carry them. Walking on frostbitten toes and
feet can cause even more damage.
3. NEVER warm the affected area if there’s a chance it could refreeze. The freezing and thawing
process if repeated will cause even more tissue damage. Doctors suggest that you should only
attempt warming frostbitten areas if you are more than 2 hours away from an emergency room
and there is no risk of refreezing.
4. Be mentally prepared that the freezing and thawing process is extremely painful. Don’t tell your
child it’s not as bad as they think. Be honest and affirm that it’s painful, but that you are doing
everything you can to take care of them.
WHAT TYPE OF INJURIES CAN BE CAUSED BY COLD WEATHER?
Winter cold and snow provide a number of opportunities to get outside and participate in activities
such as skiing, sledding, and snowmobiling. However, without proper protection, cold weather-related
injuries can occur even when temperatures are above freezing (32 F, 0 C). This is especially true if
there are high winds or if clothing is wet. In general, however, it is both the temperature and the
duration of exposure that play a role in determining the extent and severity of cold weather-related
injuries. This information describes the different types of cold weather-related injuries, as well as what
to do to prevent and treat them prior to reaching a healthcare professional.

HYPOTHERMIA
Body temperature is controlled in a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus
recognizes changes in body temperature and responds to bring it back in line.
SYMPTOMS
As hypothermia sets in, the ability to think and move, and therefore take preventive action, starts to
decline.
Symptoms of mild hypothermia include:
 dizziness
 shivering
 hunger and nausea
 increased breathing
 difficulty speaking
 lack of coordination
 tiredness
 increase in heart rate
Symptoms of moderate to severe hypothermia include:
 shivering, but importantly, as hypothermia worsens, shivering stops
 worsening coordination difficulties
 slurred speech
 significant confusion
 drowsiness
 apathy or lack of concern
 weak pulse
 shallow, slow breathing

The body starts to slow as the temperature drops. Aside from feeling cold and shivering, hypothermia
affects thinking and reasoning. As a result, it may go unnoticed.
The person is at risk of lying down, falling asleep, and dying. In some cases, the individual will
paradoxically remove their clothes just before this occurs.
Infants lose body heat more easily than adults, and they cannot shiver to keep warm.
TREATMENT
Treatment depends on the degree of hypothermia. This can range from noninvasive, passive external
warming, to active external re warming, to active core re warming.
Passive external re warming uses a person's own heat-generating ability. It involves wearing properly
insulated, dry clothing and moving to a warm environment.
Active external re warming consists of applying warming devices externally, such as hot water bottles
or warmed forced air. In cold environments, this may be done by placing a hot water bottle in both
armpits.
Active core re warming uses warmed, intravenous fluids to irrigate body cavities, including the thorax,
peritoneum, stomach, or bladder. Other options are to inhale warm, humidified air, or to apply
extracorporeal re warming by using a heart-lung machine.
FIRST-AID TREATMENT
Anyone with symptoms of hypothermia needs immediate medical assistance.
Until medical help arrives, the following can help:
 moving the person to a warm, dry place, if possible, or sheltering them from the elements
 removing wet clothing, cutting items away if necessary
 covering the whole body and head with blankets, leaving only the face clear
 putting the individual on a blanket to insulate them from the ground
 monitoring breathing, and carrying out CPR if breathing stops
 provide skin-to-skin contact, if possible, by removing clothing and wrapping yourself and the
individual in the blanket to transfer heat
 providing warm drinks, if the individual is conscious, but no alcohol or caffeine
Direct heat, such as heat lamps or hot water, must not be used as this can damage the skin. Worse, it
may cause irregular heartbeats and, potentially, a cardiac arrest.
Rubbing or massaging should be avoided, as any jarring movement could lead to a cardiac arrest.

CONDITIONS THAT OCCUR WITHOUT THE FREEZING OF BODY TISSUE

CHILBLAINS
TRENCH FOOT
FROSTNIP
Chilblains also known as pernio, chill burns and perniosis — is a medical condition that occurs when
a predisposed individual is exposed to cold and humidity, causing tissue damage. It is often confused
with frostbite and trench foot.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
Chilblains from excessively icing the feet
The areas most affected are the toes, fingers, earlobes, nose.
Blistering of affected area
Burning and itching sensation in extremities
Dermatitis in extremities
Digital ulceration (severe cases only)
Erythema (blanchable redness of the skin)
Pain in affected area
Skin discoloration, red to dark blue
Chilblains usually heal within 7–14 days.
PREVENTION
 Avoid rapid changes in temperature (including from cold to hot).
 Wear warm shoes, socks and gloves.[4]
 Wear a hat and a scarf to protect the ears and the nose.
 Avoid tight fitting socks/shoes.
 Healthy diet, low in inflammatory foods
 Exercise at least four times a week to improve circulation
TREATMENT
 A course of vitamin B, especially nicotinic acid, helps improve circulation and may completely
treat the chilblains.
 Soaking in warm water with Epsom salts for 15–20 minutes, 3–4 times a day.
 Keep affected area warm, and avoid any extreme temperature changes (including very hot water).
 Keep affected area dry.
 Use a topical steroid cream to relieve itch.
 Nifedipine, a vasodilator, may help in more severe or recurrent cases. Vasodilation helps reduce
pain, facilitate healing and prevent recurrences. It is typically available in an oral pill but can be
compounded into a topical formula.
 Diltiazem, a vasodilator, may also help.
 Apply a mixture of friar's balsam and a weak iodine solution.
 Avoid restricting the affected area.
TRENCH FOOT
Trench foot is a medical condition caused by prolonged exposure of the feet to damp, unsanitary, and
cold conditions. It is one of many immersion foot syndromes. The use of the word trench in the name
of this condition is a reference to trench warfare, mainly associated with World War I.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

Affected feet may become numb, by erythema (turning red) or cyanosis (turning blue) as a result of
poor blood supply, and may begin emanating a decaying odor if the early stages of necrosis (tissue
death) set in. As the condition worsens, feet may also begin to swell. Advanced trench foot often
involves blisters and open sores, which lead to fungal infections; this is sometimes called tropical
ulcer (jungle rot). If left untreated, trench foot usually results in gangrene, which may
require amputation. If trench foot is treated properly, complete recovery is normal, though it is marked
by severe short-term pain when feeling returns.

