Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Electronics lab (ENEE3112)

Report of Experiment 2

“Diode Characteristics and Applications

Prepared by:
Name: Abdulrahman Attari Number: 1191908

Partners:
Name: Ameed Abu_zetoun Number: 1202302
Name: Yazan Hakawati Number: 1190695

Instructor: Dr.Naser Ismaeel TA: Eng.Mohammad

Section: 1
Date: 27 /9 / 2023

1
Abstract:-
In this experiment we going to learn about operation of PN junction on diode and the
behavior of diode and some of application like rectifier half wave and full wave (bridge),
and clipping and clamping

2
Table of Contents
Abstract:-......................................................................................................................................... 2
Theory:- ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Diode characteristics ................................................................................................................... 5
Half-Wave Rectifier ..................................................................................................................... 5
Half-wave and full-wave rectifiers............................................................................................... 6
efficiency of a half-wave rectifier ................................................................................................ 6
Diode Clipping Circuits................................................................................................................. 6
Positive Diode Clipping Circuits ................................................................................................... 7
Negative Diode Clipping Circuit ................................................................................................... 7
Clamper Circuits .......................................................................................................................... 8
Operating principle of Clamper circuits ...................................................................................... 8
Positive Clamper circuit ............................................................................................................... 9
Negative Clamper circuit ........................................................................................................... 10
Voltage Multiplier...................................................................................................................... 10
DC Voltage Doubler Circuit ........................................................................................................ 11
DC Voltage Tripler Circuit .......................................................................................................... 12
Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 14
Diode Characteristics ................................................................................................................. 14
Rectification............................................................................................................................... 14
Other Application ...................................................................................................................... 15
Data and Calculation..................................................................................................................... 17
Diode Characteristics ................................................................................................................. 17
Other Application ...................................................................................................................... 24
Conclusion:-................................................................................................................................... 27
References:- .................................................................................................................................. 28

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Table of Figures
Figure 1:- diode ............................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 2:-Half-wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter and a single diode. ................................ 5
Figure 3:- half and full wave rectifier waveform ............................................................................ 6
Figure 4:- Positive Diode Clipping Circuits ....................................................................................... 7
Figure 5:-negative Diode Clipping Circuits .................................................................................... 7
Figure 6:-circuit of a positive clamper ............................................................................................ 9
Figure 7:-circuit of a negative clamper ......................................................................................... 10
Figure 8:-DC Voltage Doubler Circuit .......................................................................................... 11
Figure 9:-DC Voltage Tripler Circuit ............................................................................................ 12
Figure 10:- simple diode circuit .................................................................................................... 14
Figure 11:- half wave rectifier ....................................................................................................... 14
Figure 12:-full wave rectifier circuit ............................................................................................. 15
Figure 13:- clipping circuit ............................................................................................................ 15
Figure 14:- Clamping circuit ......................................................................................................... 16
Figure 15:- Voltage Multiplier Circuit .......................................................................................... 16
Figure 16:- ID vs VD..................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 17:- waveform of half wave ............................................................................................... 18
Figure 18:-waveform half wave .................................................................................................... 19
Figure 19:- reversed half wave signal ........................................................................................... 19
Figure 20:- the output voltage of half-wave rectifier with capacitor (2.2μF)__AC coupling ....... 20
Figure 21:- the output voltage of half-wave rectifier with capacitor (2.2μF)__DC coupling ....... 21
Figure 22:- the output voltage of half-wave rectifier with capacitor (47μF) ................................. 22
Figure 23:- the output voltage of full-wave rectification without C.............................................. 23
Figure 24:- the output voltage of full-wave rectification with 2.2μF Capacitor............................ 23
Figure 25:- the output voltage of clipping circuit when Vdc=0 .................................................... 24
Figure 26:- the output voltage of clipping circuit when Vdc=1.5 ................................................. 24
Figure 27:- the output voltage of clipping circuit when Vdc=3 .................................................... 24
Figure 28:- output and input voltage of clamping when Vdc = 0.................................................. 25
Figure 29:- output and input voltage of clamping when Vdc = 1.5............................................... 25
Figure 30:- output and input voltage of clamping when Vdc = 3.................................................. 26

