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Systemic Functional Linguistics
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SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS 1029
Vande Berg, M., Paige, R. M., & Lou, K. H. (Eds.). (2012). Student learning abroad: What our students
are learning, what they’re not and what we can do about it. Sterling, VA: Stylus.
Online Resources
The Global Scholar. http://www.globalscholar.us
Systemic Functional Linguistics

MEG GEBHARD AND KATHRYN ACCURSO
Systemic functional linguistics (SFL) provides a social semiotic theory of meaning making,
learning, and social change. First developed in the 1960s by Michael Halliday, SFL has
expanded into a theory that informs many branches of applied linguistics, including
educational linguistics, studies of multimodality, and critical discourse analysis. Halliday’s
contribution is found in his conceptualization of grammar as a functional meaning-making
resource that expands to reflect and construct the situational and cultural contexts in which
semiotic systems are used and evolve (Halliday & Hasan, 1985). This context-sensitive
and multimodal perspective stands in contrast to behavioral, cognitive, and psycholin-
guistic conceptions of grammar. Specifically, SFL maintains that language and other
meaning-making systems cannot be understood without an analysis of the immediate
context in which multilingual/multimodal communication takes place and develops, nor
can it be understood separately from issues of power, language socialization, and ideology
(Halliday & Hasan, 1985). To explain Halliday’s encompassing theory of text/context
dynamics, this entry describes SFL’s three metafunctions—the ideational, interpersonal,
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
and textual metafunctions—and shows how these metafunctions are realized through
the use of field, tenor, and mode resources with specific reference to the teaching and
learning of disciplinary discourses in multilingual contexts (e.g., New London Group, 1996;
Schleppegrell, 2004; Rose & Martin, 2012).
Conceptualizing Text/Context Dynamics: Halliday’s Three

Metafunctions of Language
In articulating “a language-based theory of learning,” Halliday (1993, p. 93) describes how

language simultaneously achieves three functions in constructing meaning. The ideational
metafunction constructs ideas and experiences; the interpersonal metafunction enacts social
roles and power dynamics; and the textual metafunction manages the flow of information to
make extended discourse coherent and cohesive. Applied to literacy development in mul-
tilingual contexts, this perspective maintains that as children grow up and interact with
the world, they have more experiences and ideas to share with a greater variety of people
through their uses of a greater variety of languages and modes of communicating. Simulta-
neously, in interacting with a greater variety of people, children learn to use texts to construct
different kinds of interpersonal relationships with family members, peers, and teachers
that are shaped by cultural norms related to gender, race, class, and religion. Moreover,
in regard to the textual function, as they mature, children learn how to manage the flow of
Chapelle, Carol A.. The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ubc/detail.action?docID=5983635.
Created from ubc on 2020-04-28 10:47:40.
1030 SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS
information in oral, written, and computer-mediated communication in the diverse cultural