CAUSES

Unlike frostbite, trench foot does not require freezing temperatures; it can occur in temperatures up to
16° Celsius (about 60° Fahrenheit) and within as little as 13 hours. Exposure to these environmental
conditions causes deterioration and destruction of the capillaries and leads to morbidity of the
surrounding flesh. Excessive sweating (hyperhidrosis) has long been regarded as a contributory
cause; unsanitary, cold, and wet conditions can also cause trench foot.

PREVENTION

Trench foot can be prevented by keeping the feet clean, warm, and dry. It was also discovered in
World War I that a key preventive measure was regular foot inspections; soldiers would be paired and
each made responsible for the feet of the other, and they would generally apply whale oil to prevent
trench foot. If left to their own devices, soldiers might neglect to take off their own boots and socks to
dry their feet each day, but if it were the responsibility of another, this became less likely. Later on in
the war, instances of trench foot began to decrease, probably as a result of the introduction of the
aforementioned measures; of wooden duckboards to cover the muddy, wet, cold ground of the
trenches; and of the increased practice of troop rotation, which kept soldiers from prolonged time at
the front.

TREATMENT

The mainstay of treatment, like the treatment of gangrene, is surgical debridement, and often
includes amputation. Self-treatment consists of changing socks two or three times a day and usage of
plenty of talcum powder. Wherever possible, shoes and socks should be taken off, feet bathed for five
minutes, patted dry, talcum powder applied and feet elevated to let air get to them.

FROSTNIP SYMPTOMS

Frostnip is much less dangerous and much more common than frostbite. Just about everyone has
experienced frostnip. The outermost layers of skin may approach freezing, but there is no damage
to cells. Skin becomes cold, turns red, you may start to feel a tingling, painful sensation. If you start
to feel numbness, it’s just on the very tips of your extremities. Frostnip usually targets cheeks, nose,
ears, fingers, and toes. As they warm up, fingers and toes can feel especially painful as they have
more nerve endings. Frostnip does not create any long term damage.
HOW TO TREAT FROSTNIP IN THE WILD
Treating frostnip in the wild is a little different than at home, but the principles remain the same.
1. Get your child out of the cold and into your tent or yurt or whatever shelter you have to block
the wind. Large boulders, trees, and bushes can also serve as windbreaks.
 2. Remove their wet clothing from the frostnipped areas.
3. Gently warm the frostnipped areas with these techniques:
o Cup your hands around the affected area and blow warm air. Note that the moisture
from your breath can have a cooling effect on your child’s skin. It’s a good idea to wrap
the affected area with a layer of dry clothing to capture any moisture before blowing on
it.
o If your hands are relatively warm, place your bare hands on the affected area: cheeks,
ears, nose.
o When hands are the issue, have your child place their bare hands in their armpits.
o If feet are the issue, have your child place their bare feet on your stomach and cover
them with your upper body layers.
o Wrap them up in dry blankets, sleeping bags or another jacket if you have one to spare.
o Use hand or feet warmer packets if you have them in your first aid kit.
o Give your child warm liquids from an insulated bottle if you have one.
4. In the wild, even frostnip should be treated seriously. It can easily and quickly turn into frostbite
if you’re not careful.

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WEATHER
WEATHER is what the forecasters on the TV news predict each day. They tell people about the
temperature, cloudiness, humidity, and whether a storm is likely in the next few days. That’s weather!
It is the mix of events that happens each day in our atmosphere. Weather is not the same
everywhere. It may be hot and sunny in one part of the world, but freezing and snowy in another.
CLIMATE is the average weather in a place over many years. While the weather can change in just a
few hours, climate takes hundreds, thousands, even millions of years to change.
Major Temperature Zones of EARTH
Major temperature zones are on the basis of temperature and latitude. (a) Torrid zone or Tropical
zone it lies between the tropic of cancer (23-1/2 °N) and the tropic of Capricorn (23-1/2 °S). The rays
of the sun fall vertically overhead twice a year and the temperature remains high throughout the year.
(b) Temperate zone it lies between 23-1/2° and 66-1/2° in both the hemispheres. Rays of the sun are
slanting here. The temperature is moderate.
(c) Frigid Zone Between 66-1/2° and the poles lies the frigid zone. The rays of the sun are very
slanting and hence the region is extremely cold throughout the year.
WINDS
The horizontal movement of air along the earth’s surface is called a Wind. The vertical movement of
the air is known as an air current. Winds and air current together comprise a system of circulation in
the atmosphere. The movement and the speed of wind are affected by two main factors:
Pressure gradient (SOLAR RADIATION) Pressure gradient force is caused by different pressures in
the atmosphere. These different pressures are what causes highs and lows. As the earth is affected
by an unequally of heat energy from the sun, the state of the air differentiate between different
regions. Warm air expands and rises up while cold air condenses and sinks, hence resulting the flow
of air and forms wind.
Rotation of the Earth (DYNAMIC CONTROL) If the Earth did not rotate upon its axis, winds would
follow the direction of the pressure gradient. But the rotation produces another force other than the
pressure force. It is called the ‘Coriolis force’. The coriolis force is caused by the earth's rotation and
is stronger at the poles and is at zero at the equator.
PRESSURE BELTS
1. EQUATORIAL LOW PRESSURE TROUGH 2. SUB-TROPICAL HIGH PRESSURE BELTS 3.
SUB-POLAR LOW PRESSURE BELTS 4. POLAR HIGHS
EARTH’S SURFACE WIND SYSTEMS The wind systems present on the earth’s surfaces may be
categorized as following:
(1) Doldrums: (2) Trade wind belts: (3) Westerlies: (4) Polar easterlies:
CLOUD TYPES
HIGH CLOUDS MID CLOUDS LOW CLOUDS
CIRRUS ALTOSTRATUS CUMULUS
ALTOCUMULUS
CIRROSTRATUS NIMBOSTRATUS STRATUS
CIRROCUMULUS STRATOCUMULUS CUMULONIMBUS
CLIMATE OF HIMALAYAS
THE MONSOON these winds produced according to seasons. such winds are called seasonal
winds. Mousim is Arabic word and monsoon is derived from Mousim. one of the main characteristic of
these winds direction in winter is opposite to direction in summer. in summer these winds blows
ocean to land and in winter land to ocean. Asia has greatest influence of monsoonal effect also
experienced in Australia, north America, south America and west coast of Africa.
SUMMER MONSOON WINDS The sun is vertical at the tropic of Cancer in summer season. Two
low pressure area established one centered around Peking (CHINA) and Peshawar (PAKISTAN).
These centers are divided by the Himalaya so they are unrelated. The low pressure areas are so
strong the Equatorial low pressure is overwhelmed. As result pressure gradient extends from
southern sub tropical high pressure belt across the equator to Peshawar. The South East trade winds
cross the equator become South West trade winds due to axial rotation.
WINTER MONSOON WINDS The sun is vertical at the tropic of Capricorn in winter. The whole
permanent winds shifted to south. Two centers of high pressure area established in Asia due to
intense cold one around BAIKAL LAKE in SIBERIA and near Peshawar in Pakistan. The sea are
comparatively warm and become low pressure area. Cold dry winds blow from these high pressure
area known as North Easterlies. Cyclone developed in Mediterranean Sea blows towards the Asia.
HOW TO PREDICT WEATHER
When you are on your wilderness trip, some basic knowledge about how to predict weather will help
you to take appropriate action for not getting into trouble and risk your safety.
CLOUDS AIR PRESSURE PLANTS ANIMALS