Table of tables
Table 1:-Diode Characteristic........................................................................................................ 17
Table 2:- output voltage characteristics (time period and peak voltage) ....................................... 18
Table 3:- output voltage characteristics (AC & DC Component) ................................................. 18
Table 4:- output voltage characteristics C and RMS ..................................................................... 20
Table 5:- output voltage characteristics (mean voltage) ................................................................ 20
Table 6:- output voltage characteristics (peak to peak Ripple)..................................................... 21
Table 7:- output voltage characteristics (mean voltage)............................................................... 21
Table 8:- output voltage characteristics (AC & DC Component) ................................................. 22
Table 9:- output voltage across the capacitor ................................................................................ 26

4
Theory:-
Diode characteristics
We use semiconductor materials (Si, Ge) to form variety of electronic devices. The most
basic device is diode. Diode is a two terminal PN junction device. PN junction is formed
by bringing a P type material in contact with N type material. When a P-type material is
brought in contact with N- type material electrons and holes start recombining near the
junction. This results in lack of charge carriers at the junction and thus the junction is
called depletion region. When we apply voltage across the terminals of PN junction, we
call it as diode. The picture below shows the symbol of PN junction diode. [1]

Figure 1:- diode

The rectification is the diode's primary purpose. It will pass current when it is forward
biased (the anode is linked to the higher potential). The current is stopped when it is
reverse biased (the greater potential is linked to the cathode lead). [1]

Half-Wave Rectifier
A half-wave rectifier converts an AC signal to DC by passing either the negative or
positive half-cycle of the waveform and blocking the other. Half-wave rectifiers can be
easily constructed using only one diode, but are less efficient than full-wave rectifiers. [2]
Since diodes only carry current in one direction, they can serve as a simple half-wave
rectifier. Only passing half of an AC current causes irregularities, so a capacitor is usually
used to smooth out the rectified signal before it can be usable. [2]

Figure 2:-Half-wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter and a single diode.

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Half-wave and full-wave rectifiers
Alternating current (AC) periodically changes direction, and a rectifier converts this
signal to a direct current (DC), which only flows in one direction. A half-wave rectifier
does this by removing half of the signal. A full-wave rectifier converts the full input
waveform to one of constant polarity by reversing the direction of current flow in one
half-cycle. One example configuration for full-wave rectification is the full bridge
rectifier, which uses four diodes to create a pulsating DC output. [2]

Figure 3:- half and full wave rectifier waveform

A half-wave rectifier creates a purely positive signal by blocking the negative half-cycle,
while a full-wave rectifier does this by changing the direction of the negative half-
cycle.[2]

efficiency of a half-wave rectifier

Since only half of the input waveform is passed, the efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is
lower than that of a full-wave rectifier. The maximum efficiency of a half-wave rectifier
is about 40.5%, and the maximum efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is twice that. [2]

Diode Clipping Circuits

The Diode Clipper, also known as a Diode Limiter, is a wave shaping circuit that takes
an input waveform and clips or cuts off its top half, bottom half or both halves together.

This diode clipping of the input signal produces an output waveform that resembles a
flattened version of the input. For example, the half-wave rectifier is a clipper circuit,
since all voltages below zero are eliminated. [3]
But Diode Clipping Circuits can be used a variety of applications to modify an input
waveform using signal and Schottky diodes or to provide over-voltage protection using
zener diodes to ensure that the output voltage never exceeds a certain level protecting the
circuit from high voltage spikes. Then diode clipping circuits can be used in voltage
limiting applications. [3]
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We saw in the Signal Diodes tutorial that when a diode is forward biased it allows current
to pass through itself clamping the voltage. When the diode is reverse biased, no current
flows through it and the voltage across its terminals is unaffected, and this is the basic
operation of the diode clipping circuit. [3]
Although the input voltage to diode clipping circuits can have any waveform shape, we
will assume here that the input voltage is sinusoidal. Consider the circuits below. [3]