contexts in which they participate, including their homes and neighborhoods, school, places
of worship, and, later, work. Halliday maintains that this expansion of semiotic resources
drives the development of individual meaning-making repertoires as well as the evolution
of meaning-making systems themselves (Halliday, 1993).
As a concrete example, consider the difference between the language a Spanish/English
bilingual in the United States might use in talking with her peers about a science experiment
she is conducting about the relationship between the temperature and volume of a gas in
a balloon and how she might write a lab report for her teacher (Gebhard, 2019). In class
with her friends, she might say, “Guau, it popped!” However, in a report for her teacher,
she might write: “When the air was heated, the gas inside the balloon expanded, resulting
in the balloon exploding. Therefore, we hypothesized that the relationship between the
temperature and the volume of a gas is directly proportional.” In this example, to construct
this experience, our hypothetical student shifted from a multilingual way of using language
to choosing specific scientific words and denser grammatical patterns to construct scientific
knowledge using the dominant language of schooling in the United States, English. At
the same time, she shifted from a familiar voice to a more authoritative one by making
linguistic choices that were less emotional. She also managed the flow of information
by repeating a key word to stay on topic (e.g., “gas”) and by using specific cohesive
devices to construct a causal relationship between ideas in producing a written report
(e.g., “therefore”). Moreover, given the historically rooted ideological commitment to
monolingualism in the United States, this student most likely would complete assignments
in standardized English as opposed to standardized Spanish (or another language) because
US public schools, unlike public education systems in most countries, have not supported
multilingualism (e.g., Garcia & Wei, 2014).
These complex dynamics are captured graphically in Figure 1, which illustrates how mul-
tilingual/multimodal texts are socially situated as they construct ideas and experiences
through field choices, self–other dynamics through tenor choices, and coherence through
mode choices in the embedded contexts of situation and contexts of culture in which texts are
produced and interpreted (Halliday & Hasan, 1985). In addition, Figure 1 attempts to illus-
trate how genres, such as scientific lab reports, are produced for a specific purpose and
audience within institutional contexts such as schools in ways that reflect historical forces
shaping education in a specific political context, such as the United States (e.g., Schleppe-
grell, 2004; Brisk, 2014; de Oliveira & Iddings, 2014; Gebhard, 2019).
The Ideational Metafunction and Field Resources
The ideational metafunction, as the name suggests, constructs ideas and experiences
through the use of field resources. As shown in Table 1, these resources construct transitivity
patterns, which include the selection of specific types of verbs called processes. These
different types of verbs construct functionally different kinds of nouns or noun groups
called participants. In other words, any participant can play a variety of roles depending
on the verb(s) they are related to in a clause. In addition, different types of adverbs and
prepositional phrases construct different types of circumstances related to time, manner, and
place (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014).
The Interpersonal Metafunction and Tenor Resources
The interpersonal metafunction, as the name denotes, constructs interpersonal dynamics.

These dynamics include constructing degrees of familiarity or formality as well as power
political contex
ic, & t of
onom sch
e c al c o nte xt o f scho oo
ric, titution olin lin
g
to s g
is In Cla ss ro om co ntext
H
l purpose
Socia
Tenor
Interpersonal: Context of culture

(Genre)
ld
M
Moo
Constructs social
Fie
ddee
roles and
power dynamics
Ideational: Textual: Context of situation
Manages the (Register)
Constructs
ideas and flow of
TEXT information
experiences
MULTIMODAL / MULTILINGUAL
SEMIOTIC SYSTEMS
Figure 1 Text and context dynamics (Gebhard, 2019, p. 14, adapted from Fairclough, 1992; Rose
& Martin, 2012; Garcia & Wei, 2014). Used with permission
Table 1 Process and participant types

Process type Examples Transitivity and participant roles
Material Make, destroy, give Jules picked up the prescription for her mom.
actor goal beneficiary
Verbal Say, scream, whisper The teacher announced a test.
sayer verbiage
Mental Think, believe, love Anna wanted to go for a long run.
senser phenomenon
Behavioral Watch, listen, laugh Erica watches late night TV.
behaver
Relational Be, have, seem Jesse is a really nice guy.
carrier attribute
Alex is his advisor.

token value
*Note: Carrier/attribute are not reversible;
token/value are.
Existential Be, exist, remain There is empty space between molecules in a gas.
existent
Table 2 The mood system
Mood Function Example from classroom Implications for analysis