the higher the clouds, the
finer the weather
clear moon, frost soon
rainbow in the morning
gives you fair warning.
ring around the moon?
rain real soon.
red sky at night, sailors
delight.
red sky in morning, sailors
take warning
white clouds, the higher
the finer, fine day
generally black, low, and
massed in large clusters,
storm clouds
cloud form a grayish veil,
wet weather is
approaching
when clouds appear like
decreasing air pressure , chickweed, before a rain, insect-
brings clouds and dandelions, eating birds, such as
precipitation bindweeds, wild swallows, fly much
increasing air pressure, indigo, clovers, and lower to the ground,
bringing a fine and clear tulips all fold their and bees and
day petals prior to a rain butterflies seem to
disappear
the smoke from the rain stars, a type of domestic animals,
campfire rises steadily, fungus, open up unnatural behavior
on a fine and clear day prior to a rain and wild animals,
becomes careless
close in dry
weather
the smoke starts swirling High altitude birds
and descending, bad flies at lower altitude
weather
birds taking bath in
water or sand
 towers, the earth is
refreshed by
frequent showers

________________________________________________________________________________
Avalanche
Definition: a huge mass of snow and ice mixed with debris fall in swiftly from mountain side to valley
side under the force of gravity.
Importance: safe our self and team from avalanche in mountaineering field maximum time our
encounter with snow.
Contributing factor of avalanche
1. Heavy snow fall.
2. Nature of terrain.
3. Angle of slope.
4. Temperature.
5. Earthquake.
6. Nature of snow.
7. Wind.
8. Failure of mechanical equilibrium.
Position of slide:
1. Surface avalanche – Slide top layer (slide only soft layer)
2. Ground avalanche – Slide from ground (with solid layer)
Classification of avalanche (size classification)
1. Small – frequently
2. Medium – occasionally.
3. Large – rare.
Releasing area of avalanche:
1. Point avalanche – start from point (like ball).
2. Slab avalanche – plate or slab slide (slide soft layer).
3. Channelized avalanche – start from more than one point and meeting point or run out zone is
same.
Avalanche terrain:
1. Start zone (starting point).
2. Track zone (maximum speed).
3. Run out zone (end point).
Principle/Type of avalanche:
1. Powder snow avalanche.
2. Wet snow avalanche.
3. Slab avalanche.
4. Cornice avalanche.
5. Serec avalanche.
6. Air borne avalanche.
Precaution before crossing avalanche prone area:
1. Route plan.
2. Local information.
3. Public forecast.
4. Group capacity.
5. Leadership quality.
6. Warm clothes.
7. Don’t go alone.
8. Dry ration.
 9. First aid.
10. Avalanche cord.
Precaution when walk on avalanche prone area:
1. Don’t walk zig-zak go vertical.
2. Never make noise.
3. Never rope up.
4. Unbuckle the waist strap of sack.
5. Keep a watchman and watchman is the last person.
6. Previous light of avalanche.
7. Always take route in higher elevation.
8. Don’t think about time.
If be caught in avalanche:
1. Run side not downward.
2. Body position (swimming and role body like football).
3. Spit method (self rescue).
4. Rescue by other (last seen point).

________________________________________________________________________________

MAP READING- NAVIGATION SKILL (THEORY)

For those who are climbing near road side, civilization and good weather navigation skill is hardly
required. But those who encounter with bad weather, poor visibility, high mountains, unknown terrain
and winter season climbing the skill of navigation is very important. it gives confidence, speed to
move in unknown areas, bad weather. Such skill maximize climbing time by permitting efficient
approach towards the right direction, avoids unplanned bivouac on the return.

IMPORTANCE/ADVANTAGES OF MAP READING

ORIENTATION is skill to determine your position on earth. It requires mastery in map, compass,
ability to use GPRS
NAVIGATION is the science of determining the location of your object and keeping your direction
towards the object through out the move
ROUTE FINDING is art for selection of the route, best path appropriate for the climbing party as per
their climbing skill, experience and equipment available.

NECESSARY EQUIPMENTS
Compass Map sheet Service protector

TOPOGRAPHIC
 MAP MARGIONAL INFORMATION TERMINOLOGY
1. Heading (TITLE) True North Contours
2. Sub heading ( SUB TITLE) Magnetic North ICE
3. Magnetic Variation Grid North LMA
4. Grid Variation Grid lines Magnetic Variation
5. Year of the Survey Northing Lines Grid Variation
6. Sheet No Easting Lines Scale
7. Contour Longitudes Contour Interval
8. Conventional Signs Latitudes Vertical Interval
9. Administrative Index Bearing Horizontal
10. Sheet Index Forward Bearing Equivalent
11. Scale Backward Bearing Declination
12. Contour Interval Eastern Declination
Western Declination

CO-ORDINATION OR GRID REFRENCE

Four Figure Reference

Six Figure Reference

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HIMALAYA
‘YOUNGEST AND HEIGHTS MOUTAIN RANGE’