Positive Diode Clipping Circuits

Figure 4:- Positive Diode Clipping Circuits

In this diode clipping circuit, the diode is forward biased (anode more positive than
cathode) during the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform. For the diode to
become forward biased, it must have the input voltage magnitude greater than +0.7 volts
(0.3 volts for a germanium diode). [3]
When this happens the diodes begins to conduct and holds the voltage across itself
constant at 0.7V until the sinusoidal waveform falls below this value. Thus the output
voltage which is taken across the diode can never exceed 0.7 volts during the positive
half cycle. [3]
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased (cathode more positive than
anode) blocking current flow through itself and as a result has no effect on the negative
half of the sinusoidal voltage which passes to the load unaltered. Thus the diode limits the
positive half of the input waveform and is known as a positive clipper circuit. [3]

Negative Diode Clipping Circuit

Figure 5:-negative Diode Clipping Circuits

Here the reverse is true. The diode is forward biased during the negative half cycle of the
sinusoidal waveform and limits or clips it to –0.7 volts while allowing the positive half

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cycle to pass unaltered when reverse biased. As the diode limits the negative half cycle of
the input voltage it is therefore called a negative clipper circuit.

Clamper Circuits

Definition: Clamper circuits are the electronic circuits that shift the dc level of the AC
signal. Clampers are also known as DC voltage restorers or level shifter. Clampers are
basically classified as positive and negative that includes both biased and unbiased
conditions individually. [4]
These circuits are used to clamp an input signal to a different dc level. It basically adds dc
component to the applied input signal in order to push the signal to either the positive or
negative side. Clamper circuit is a combination of a resistor along with
a diode and capacitor. It sometimes also employs dc battery so as to have an additional
shift in the signal level. [4]
Clamper circuits are constructed in a similar manner as that of clipper circuits. However,
clamper includes an extra charging element that is the capacitor in its circuitry. The
combination of resistor and capacitor in the clamper circuit is used to maintain different
dc level at the output of the clamper. [4]
Operating principle of Clamper circuits

As we have already discussed a clamper consist of the capacitor and a diode in shunt
connection with the load. [4]
The working of clamper circuits depends on the variation in the time constant of the
capacitor. This variation is the outcome of changing the current path of the diode with the
change in input signal polarity. [4]
Here, the magnitude of the time constant is
τ= RC
this is chosen large enough in order to assure that voltage across the capacitor does not
discharge consequently at the non-conducting interval of the diode. But, such a discharge
takes place only when the load resistance is very large. This permits the capacitor to take
larger discharge time. Conversely, a smaller value of the capacitor is chosen so that it will
charge rapidly at the time of conduction of the diode. [4]

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Positive Clamper circuit

Figure 6:-circuit of a positive clamper

As we can see here, the diode is in parallel connection with the load. So we can say
reverse biasing of the diode will provide the output at the load. [4]
Initially, the positive half of the applied input signal reverse biases the diode but the
capacitor is not still charged. So, at this period of time output will not be considered. [4]
For, the negative half of the AC signal, the capacitor now gets fully charged up to the
peak of the AC signal but with inverse polarity. This negative half forward biases the
diode that results in the flow of the forward current through the diode. The next positive
half then reverse biases the diode due to which signal will appear at the output. [4]
At the beginning of the positive half of the AC signal, the diode is in the non-conducting
state that results in discharging of capacitor charge. So, at the output, we will have the
summation of the voltage stored across the capacitor and applied the AC input signal.
This is given by [4]
Vo = Vm + Vm = 2Vm
Here as we can in the output waveform shown above, the signal level is shifted upward or
positive side. Hence it is named as positive clamper.