discourse
Statements: the To give information, Teacher: Mira! Today we Text analysts, including
declarative to construct a fact, are going to develop students, can analyze
mood even when it is not an understanding of the use of questions,
a fact what a linear function statements, and
is using equations, commands to explore
graphs, and written social roles and power
Questions: the To ask for information explanations. Would dynamics in classroom
interrogative or for someone to anyone like to explain interactions, literature,
mood do something; to what a linear films, and the media
make an offer function is? [Silence] (e.g., who has speaking
… Okay, [Reads from rights; who is silent;
the text book] Look at who uses statements to
Commands: the To command or to each of the graphs in construct authoritative
imperative express something the textbook. Decide if “facts”; who asks
mood forcefully the graph represents a questions and engages
linear function and in negotiating
explain your reasons. meaning; who gives
¿Entiendes? commands and how
commands are taken
up or resisted; and
who code mixes and
for what purposes)
dynamics and attitudes through the use of tenor resources, which include the use of
mood, modality, and appraisal systems (Martin & White, 2005). As illustrated in Table 2,
the mood system provides options for making statements using the declarative mood,
asking questions using the interrogative mood, or giving commands using the imperative
mood through English, Spanish, or code mixing, as illustrated in Table 2 through the use
of Mira (Look!) and ¿Entiendes? (Understand?). Using SFL metalanguage associated with
the interpersonal metafunction, text analysts, including students, can analyze the use
of questions, statements, and commands to explore social roles and power dynamics in
classroom interactions, literature, films, and the media (e.g., who has speaking rights; who
is silent; who uses statements to construct authoritative “facts”; who asks questions and
engages in negotiating meaning; who gives commands and how commands are taken up or
resisted; and who code mixes and for what purposes; see Harman & Khote, 2018; Gebhard,
2019).
The example in Table 2 also shows the teacher using the resources of tenor in stating
the class is going to develop an understanding. The tenor system also includes modality
resources to construct other degrees of possibility or certainty. As shown in Table 3, degrees
of certainty can be expressed through the use of modal verbs (e.g., may, might, could, should,
will, must), modal nouns (e.g., possibility, probability, certainty), and modal adverbs (probably,
perhaps, absolutely) to construct harder or softer positions when making statements, asking
questions, and giving commands (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014).
Derewianka and Jones (2016) make clear that language users do not simply exchange
questions, statements, commands, and offers using the modality system. Rather, they also
“express attitudes, engage the listener or reader, and adjust the strength” of their “feelings
Table 3 The modality system
Modal type Examples at different degrees of possibility/certainty Implications for research

and practice
Low Medium High
Modal May, might Can, could, should Will, must, have to

Text analysts,
verbs The delegates might The delegates should The delegates will including
vote in favor of the vote in favor of the vote in favor of the students, can
proposal. proposal. proposal. notice and
critically discuss
Modal Maybe, perhaps Usually, likely Always, never how modality is
adverbs used to hedge,
Maybe the proposal The proposal The proposal will make space for
will pass. probably will pass. absolutely pass. other
perspectives or
Modal Possibility Probability Certainty not, or to
nouns overstate a
There is a possibility There is a strong It is a certainty the claim.
the proposal will likelihood the proposal will pass.
pass. proposal will pass.
Table 4 Appraisal resources
Aspect of appraisal Function Examples
Attitude Express feelings, judgments The film documented the