MEANING...... The name of the range derives from the (Sanskrit)Himalaya (हिमालय,"Abode of Snow"), from
himá (हिम="snow") and ā-laya =आलय,
IMPORTANCE:-Mighty almighty climatic division, Rivers source.
WIDTH &LENGTH:2400 kms.(1500 mi),400 kms.(250 mi)
THREE TYPES OF MOUTAINS
 volcanic Mountain.
 Folded Mountains
 blocks Mountain.
ORIGION OF MOUTAIN RANGE
 Plate tectonic.
 .Ocean crust
 .Continental crust.
ORIGION OF HIMALAYA
Geologically the Himalaya originate from the North ward movement of the Indian tectonic 15 cm per year to
impact the Eurasian continent with Indian plate
EVIDENCE OF CONTINENTS’ DRIFT THEORY’.
PLATE TECTONICS
(A) CONCEPTS OF PLATES
Earths surface composed of six plates, thin but rigid.
Thickness varies 100 to 150km, size are nor equal.
1 EURATION 2 INDIAN 3 PACAFIC OCEAN
4 AMERICAN 5 AFRICAN 6 ANTARCTIC
(B) MOVEMENT OF PLATES
These plates are stable movement measured with reference to the earth’s axis
(C) BOUNDERIES OF PLATES
Volcanic, Earthquakes Tectonics and Other activities take places in areas these plates are known
zones. When plates moves towards each other sediments in the zone is folded in to Mountains. This
hypothesis is mathematically in nature. (GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATAION OF HIMALAYA.
  Grater Himalaya
 Middle Himalaya
 lesser Himalaya
SUB RANGES OF THE HIMALAYA:
 Pir Panjal range
 Dhaula Dhar range
 Zanskar range
 Ladhakh range.
 East Karakorum range
*CLASSIFICATION OF THE HIMALAYA
 Punjab Himalaya.
 Kumaun /Gharwal Himalaya.
 Nepal Himalaya.
 Sikkim Himalaya.
HIMALAYAN PEAKS AND PASSES…. Overall, the Himalayan mountain system is the world’s highest peaks,
the 8,000 to compared the enormous scale of this mountain range, consider that Aconcagua in the Andes at
6962 mts,22,841 feet, is the heights peaks outside Asia, where as the Himalayan system includes over
hundred mountains exceeding 7,200 mtrs. There are 10 Himalayan peaks with elevation over 8,000 meters.