9
Negative Clamper circuit

Let’s have a look at the figure shown below of negative clamper in order to understand
the detailed operation-

Figure 7:-circuit of a negative clamper

At the time when positive half of the AC input is applied, the diode comes to forward
bias condition that results in no-load current at the output. However, a forward current
flows through the diode that charges the capacitor to the peak of the ac signal but again
with inverse polarity. The capacitor here is charged up to the forward biased condition of
the diode. [4]
When negative half of the AC signal is applied, the diode now becomes reverse biased.
This allows load current to appear at the output of the circuit. Now, this non-conducting
state of the diode discharges the capacitor. So, at the output, a summation of capacitor
voltage along with the input voltage is achieved. [4]
Hence at the output, we have,
Vo = – Vm – Vm = -2Vm
This results in the downward shift of the signal. Therefore, it is termed as negative
clamper circuit.

Voltage Multiplier

The Voltage Multiplier is a type of diode rectifier circuit which can produce an output
voltage many times greater than of the applied input voltage[5]
In the tutorial about Rectifiers, we saw that the DC output voltage being controlled by the
rectifier is at a value below that of the mains input voltage. The Voltage Multiplier,
however, is a special type of diode rectifier circuit which can potentially produce an
output voltage many times greater than of the applied input voltage. [5]

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Although it is usual in electronic circuits to use a voltage transformer to increase a
voltage, sometimes a suitable step-up transformer or a specially insulated transformer
required for high voltage applications may not always be available. One alternative
approach is to use a diode voltage multiplier circuit which increases or “steps-up” the
voltage without the use of a transformer. [5]
Voltage multipliers are similar in many ways to rectifiers in that they convert AC-to-DC
voltages for use in many electrical and electronic circuit applications such as in
microwave ovens, strong electric field coils for cathode-ray tubes, electrostatic and high
voltage test equipment, etc, where it is necessary to have a very high DC voltage
generated from a relatively low AC supply. [5]
Generally, the DC output voltage (Vdc) of a rectifier circuit is limited by the peak value
of its sinusoidal input voltage. But by using combinations of rectifier diodes and
capacitors together we can effectively multiply this input peak voltage to give a DC
output equal to some odd or even multiple of the peak voltage value of the AC input
voltage. Consider the basic voltage multiplier circuit below. [5]
DC Voltage Doubler Circuit

Figure 8:-DC Voltage Doubler Circuit

So how does it work. The circuit shows a half wave voltage doubler. During the negative
half cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform, diode D1 is forward biased and conducts
charging up the pump capacitor, C1 to the peak value of the input voltage, (Vp). Because
there is no return path for capacitor C1 to discharge into, it remains fully charged acting
as a storage device in series with the voltage supply. At the same time, diode D2 conducts
via D1 charging up capacitor, C2. [5]
During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is reverse biased blocking the discharging
of C1 while diode D2 is forward biased charging up capacitor C2. But because there is a
voltage across capacitor C1 already equal to the peak input voltage, capacitor C2 charges
to twice the peak voltage value of the input signal. [5]
In other words, V(positive peak) + V(negative peak), so on the negative half-
cycle, D1 charges C1 to Vp and on the positive half-cycle D2 adds the AC peak voltage
to Vp onC1 and transfers it all to C2. The voltage across capacitor, C2 discharges through
the load ready for the next half cycle. [5]

11
Then the voltage across capacitor, C2 can be calculated as: Vout = 2Vp, (minus of course
the voltage drops across the diodes used) where Vp is the peak value of the input voltage.
Note that this double output voltage is not instantaneous but increases slowly on each
input cycle, eventually settling to 2Vp.
As capacitor C2 only charges up during one half cycle of the input waveform, the
resulting output voltage discharged into the load has a ripple frequency equal to the
supply frequency, hence the name half wave voltage doubler. The disadvantage of this is
that it can be difficult to smooth out this large ripple frequency in much the same way as
for a half wave rectifier circuit. Also, capacitor C2 must have a DC voltage rating at least
twice the value of the peak input voltage. [5]
The advantage of “Voltage Multiplier Circuits” is that it allows higher voltages to be
created from a low voltage power source without a need for an expensive high voltage
transformer as the voltage doubler circuit makes it possible to use a transformer with a
lower step up ratio than would be need if an ordinary full wave supply were used.
However, while voltage multipliers can boost the voltage, they can only supply low
currents to a high-resistance (+100kΩ) load because the generated output voltage quickly
drops-off as load current increases. [5]
By reversing the direction of the diodes and capacitors in the circuit we can also reverse
the direction of the output voltage creating a negative voltage output. Also, if we
connected the output of one multiplying circuit onto the input of another (cascading), we
can continue to increase the DC output voltage in integer steps to produce voltage
triplers, or voltage quadruplers circuits, etc, as shown. [5]
DC Voltage Tripler Circuit