of people, appreciation of indescribable pain of the families.
things (affect)
Vanessa is an extremely critical thinker.
(judgment)
The play was very well staged.
(appreciation)
Engagement Engage with alternative Betsy told me Kevin resigned yesterday.
voices (heteroglossic) or (heteroglossic)
not (monoglossic) Kevin must have resigned.
(heteroglossic)
Kevin resigned yesterday. (monoglossic)
Graduation Up/downgrade the force or Most nutritionists agree that refined
focus on what is sugars should be avoided. (force)
being said He’s a true friend. (focus)
and opinions” through the semiotic choices they make (Derewianka & Jones, 2016, p. 25).
These aspects of the interpersonal metafunction comprise the appraisal system. Martin and
White (2005) describe this system as providing resources for the expression of attitudes,
engagement, and the strength of one’s propositions. As shown in Table 4, attitude offers
options for expressing emotions, judging people’s actions or moral character, and evalu-
ating the value or quality of something. Engagement offers choices for acknowledging (or
not) alternative perspectives. For example, direct engagement includes explicit attribution of
information to a specific source, while implicit engagement inserts an expression of doubt or
uncertainty. Last, graduation offers choices for modifying the interpersonal force or focus of
a message.
The Textual Metafunction and Mode Resources
The textual metafunction, as the name indicates, manages the flow of extended texts
through the use of mode resources. These resources include ways of weaving given and new
information coherently and cohesively; using cohesive devices to construct specific kinds
of relationships between ideas; and constructing lexical chains across longer stretches of a
text through the use of repetition, synonyms, and pronouns. Derewianka and Jones (2016,
p. 30) explain that it is through the use of textual resources that “we are able to organize
our ideas, attitudes, and so on into texts that coherently hang together and relate to the
context.”
For example, one of the problems language users sometimes face, especially language
learners, is knowing how to shift from one topic to another by integrating given and new
information in a seamless manner. In SFL terms, this is referred to as constructing cohesive
theme/rheme patterns. The theme is the first part of a clause. Also referred to as given informa-
tion, the theme signals the focus of the clause and the speaker/writer’s point of departure in
communication. The rheme is anything that comes after the theme to add new information
about the topic. Table 5 shows five types of theme/rheme patterns that support the pro-
gression of ideas in extended discourse in different disciplines. For example, paragraphs
are typically organized around one main idea or theme, such as an explanation of a right
isosceles triangle. In the geometry example shown in Table 5, each sentence begins with the
same theme, a right isosceles triangle, but not the same words. Rather, the pronoun it is used
to build and stay on the main topic.
A second common theme/rheme pattern is referred to as the zigzag pattern (Eggins, 2004,
p. 324), where the rheme of one sentence becomes the theme of the next. As illustrated in
an example from US history in Table 5, the rheme or new information in the first sentence
is the American Revolution of 1776. This rheme, “revolution,” becomes the theme or given
information in the next sentence, which then introduces the new idea of taxes. In a zigzag
fashion, “taxes” becomes the theme or given information in the next sentence, which then
provides new information about taxes on tea. “Tea” then becomes the theme in the next
sentence and the rheme or new information is the “Boston Tea Party.” This zigzag pattern
is commonly used to build ideas in informational texts.

Oftentimes, authors of disciplinary texts also use nominalization in conjunction with
the zigzag pattern. Nominalization typically involves converting a verb to a noun, such
as changing revolt into revolution. Nominalizations are an important characteristic of
disciplinary discourse for two reasons: first, they allow an author to create zigzag patterns
to build the field; and second, they construct more abstract nouns that, once realized as
abstract ideas, can be elaborated on and packed with more information.
A third type of theme marks time. These ideational themes use circumstance of time
to organize a series of events according to when they happened and are very common
in historical discourse (Coffin, 2009). In the example shown in Table 5, the focus is on
when John F. Kennedy was born and when he was assassinated. It is worth noting that
other ideational themes use different types of circumstances to focus on the place where
something takes place.
A fourth kind of theme accents the attitude of the speaker or writer. These interpersonal
themes begin sentences with expressions that focus on the speaker/writer’s feelings, evalu-
ations, and judgments. In the example given in Table 5, the author’s theme choice accents
the feelings of “fear and frustration” experienced by many Puerto Ricans in the aftermath
of Hurricane Maria in 2017.
Last, textual themes are used to signal specific relationships between clauses and longer
stretches of discourse. Textual themes in oral discourse typically include and, so, but, like,
and cuz. However, in making disciplinary meanings, language users need to construct
Table 5 Ways of building ideas through theme/rheme patterns in different disciplines
Pattern Example Function Implications for