______________________________________________________________________________

MOUNTAINEERING TERMINOLOGY

ABSEAL / RAPPED/ A rapid method of descending over steep rocks, snow or ice by sliding down a single or
ROPING DOWN double rope anchored one end.
ACCESSORY CORD Rope of between 4mm to 8mm.
ACCLIMATISATION It is a process of getting used to heights and cold. In this human body takes some time
to get used to heights and cold and its depends upon individuals.
ACHEVAL A method of climbing arête in which the climbing places one foot on either side of the
arete and grips the crest with his hand
ACTIVE ROPE The length of the rope between one moving climber and another climber acting as the
formers belay.
AID POINT Anchor used as a hand or foothold.
AIGUILLES A steep pointed mountain usually with sharp and distinct out lines.
AIRBORNE A snow avalanche having its path in the air. Such avalanches have very high velocity
AVALANCHE which may go as high as 200kmh.
ALP A grassy pastures below the snowline in the Alps but above the valley and the place
where the animals are taken to feed in summer months.
APLS European chain of mountains
ANCHOR Can be natural or artificial around which a climber can secure a rope or sling for support
or belay.
ANORAK OR PARKA A thigh length wind proof tunic with a hood can be rain proof also.
APPROACH MARCH The walk in at the beginning of Climbing expedition to the point where roped climbing
begins.
ARETE A knife edge rocky or icy spur. It is a sharp steep ridge generally one of main ridge of a
mountain (mostly between two cirque also called Cambridge)
ARTIFICIAL Climbing steep rocks and ice using artificial aids like the use of a special rope
CLIMBING techniques pitons, ladders, carabiners and sling etc.
AVALANCHE A mass of snow, ice, earth and rock descending swiftly down a mountainside.
AVALANCHE ROD A rod formed by assembling a number of small sections of 1’ long pieces inter the lower
most rod having a sharp point for easy penetration into snow and top having flat
roundish head. The rod is utilized for searching victims buried in avalanche snow.
BACK UP OR BACK A method of climbing a chimney by placing one’s back against one side wall and one
& FEET feet against the other.
BALLING UP The adherences of soft wet snow to the sole of the boots or the spikes of the crampons.
BANDOLEER Shoulder sling used to carry equipments.
BARE GLACIER A glacier whose surface is free from debris and moraine.
BELAY The method of securing a climber with a rope for the purpose of arresting a fall. It can
 be done with natural or artificial anchor or with another climber’s body.
BENCH MARK A mark made by a surveyor on a permanent object to indicate a point whose height
above sea level is known and recorded.
BENIGHTED The condition of being stranded on a mountain after dark.
BERGFALL Fall of stone and rock.
BERGSCHRUND The gap or crevasse between the glacier proper and the upper snow face. The upper lip
of a bergschrund may be very high from the level of the lower lip. Generally the first
crevasse in a glacier.
BIVOUAC A temporary encampment during an overnight halt in mountain region or high on a
mountain without a tent.
BLIND MOVE A move to gain a hidden hold.
BOLLARD An upstanding thumb like peace of rock pillar fashioned from snow or ice to from an
anchor.
BOULDERING Climbing boulder, a common game amongst climbers. The climbs are usually only a few
feet high, but extremely difficult.
BRAKING OR SELF An act of arresting a fall on a steep snow slope by using an ice axe.
ARREST
BRIDGING A method of climbing chimneys and corners. It can also be any sense of upward
movement on a rock face when the legs are astride and the feet are being used on
pressure hold.
BUCKET STEP The large step cut at the corners of a zigzag line of steps in hard snow and ice.
BULGE Small overhang.
BUTTRESS A large rock spine usually separated from the rest of the rock by gullies on either side. It
is short of rock wall being very steep it is difficult to climb.
CAIRN A pile of stone erected to mark a summit, a spot height, a pass and to mark a route
sometimes.
CAPSTONE Slab of rock blocking the exit from a chimney.
CARANE Hut at high altitude used for overnight stay.
CHIMNEY A fissure in a rock face which will admit the body of a climber may open on one side or
both.
CIRQUE A deep hollow in a mountainside which has been eroded and shaped by the movement
of snow and ice (corrie or CWM)
CLIFF A steep face of rock.
CONTOUR An imaginary line drawn on a map to join up the point of equal heights above mean sea
level.
CORNICE An overhanging mass of snow projecting over the edge of a ridge formed by prevailing
winds.
COULOIR A broad gully or furrow in a mountainside may be of rock, snow or ice formed usually in
an up and down direction. It is a passage between two vertical slopes. Generally it is
worn by a stream.
COW’S TAIL Short length of rope clipped to support body weight.
CRACK A cleft in rock, narrower the chimney.
CRAGS A number of rocky cliffs.
CRAMPON or CLAW Steel spiked frames which can be fitted to boots to give a grip on ice and firm snow
slopes.
CREVASSE A crack in a glacier surface which can be both wide and very deep made by the
movement of the glacier over the irregular shapes in its bed by mean of bends in its
course.
CRUISE Fluent ascent of a difficult route.
CRUX Most difficult section of a climb.
CWM OR CIRQUE A large hollow in the mountainside.
DAISY CHAIN This is continuous looped nylon sling stitched into nine carabiner length pockets. It
simplifies belay and jumar ascents and allows you to be anchored while un rope.
DEADMAN, Small alloy plate which is buried in the snow to act like an anchor, digging deeper the
DEADBOY harder it is pulled on the metal chain attached to it.
DIRECT BELAY The active rope passed directly round a rock to safeguard moving climber.
DISTRESS SIGNAL Signal intended to attract attention in the event of an accident. It consist of six blasts or
flashes or shouts or whistle in a minute, followed by a minutes silence and repeated
until attention has been attracted. The acknowledgement is three blasts in a minute
followed by a minutes silence and repeated.
DYNAMIC BELAY Method of arresting the lead climber’s fall by friction of a rope.
ETRIER A short lightweight ladder having 2 to 4 steps 25 to 40 cm apart used to assist the
 climbing of smooth or overhanging rocks by artificial means.
EXPANSION BOLT A device used for artificial climbing when no cracks in rocks are available and a hole is
drilled to insert the expansion bolt to act as piton for aid or security.
FIRN Hard snow laying on a glacier.
FLAKE Rock feature formed by partial peeling of the surface layer.
FOEHN Hot dry winds blowing leeward and causing snow to become soft and dangerous.
FRONT POINTING Climbing straight up steep snow or ice by means of digging the front points of crampons
and supporting balance with an ice axe.
FROSTBITE Freezing of the body tissues causing damage which often results in gangrene on
thawing. The parts specially liable to be attacked are the fingers, toes, nose and ears.
GENDARME A prominent pinnacle or tower of rock found mostly on ridge.
GITE Shelter or resting place.
GLACIER A river of ice, a few hundred meters to many kilometers in length, which flows at an
imperceptible rate, a few meters adds each year.
GLACIER TABLE A rock supported on an ice pedestal in a glacier.
GLACIS Any rock or ice slope up to 30 degree from the horizontal, which can be walked up.
GLISSADE A voluntary, controlled descent on a snow slope by sliding down and skating on the feet
in a standing or squatting posture.
GORGE A deep narrow valley with unusual steep sides.
GREASY ROCK A rock made slippery by a coating of damp moss or lichen.
GULLY The deep cleft in the face of a cliff or a mountain.
HAND TRAVERSE A horizontal movement across a broad, flat, rocky ledge the body being supported
entirely by the hands, which grip the edge of the ledge.
HANGING GLACIER A deep glacier situated high on a mountain. It is usually independent unit of ice, high
above the main valley from which ice constantly keeps avalanching.
HARNESS A waist belt designed that in the event of a fail the shock of the climber will be
minimised.
ICE FALL A feature which is formed when a glacier flows over a steep and uneven slope and
breaks up into a mass of blocks pinnacles and crevasse.
ICE FIELD A name used locally by mountaineers it describes either a large area of glacier enclosed
by a rim or wall of mountain or a number of glaciers draped over a large summit plateau
of one or more mountains.
ICE PINNACLES Undulation in snow or ice surface having a caused by the presence of melt water in the
general area.
JUMAR A metallic device for ascending steep fixed ropes can be moved forward but not
backward.
KNOLL A small rounded hill or mound.
LAYBACK A method of climbing the edge of cracks and flakes by leaning back on them on the
hands. The hands grip the edge and the feet are placed flat on the rock close to the
edge.
LEADING THROUGH The practice of two climbers leading alternately up pitches of a climb.
LEDGE A flat or slightly sloping area on a rock face or mountain side.
LOOSE SNOW These are caused by lack of cohesion in the snow mass laying on steep slope. They
AVALANCHE have average velocity in the range of 10 to 30 km/h and density in the range of 200 to
300 kgm3 dry snow and 400 to 500 kgm3 wet snow.
MENTEL SHELF The act of climbing on to a ledge with no hand holds above it.
MOAT A gap between rock and glacier or snow.
MORAINE Accumulation of debris, stone, earth and rubble came down by a glacier.
MOUNTAIN The effect of altitude on certain people. Who begin to feel lethargic and queasy
SICKNESS accompanied by a severe headache. Usually only happens above about 10000 ft.
MASSIF A group of mountain.
NEVE The snow slopes on a mountain above the bergschrund. The neve feeds the glacier
with fresh snow or ice.
NICHE Small recess in a rock face, which can provide a hold, stance or even a place for a
bivouac.
NOCH FIRN High snow field on a high mountain.
P.A. SHOES A special rock climbing shoes with canvas upper tight fitting rubber soles stiffened by a
shank, originally developed by Pierre Allain.
PASS A point across a mountain ridge from one valley to another.
PEDESTAL Flat topped pillar of rock.
PEG A piece of metal designed for insertion into rock cracks or ice to support a belay.
PINNACLE A sharp peak which is an isolated tower of peak.
 PITCH Distance between two belays or a section of difficult ice, snow or rock, anything from 10
to 120 ft. in height.
PITON A piece of metal consists of a spike or blade and a head have a hole or loosely welded
ring. It is made in various thickness and widths to fit in all kinds of cracks in artificial
climbing.
RAMP Narrow strip of rock which slants diagonally across the face.
RECESS A niche or short corner in a rock face.
REFUGE Mountain hut.
RIB Thin rock ridge standing out from rock, snow or ice face.
RIDGE The line on which two faces of a mountain meet.
RANGE A series of mountains.
RIMAYE Bergschrund.
RUNNING BELAY Safeguard a leader provides for himself, usually by passing his rope through the
carabiner.
SASTRUGI Conical structures of snow formed by wind. The apex of the cone points toward the
most prevalent wind direction and the body lies along the wind direction.
SCOOP A shallow depression in the rock face.
SCREE Broken stones of boulders debris covering a slope below steep rocks.
SERAC A pinnacle or tower of ice in an ice fall.
SLAB AVALANCHE A snow avalanche caused by fracture in a snow slab. Such avalanches generally travel
along the slope and have velocity in the range of 40 to 60 kmh and snow density of
approximately 300 to 500 kgm3.
SLACK Loosening of the rope between two adjacent climbers.
SNOW BRIDGE A bridge of snow spanning a bergschrund, crevasse or mountain stream.
SNOW CRYSTAL Star like structure of snow formed in the upper atmosphere and are seen falling during a
snow fall.
SNOW LINE The general level at which snow begins it lie permanently on a mountain.
SPINDRIFT Loose powder snow carries by wind.
SPUR Rock or snow rib on side of a mountain.
STANCE Place where a climber makes his belay somewhere comfortable to stand or sit.
SNOUT End point of glacier.
STITCH PLATE An elegant and versatile lightweight belay plate made of high class aluminum alloy for
strength and security. Can be used with either single or double 9 to 11mm ropes.
TARN A pond on a high mountain side or glacier lake.
TRAVERSE To move horizontally or diagonally across a rock or snow slope.
VERGLASS A film of ice on rocks caused by melting snow or rain or mist condensing and freezing.
VERTIGO A sensation of fear or dizziness at heights.
WATERSHED High ridge separating two river systems.
WHITE OUT An unpleasant phenomenon of snows capes, where falling snow or even mist, can
merge the land and sky together with complete loss of horizon and visibility.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
GLACIER THE FROZEN RESERVOIR OF FRESH WATER