Figure 9:-DC Voltage Tripler Circuit

By adding an additional single diode-capacitor stage to the half-wave voltage doubler

circuit above, we can create another voltage multiplier circuit that increases its input
voltage by a factor of three and producing what is called a Voltage Tripler Circuit. [5]

12
A “voltage tripler circuit” consists of one and a half voltage doubler stages. This voltage
multiplier circuit gives a DC output equal to three times the peak voltage value (3Vp) of
the sinusoidal input signal. As with the previous voltage doubler, the diodes within the
voltage tripler circuit charge and block the discharge of the capacitors depending upon
the direction of the input half-cycle. Then 1Vp is dropped
across C3 and 2Vp across C2 and as the two capacitors are in series, this results in the
load seeing a voltage equivalent to 3Vp. [5]
Note that the real output voltage will be three times the peak input voltage minus the
voltage drops across the diodes used, 3Vp – V(diode). [5]
If a voltage tripler circuit can be made by cascading together one and a half voltage
multipliers, then a Voltage Quadrupler Circuit can be constructed by cascading together
two full voltage doubler circuits as shown. [5]

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Procedure

Diode Characteristics

Connect the circuit shown in the figure below

Figure 10:- simple diode circuit

First set the potentiometer anti-clockwise and the variable dc voltage to zero, then set the power
supply to give 5 volt , then change the voltage source and measure the voltage around R using
voltmeter and calculate the diode voltage and current.
Fill all numbers in table 1.

Rectification
A. Half-Wave Rectification

Figure 11:- half wave rectifier

Connect the circuit shown in previous figure and set function generator to 10 volt peak to peak
and frequency to 200 HZ, then put the oscilloscope channel terminal around the load resistance.
Measure the ac component and dc component using DVM, and time period and peak voltage and
fill the tables 2&3 below.

14
Then add a 2.2 μF capacitor in parallel , using the oscilloscope measure peak to peak ripple and
RMS ripple , using ac coupling and fill table 4 below.
Then using dc coupling measure the mean value of Vo, and fill table 5, After that repeat all steps
using 47μF capacitor and fill table 6&7.

B. Full-Wave Rectification

Figure 12:-full wave rectifier circuit

Set the function generator to 20 volt peak to peak and frequency to 2000 HZ then the step-down
transformer reduce the voltage to 10 volt , connect the oscilloscope to the output and measure the
dc component and ac component using DVM and fill table 8 , then add 2.2μF capacitor and
observe the output

Other Application
C. Clipping

Figure 13:- clipping circuit

Set the function generator to 6 volt peak to peak and frequency to 200 HZ , then connect the
circuit like the previous figure then set the power supply variable control to zero and increase the
dc source slightly and notice the output waveform

15
 D. Clamping

Figure 14:- Clamping circuit

In this part put 1MF capacitor and do the same step in part A and observe the output waveform

Voltage Multiplier Circuit (simulation)

Figure 15:- Voltage Multiplier Circuit

In pspice we connect this circuit and measure the voltage in capacitor C1, C2 and C3, and the
voltage between point d-c then fill table 9, and see how and when the circuit works as Doubler
and Tripler.