practice
Theme A right isosceles triangle has The theme is a right isosceles Text analysts,
repetition one angle that measures triangle. The rheme adds new including
(use of 90 degrees and two angles that information about this theme. students, can
same word, measure 45 degrees. Each sentence begins with the highlight and
synonyms, same theme using the pronoun critically
pronouns) It has two legs of equal lengths it, which is repeated as a way discuss how
because of their corresponding of staying on topic. theme patterns
angles. progress
depending on
It has an area that can be the genre they
determined by the same formula are producing
for all triangles. (e.g.,
narratives,
Zigzag Boston is where the American In a zigzag fashion, the rheme
historical
(rheme in Revolution of 1776 began. of the first clause becomes the
theme of the second,and so on. recounts,
one clause
This revolution started because This pattern creates cohesion mathematical
becomes
theme in the King of England was taxing between given and new informa- descriptions,
the Americans too much. tion while building the field. scientific
the next)
explanations).
These taxes included the tax on
tea, which resulted in the famous
Boston Tea Party.
Time and On January 20, 1961, John F. The themes draw attention to
place themes Kennedy was inaugurated as the when or where something
(ideational 35th President of the United happened to accent time and
themes) States. On November 22, 1963, place.
he was assassinated. In the

United States, people of a certain
age can recall vividly where they
were when Kennedy was shot.
Attitudinal With fear and frustration, many The theme focuses on the
themes Puerto Ricans continue to live speaker/writer’s attitudes to
(interpersonal without power and running water draw attention to feelings,
themes) in the aftermath of 2017’s evaluations, and judgments.
Hurricane Maria.
Connecting Because of the narrowing of the The theme focuses on a cause to
themes arteries, there is increased blood set up a cause-and-effect relation.
(textual pressure. As a result, patients Other kinds of connecting themes
themes) with high blood pressure have a signal different kinds of relation-
greater chance of having a heart ships between clauses—for
attack or stroke. example, adding information (in
addition, furthermore), sequencing
(first, second, third, last), or
contrasting information (however,
in contrast, on the other hand ).
more specific connections between ideas using textual themes such as in addition, as a
result, however, therefore, in contrast, and in sum. Teachers can support students’ disciplinary
literacy development by helping them notice and name these sorts of cohesive devices when
reading and writing.
In sum, while Halliday’s work has been most influential in the domain of educational
linguistics with a focus on disciplinary Englishes, his work has also influenced scholarship
regarding the development of advanced literacies in a number of world languages (e.g.,
Achugar & Colombi, 2008; Byrnes, Maxim, & Norris, 2010). It has also informed other areas
of applied linguistics, including the study of multimodality (e.g., Kress & van Leeuwen,
2006), critical discourse analysis (e.g., Fairclough, 2013), legitimation code theory (e.g.,
Maton, Martin, & Matruglio, 2016), stylistics (e.g., Toolan, 2014), corpus linguistics (e.g.,
Thompson & Hunston, 2006), and translation theory (e.g., Kim & Matthiessen, 2015).
SEE ALSO: Genre-Based Language Teaching; Language, Culture, and Context; Lexi-
cogrammar; Multimodality and Systemic Functional Analysis; Translanguaging
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Systemic Functional Linguistics

Chapter · January 2020

Meg Gebhard Kathryn Accurso

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Multiliteracies in the Middle Grades View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Systemic Functional Linguistics

Conceptualizing Text/Context Dynamics: Halliday’s Three

In articulating “a language-based theory of learning,” Halliday (1993, p. 93) describes how

information in oral, written, and computer-mediated communication in the diverse cultural

The Ideational Metafunction and Field Resources

The Interpersonal Metafunction and Tenor Resources

The interpersonal metafunction, as the name denotes, constructs interpersonal dynamics.

Interpersonal: Context of culture

Table 1 Process and participant types

Process type Examples Transitivity and participant roles

Alex is his advisor.

Table 2 The mood system

Mood Function Example from classroom Implications for analysis

Table 3 The modality system

Modal type Examples at different degrees of possibility/certainty Implications for research

Modal May, might Can, could, should Will, must, have to

Table 4 Appraisal resources

Aspect of appraisal Function Examples

Attitude Express feelings, judgments The film documented the

The Textual Metafunction and Mode Resources

is commonly used to build ideas in informational texts.

Pattern Example Function Implications for

he was assassinated. In the

application in U.S. classrooms and contexts. London, England: Equinox.

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