when Glaciers melts it originates rivers. Glaciers are the biggest reservoirs of fresh water. While the snow has
been known for the centuries but our knowledge about the glacier is very recent. While climbing mountains
trekking over high passes one has to encounter with the glacier. So it is very important to know about the
glacier and its feature/hazards on the glacier glacial ice is the largest reservoir of freshwater on earth,
supporting one third of the world's population. Many glaciers store water during one season and release it later
as melt water, a water source that is especially important for plants, animals and human uses.

Formation
Glacier forms rather simple reason. Snow that does not melt during the summer and carried for the next winter.
If the snow continuous to accumulate year after year eventually consolidating and glacier is formed.

CONTRIBUTING FACTORS FOR GLACIER FORMATION

PERCIPITATION / LATITUDE / SOLAR RADIATION /
AMOUNT OF SNOW HEIGHT OF RIDGE ORIENTATION OF SLOPE
TYPES OF GLACIERS
1 Alpine (High elevation)- Fed by ice and snow in mountain areas, usually occupy pre existing valleys
VALLEY A glacier that flows for all or most of its length within the walls of a
GLACIER mountain valley. Also called an Alpine Glacier or a Mountain Glacier
CALVING A glacier with a terminus that ends in a body of water (river, lake, ocean)
GLACIER into which it calves icebergs.
HANGING- A glacier that originates high on the wall of a glacier valley and
GLACIER descends only part of the way to the surface of the main glacier.
Avalanching and icefalls are the mechanisms for ice and snow transfer
to the valley floor below.
PIEDMONT A fan or lobe-shaped glacier, located at the front of a mountain range. It
GLACIER forms when one or more valley glaciers flow from a confined valley onto
a plain where it expands. The 30-mile wide Malaspina is the largest in
Alaska.
CIRQUE A cirque glacier is formed in a cirque, a bowl-shaped depression on the
GLACIER side of or near mountains. Snow and ice accumulation in corries often
occurs as the result of avalanching from higher surrounding slopes.
ICE FIELD A continuous accumulation of snow and glacier ice that completely fills a
mountain basin or covers a low-relief mountain plateau to a substantial
depth. When the thickness become great enough, tongues of ice
overflow the basins or plateaus as Valley Glaciers.
2 CONTINENTAL GLACIERS - MUCH LARGER AND THICKER, HIGH LATITUDE

ICE CAP A dome-shaped accumulation of glacier ice and perennial snow that
completely covers a mountainous area or island, so that no peaks
or Nunataks poke through
ICE SHEET A thick, sub continental to continental-scale accumulation of glacier ice
and perennial snow that spreads from a center of accumulation, typically
in all directions. Also called a Continental Glacier
POLAR A glacier with a thermal or temperature regime in which ice
GLACIER temperatures always remain below the freezing point
TIDEWATER A glacier with a terminus that ends in a body of water influenced by
GLACIER tides, such as the ocean or a large lake. Typically, tidewater glaciers
calve ice to produce icebergs
GLACIER FEATURES / HAZARDS ON THE GLACIER

BERGSCHRUND CREVASSE ICE FALL SERAC

SNOUT MORAINE TARN ISECALS
GLACIER TABLE GLACIER MILL SNOW BRIDGE DRY GLACIER

________________________________________________________________________________

SURVIVAL- SKILL TO LIVE IN WILDERNESS

Survival means stay alive in adverse conditions. Only the fittest with the situation survives.
Your attitude more than other skill determination how successful you are in a survival situation.
Survival in the mountain depends upon two psychological factors:
 Determination to live
 Elimination of fear
How survival situation does occurs:
 Natural calamities
 Disorientation
 Weather
How do we come to know that we are lost & might be facing survival situation very soon?
 As we move from the camp and know approximate time to come back and if it takes more time
& still no signs of camp is visible, it is the first sign that we are lost
 If the land marks are completely different than what we had seen before, it means that we
have to be ready for the survival situation
S- STOP
P-PLAN
E-EXECUTE
A-ACCESS
R-RE EVALUTE

WEATHER
If any survival situation you can go a day or two without food and you don’t need shelter right
away, unless you are in freezing condition. But if you are not having water for 24 hours in a
survival situation, it depletes you both physically and mentally. After just three days without
hydration in a survival situation your body will shut down and it will be light out for you. Though
some people cam survive for max for7 days. 75% of human body is water. If you drink about 2
liter water minimum per day your body will be able to properly circulate blood, process food,
regulate body temperature(which prevents hypothermia and hyperthermia)

FOOD FIRE WATER

Fruits, edible mushrooms, First thing that fire does  Streams, river and lakes
edible nuts, edible beans, for you before anything is  Following birds paths in the
edible cereals, edible cacti that it gives you sense of morning and evening
and algae can be searched security. Secondly you
and prepared mostly by
 Collect morning dew
can cook food and thirdly  Fruits & vegetables
boiling with the exception of
leaves, these foods are
it keeps you warm.  Transpiration bags
relatively high I calories, Fire lightning techniques:  Dig an under ground still
providing some energy to  Hand drill Snow & ice
the body. Plants are  Bow and drill fire friction
some of the easiest food technique
sources to find in the jungle  Fire piston (where air is
as they are stationary and compressed under high
can thus be had without pressure, temperature
exerting much effort.
reaches in excess of
Bitterness of the plant
increases as the plant
800 degree Fahrenheit)
matures. So it is advisable
to boil them before eating.
Fish is the best source of
protein and healthy fat.
Use hunting skill & traps.