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 Data and Calculation
Diode Characteristics
Table 1:-Diode Characteristic

Vs 0 0.18 0.46 0.62 0.8 1.05 1.55 2.09 2.55 2.98

VR 0.0 0.01 0.01 0.07 0.2 0.41 0.87 1.40 1.84 2.25
VD 0 0.17 0.45 0.55 0.6 0.64 0.68 0.69 0.71 0.73
ID 0 1*10-4 1*10-4 7*10-4 2*10-3 4.1*10-3 8.7*10-3 0.014 0.0184 0.0225

VD = VS – VR
VD = 0.18 – 0.01 = 0.17

ID = VR/R ; R = 100 ohm

ID = 0.01/100 = 1*10-4

Figure 16:- ID vs VD

Questions:-
1. At what approximate value of VD does the current ID begin to rise noticeably ?
Ans:- at Vs = 0.6V the current start pass through the circuit
2. Does VD rise much above this value for larger values of ID?
Ans:- if we increase VD , VR increase and ID increase
3. What happens if the diode is reversed?
Ans:- if the diode is off no current in circuit , the diode is open circuit.
I) Rectification
A. Half-Wave Rectification

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 Table 2:- output voltage characteristics (time period and peak voltage)

Time Period 4.6 ms

Peak Voltage 5V

Table 3:- output voltage characteristics (AC & DC Component)

AC Component 1.8 V
DC Component 1.3 V

This values of AC and DC component measure as mean value (dc) and RMS value (ac).
Ripple factor = (Vac/Vdc)*100%
Ripple factor = (1.8/1.3)*100% = 138.46%

The output wave signal:_

Figure 17:- waveform of half wave

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 Figure 18:-waveform half wave

The previous two figure show the output signal of half wave rectifier when I take the time period
and peak voltage using cursor.

Figure 19:- reversed half wave signal

This output signal when we revers the diode in half wave rectifier circuit.
Questions:-
1. Is Vpk nearly equal to the peak voltage of the supply?
Ans:- yes, the half wave rectifier peak voltage is nearly equal the peak voltage of the
supply
2. Why will Vpk not be exactly equal to the source peak voltage?
Ans:- because in the diode there is a voltage drop, that makes the two peak voltage not
exactly equal
3. How much will it differ?

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 Ans:- the different between them is the diode voltage drop , that equal 0.7V
4. How could you obtain a negative voltage relative to zero?
Ans:- revers the diode in circuit, the input is sinusoidal so the negative wave make diode
on, I toke a pic for this condition ↑.

Then we added 2.2μF capacitor in parallel in the circuit , the tables below show the
values we got.
Using AC coupling measure peak to peak ripple and RMS ripple and fill the table below,
then by using DC coupling measure mean value of Vo.
Table 4:- output voltage characteristics C and RMS

Peak to peak Ripple 776 mv

RMS Ripple 231 mv

Table 5:- output voltage characteristics (mean voltage)

Mean voltage 3.93 V

Ripple factor = (RP-P/2*30.5)/Vmean

Ripple factor = 5.70%

The next two figure display the waveform and the measurements.

Figure 20:- the output voltage of half-wave rectifier with capacitor (2.2μF)__AC coupling

20
Figure 21:- the output voltage of half-wave rectifier with capacitor (2.2μF)__DC coupling

Now, we replace the capacitor 2.2μF with another one 47μF in parallel, and measure peake to
peak ripple and mean voltage and compare between two cases.
Table 6:- output voltage characteristics (peak to peak Ripple)

Peak to peak Ripple 44.0 mV

Table 7:- output voltage characteristics (mean voltage)

Mean voltage 4.08 V

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Figure 22:- the output voltage of half-wave rectifier with capacitor (47μF)

E. Full-Wave Rectification

Table 8:- output voltage characteristics (AC & DC Component)

AC Component 1.3V
DC Component 2.4V
Ripple factor = Vac/Vdc
Ripple factor = 1.3/2.4 = 54.16%
We take pic of the output signal without capacitor and with 2.2 μF capacitor in parallel, the next
two figure below show the output waveforms.

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Figure 23:- the output voltage of full-wave rectification without C

Figure 24:- the output voltage of full-wave rectification with 2.2μF Capacitor.

Questions:-
1. When the capacitor connected, what is the change on the waveform, why?
Ans:- the capacitor smoth the signal and change it from pulsating DC to nearly DC
wave, improve the signal by the charging and discharging
2. Does the ripple voltage change with frequency?
Ans:- yes, there is a negative relation between ripple factor and frequency,
VLr,PP = Vm/f*R*C  VLr,RMS = VLR,PP/2*30.5  r% = VLr,RMS/Vmean
3. If the input frequency is low do you need a larger or a smaller capacitor to achieve the
same smoothing as when the frequency is higher?
Ans:- Large capacitor needed.