SHELTER

Shelter in snow / ice Shelter in tree line

 Snow caves  Caves
 Trenches  Overhang rocks
 Snow holes  Hollow trees
 Igloo  Leaves
 Dry crevasse  Artificial/improvised polythene
shelters
 CONCLUSION
1. Do not panic
2. Don’t waste your energy
3. Two members should go in one direction by making the route marks for 1 km if there is no
possibility then they come back and next two will go in another direction.
4. Finally follow the river of stream which will certainly lead to some civilization.

ADVANCE COURSE (MOUNTAINEERING)

EXPEDITION PLANNING- MOUNTAIN CLIMBING PREPARATION
Factors to be considered before planning the Expedition ( which Mountain, which route- best to take
well within your climbing ability, duration – be realistic, Time & Season – information about seasonal
temperature, weather condition, amount of day light, Location- where to go? Which range, After the
selection of Mountain- study about Mountain, route, discuss who have been earlier to that Mountains
previous reports, routes, logistic & climbing concerns, Selection of team, skill of the team must equal
to the need of mountains, selection of leader & other members, establishment of climbing style-
traditional /alpine)
PREPARATION OF THE PLAN
Name of the mountain
Height
Long lat
Range/ sub range
Area, location, country
Biodata of the members
Climbing itinerary/ day wise program
EXPENDITURE
Equipments (climbing gears, camping equipments, personal) Ration/food, Kitchen articles,
Transportation, Hired staff, Mules charges, Insurance, Medicine, Photography, Communication,
Repair kit/ spare kit
Funds
APPROVAL OF THE EXPEDITION FROM THE AUTHORITY

___________________________________________________________________________
AID CLIMBING (ON ROCK)
Aid climbing is a style of climbing in which standing on or pulling oneself up via devices attached to
fixed or placed protection is used to make upward progress.
1. Anchor placement
First find a placement for the anchor in the rock and choose the type of equipment best suited to the
placement (cam, piton, hook, bolt...) Remember that some anchors are for progression only (will not
hold a fall) and others are also protection anchors (can hold a potential fall).
Concerning piton placement.
2. Anchor testing
Once the anchor is placed, clip the anchor, with a karabiner. Clip your belay rope & etrier to the
anchor Test the strength of the anchor, looking away from it while testing.
3. Load transfer
Pull the slack end of the rope connected to anchor. Shift the self anchor to the piton.
5. Clipping the anchor should not be done too early, in order to limit the fall distance should the
anchor fail.
You are ready to place the next anchor and repeat all of these steps.

ROCK RESCUE (CASUALITY LOWERING & EVACUATION)

ROCK RESCUE
When an injured climber stranded on steep terrain (for an example rock cliffs or steep boulder field).
A team may need to use ropes to use lower or raise the injured climber is called rock rescue.
CASUALTY LOWERING
It is a method of lowering casualty from any steep face of rock or cliff is called casualty lowering.
1. Web Carrying (injured, conscious casualty)
2. Stretcher Lowering (unconscious casualty)
THE FOLLOWING RESCUE TECHNIQUES USED FOR THE LIFTING OF A VICTIM FROM THE
GORGE/CLIFF
1. Self Rescue
2. Brute force
3. Z-Pulley System
4. C- Pulley system.

CASUALTY CARRING TECHNIQUES

It is method of evacuate the victim to the safe place.
1. Fire Man Lift
2. Four Hand Lift
3. Carrying with the help of casualty coil
4. Split casualty coil carrying.
5. Improvised rope Stretcher.
6. Improvised Stretchers (using jackets, rucksack, gunny bags etc.

________________________________________________________________________________________

AID CLIMBING/ TWO PITON CLIMBING (ON ICE)

Aid climbing is a style of climbing in which standing on or pulling oneself up via devices attached to
fixed or placed protection is used to make upward progress.
1. Anchor placement
First find a placement for the anchor in the rock and choose the type of equipment best suited to the
placement ice piton. Remember that some anchors are for progression only (will not hold a fall) and
others are also protection anchors (can hold a potential fall).
Concerning piton placement.
2. Anchor testing
Once the anchor is placed, clip the anchor, with a karabiner. Put the belay rope, test the strength of
the anchor, looking away from it while testing.
3. Load transfer
Pull the slack end of the rope connected to anchor. Shift the self anchor to the piton.
6. Clipping the anchor should not be done too early, in order to limit the fall distance should the
anchor fail.
You are ready to place the next anchor and repeat all of these steps.

MAP READING – PRACTICAL SESSON (ADVANCE COURSE)

Revision of Basic Course Syllabus
MAP ORIENTATION (Map setting)
ORIENTATION –(Finding own position) POINT POSITION, LINE POSITION & AREA POSITION
GROUND TO MAP- MAP TO GROUND
Following bearing on ground & plotting on the a map
Following bearing on a map & plotting on the ground
SEQUANCE CLIMBING ANCHOR AND BELAY ON SNOW

SEQUANCE CLIMBING
When we roped up and climb difficult section of rock, snow or ice with giving belay to each other in
sequence wise without any fixing the rope is called sequence climbing.

ANCHOR
Anchor can be natural or artificial, which a climber secures a rope or sling for support or belay. In
snow we use two types of anchor.
1. Natural Anchor –In natural anchor we use rock (if available) in snow be make a snow bollard.
A snow bollard is a mound carved out of snow. When rigged with rope or webbing, bollards
can provide strong, reliable snow anchors. However, building bollards can be time consuming.
Create a mound by making a horseshoe – shaped trench in the snow, with the open end of the
horseshoe pointing downhill. In hard snow, chop out the trench using the adze of an ice axe in
soft snow, stamp out a trench or dig one. The trench should be 6 to 8 inches wide and 12 to 18
inches deep. In hard snow it should be up to 10 feet.
2. Artificial Anchor- when we use artificial aids for making an anchor is called artificial anchor.
The artificial anchor is as under:-
(a) Vertical Ice Axe Anchor-In this anchor we insert ice axe in vertical direction on the snow
slope and angle of the ice axe will remain 45 degree.
(b) Dead Anchor of Ice Axe- In this anchor we buried ice axe in the snow slope horizontally
and pick remains down ward side 45 degree in the snow.
(C) Snow Stake Anchor- In this technique we use snow stake in 45 degree angle towards
mountain Side.
(d)Dead Man or Dead Boy- In this we buried dead man or dead boy in the snow in the angle
of 45
Degree.
BELAY ON SNOW
(a) Direct axe belay- When we give belay direct through ice axe.
(b) Hip axe belay- When we pass the rope through ice axe and give the support with the heap
to provide the safety to moving climber.
(c) Boot axe belay- When we pass the rope through ice axe and give the support with boot and
rope remains over the boot for the friction.
(d) Pick axe belay –when the snow condition is very hard in this condition a climber gives the
pick axe belay.