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Other Application
F. Clipping

Figure 25:- the output voltage of clipping circuit when Vdc=0

Figure 26:- the output voltage of clipping circuit when Vdc=1.5

Figure 27:- the output voltage of clipping circuit when Vdc=3

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Questions:-
1. What difference is there between the input and output wave?
Ans:- the output wave in some region is equal with input wave , and in some region is
clipped, and we notice that the clipped depend at DC voltage (Vdc) value.
2. At what voltage is the output wave form chopped off?
Ans:- is chopped off when dc voltage 3>Vdc>=0
3. If the dc is 2V, at what voltage are the positive peaks chopped off?
Ans:- approximately at 2.8 volt
4. If the ac is 10V p-p, does the clipping voltage change?
Ans:- No, stay the same clipping when Vdc is same value
5. What is the relationship between the clipped level and the dc voltage in the two cases?
Ans:- there is a positive relation between DC voltage and clipping .

G. Clamping

Figure 28:- output and input voltage of clamping when Vdc = 0

Figure 29:- output and input voltage of clamping when Vdc = 1.5

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Figure 30:- output and input voltage of clamping when Vdc = 3

Questions:-
1. Does the output wave form alternate about the same dc level as the input waveform?
Ans:- Yes, both alternate about same dc level.
2. To what value is the positive peak of the output waveform clamped, if the ac input signal
is 5VPK?
Ans:- the rule is Vc = Vi – 0.7
3. Does the positive peak still stay clamped to the same level?
Ans:- No, the positive peak don’t still at same level
4. Can you see any relation between the reference voltage setting and the clamping level?
Ans:- the relationship is Vo = Vi – [Vp – VD - VDC].

H. Voltage Multiplier Circuit

Table 9:- output voltage across the capacitor

Location Vc1 Vc2 = Vab Vc3 Vdc

Voltage 2.43V 3.84V 4.98V 7.3V

Questions:
1. Is the output voltage between a,b twice the peak of the input voltage.
Ans:- Yes, the output voltage between ab is double the input voltage
2. Is the output voltage between c,d three times the peak of the input voltage.
Ans:- Yes, the output voltage between cd is triple the input voltage
3. What is the peak inverse voltage across each diode?
Ans:- peak invers voltage is equal = -Vp
4. Compare the results of the above questions with the theoretical values.
Ans:- the practical values is nearly equal of the theoretical values

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Conclusion:-

In the summary, we learn about operation of PN junction and characteristics of the silicon
diode and the application on that , like rectifier and clamping and clipping , and the
behavior of diode (forwarding and revers bias).
We conclude by experiment, there is value of diode that if reach it, he will start
conducting current in the arrow way, the value equal 0.7 volt.
The half wave rectifier change the AC signal to pulsating DC signal , then the capacitor
smooth the DC signal and improve the ripple factor and the efficiency increased .(the job
of capacitor we notice it in practically).
We learn about clipping circuit and how output signal will be part of input with chopped
depend at DC voltage, and we realize haw and when clamping circuit shift the output
signal , and how match shift depend at DC voltage, and learn about voltage multiplexer,
and how circuit multiple the input voltage depend at number of capacitor and diode each
two opposite direction.

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References:-
[1]- diode characteristics 1/10/2023 9:07am
https://www.electrical4u.com/diode-characteristics/#google_vignette
[2]- half and full wave rectifier 1/10/2023 9:28am
https://www.analog.com/en/design-center/glossary/half-wave-rectifier.html
[3]-clipping circuit 1/10/2023 9:55am
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode-clipping-circuits.html
[4]-clamping circuit 2/10/2023 7:13pm
https://electronicscoach.com/clamper-circuits.html
[5]- Voltage multiplier circuits 2/10/2023 7:28pm
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/blog/voltage-multiplier-circuit.html

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