MOI (MOUNTAINEEERING)

OPTRA-HOW TO BE GOOD ORATOR

ORATION
• LOUD AND CLEAR VOICE, AUDIABLE TO ALL, AVOID SHOUTING.
• FREQUENT FLOW OF SPEECH, USE OF PAUSE AS REQUIRED
• PROPER PRONOUNSATION
• COMMAND ON LANGUAGE
• AVOID REPETATION OF PET WORDS
• PRECURE ALL THE RESOURCES REQUIRED

PREPARATION
• ( INDOOR/ OUT DOOR CLASSES) CHALKS, BOARD, CHAIRS, POWER/ LIGHTS, AV
SYSTEM, EQUUIPMENT, DEMONSTRATION.)
• TURN OUT AS REQUIRED
• LESSON PLANNING
• SITTING PLAN
• REHEARSAL (DEMONSTRATION/EQUIP. AV AIDS)

TRANSMISSION
• SPEAK TO STUDENT (NOT TO BOARD,WALL FLORE,NOTES)
• SIMPLE EXAMPLE TO EXPLAIN
• PROPER USE OF RESOURCES
• MAINTAIN EYE CONTACT
• AVOID UNWANTED MOVEMENT

RECEPTION
• ASKING QUESTIONS
• KEEP MOVING,CHECKING NOTES WATCHING)
• USE SIMPLE LANGUAGE/ UNDER STANDABLE
• SUMMERRIZE/ BRIEFING BEFORE SWITCHING THE TOPIC
AVOID EXTERNAL DISTURBANCE (NATURAL/ ARTIFICIAL)

ASSAMILATION
• IMPORTANCE
• ADVANTAGES
• SUMMERY
• SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
• NECESSARY EQUIPMENTS

Class Management
1. Model ideal behavior
 Use polite language
  Maintain eye contact
 Keep phones in your pockets
 Let one another speak uninterrupted
 Raise concerns about one another’s statements in a respectful manner
2. Avoid punishing the class
Address isolated behavior issues instead of punishing an entire class, as the latter can hurt your
relationships with students who are on-task.
Instead, call out specific students in a friendly manner. For example:
 “Do you have a question?”, not “Stop talking and disrupting other students”
 “Do you need help focusing?”, not “Pay attention and stop fooling around while I’m talking”
This basic approach will allow you to keep a friendly disposition, while immediately acknowledging
poor behavior.
3. Encourage initiative
Almost inevitably, you’ll have some eager learners in your classroom. You can simply ask them if
they’d like to get ahead from time-to-time.
4. Offer praise
 Inspire the class
 Improve a student’s self-esteem
 Reinforce rules and values you want to see
5. Build excitement for content
Start lessons by previewing particularly-exciting parts, hooking student interest from the get-go.
As the bell rings and students settle, go through an agenda of the day’s highlights. These could
include group tasks, engaging bits of content and anything else to pique curiosity. For example,
“Throughout the day, you’ll learn about:”
6. Interview students
 What helps them focus
 Who they work well with
 Their favorite types of lessons
 Their favorite in-class activities
 Which kinds of exercises help them remember key lesson points
7. Address bad behavior quickly
Avoid hesitation when you must address bad behavior, especially when a student breaks a
documented rule.
But keep in mind: It’s usually best to talk to the student in private. Emerging research shows that
punishing students in front of peers has “limited value.”
8. PRAISE WHAT AND WHEN YOU CAN
Call attention to the things your students are doing that meet your expectations. The power of this is
stunning for a number of reasons.
9. IDENTIFY YOURSELF
Tell your students about who you are and why you're there. A classroom where each student deeply
trusts the teacher has the potential to be a great environment for learning. To build that trust, tell your
students who you are and why you chose to be a teacher.
10. HAVE A PLAN
Your lesson plans need to be crystal clear. You need to begin each day with clarity about what
students should know and be able to do by the end of the class period, and every second of your day
should be purposefully moving you toward that end.

LESSON PLAN
Lesson plans are generally made up of a few different key parts. Here are the basic elements of a
lesson plan:
TITLE: At the top of the page, name the subject that you are teaching.
IMPORTANCE: Importance of the lecture, its advantages & disadvantages.
PARTS/ TYPES: Lesson to be prepared in parts and sub parts so that it is easy to explain and
understand.
SUMMARY: At the end summarize the topic.
REHEARSAL: Rehearsal gives more confidence and the lesson will be delivered in more efficiently.
MATERIALS: Procurement of required materials for the lecture/demonstration.

________________________________________________________________________________________

Quality of Good Instructors

A person whose job is to teach a practical skill or sport or a teacher of a specialized subject that involves skill.

1 He respects other and wishes to all when entering the room.

2 His behavior should be good.

3 Instructor should be punctual.

4 Instructor should be discipline own self and teach other about discipline.

5 Instructor should be perfect in theory as well as practical.

6 Instructor never make loose talk.

7 He should be polite and simple.

8 Instructor should be know about class management.

9 No smoke in class and campus.

10 Instructor should be physically and mentally fit.

11 Equally look and friendly to all student.

12 Instructor should have broad minded and attractive power.

13 Instructor should have alert to environment and nature and its beauty.

14 Instructor never get in over confident ,over show and selfish.

15 At last he should be well knows about “OPTRA”.

___________________________________________________________________________________

MAP READING – PRACTICAL SESSON (METHOD OF INSTRUCTION COURSE)

Revision of Basic Course & Advance Course Syllabus
BOXING OBSTACLES
NAVIGATION CHART
PREPARATION OF NAVIGATION CHART WITH THE HELP OF GIVEN REFERENCES &
CONVENTIONAL SIGNS
NAVIGATION TEAM
 GUIDE
 NAVIGATOR
 PACER
 RECORDER

SAND MODEL MAKING WITH THE HELP OF CONTOURS

 ATAL BIHARI VAJPAYEE INSTITUTE
OF MOUNTAINEERING AND ALLIED SPORTS,
MANALI-175131(HIMACHAL PRADESH)

HAND BOOK ON MOUNTAINEERING

INTRODUCTION
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT