 What Is Procurement?

Types,
Processes & Technology
Procurement has been a vital, transactional part of conducting business for almost
as long as commerce has existed. Although the days of scribes tracking purchases on
papyrus scrolls are long past, the process of carefully selecting and purchasing the
goods and services needed for day-to-day business operations remains as important as
ever. By enabling the company to reliably get the supplies it needs at the lowest cost,
procurement can directly impact the bottom line.

What Is Procurement?
Procurement encompasses a range of activities involved in obtaining goods or
services. What is the purpose of procurement? In general, procurement teams work to
obtain competitively priced supplies that deliver the most value. However, not all
companies define procurement in the same way. Many companies consider that
procurement encompasses all the stages, from gathering business requirements and
sourcing suppliers to tracking the receipt of goods and updating payment terms, while
others define procurement as a narrower range of activities, such as issuing purchase
orders and making payments.

Key Takeaways
 Procurement is a vital business function. When managed efficiently and done well, it can help
increase your business’s profitability.
 It includes a range of activities involved in obtaining goods and services, including sourcing,
negotiating terms, making purchases, tracking when supplies are received and maintaining
records.
 It’s important to continuously monitor and assess the procurement process to improve any weak
spots or inefficiencies.
 Technology can reduce procurement cost and administrative overhead by automating and
tracking procurement processes.
Procurement Explained
Traditionally, some businesses have used the term procurement synonymously with
purchasing. But now, purchasing is often seen as just one stage in a larger, more
strategic procurement process. So, what exactly is procurement?

Procurement involves every activity involved in obtaining the goods and services a
company needs to support its daily operations, including sourcing, negotiating terms,
purchasing items, receiving and inspecting goods as necessary and keeping records of
all the steps in the process.

Video: What Is Procurement Software?

Why Is Procurement Important in

Business?
Procurement is an important step in understanding supply chains, because it helps a
company find reliable suppliers that can provide competitively priced goods and
services that match the company’s needs. That’s the case whether the company is
seeking raw materials for manufacturing, a marketing services provider or new office
supplies.

For example, if a company needs a new supplier to provide an ongoing service for an
indefinite period of time — such as an email security solution — the procurement
process helps the company choose the supplier that best meets all of the business’s
requirements at a reasonable price. It enables the business to avoid wasting time,
money and valuable resources dealing with an inadequate supplier.

Minimizing cost is one important aspect of improving your procurement processes.

But it’s also vital to identify suppliers that provide the quality of goods and services
that the company needs and have the capacity to deliver reliably and a track record of
doing so.
 Types of Procurement
Procurement can be categorized in several ways. It can be classified as direct or
indirect procurement, depending on how the company will use the items being
procured. It can also be categorized as goods or services procurement depending on
the items that are being procured.

 Direct procurement refers to obtaining anything that’s required to produce an end-product. For
a manufacturing company, this includes raw materials and components. For a retailer, it includes
any items purchased from a wholesaler for resale to customers.
 Indirect procurement typically involves purchases of items that are essential for day-to-day
operations but don’t directly contribute to the company’s bottom line. This can include anything
from office supplies and furniture to advertising campaigns, consulting services and equipment
maintenance.
 Goods procurement largely refers to the procurement of physical items, but it can also include
items like software subscriptions. Effective goods procurement generally relies on good supply
chain management practices. It may include both direct and indirect procurement.
 Services procurement focuses on procuring people-based services. Depending on the company,
this may include hiring individual contractors, contingent labor, law firms or on-site security
services. It may include both direct and indirect procurement.

Types of Procurement

Indirect
Direct Procurement Goods Procurement Services Procurement
Procurement

Physical items typically All people-based services

Any good or service All non-
What is held as inventory, whether procured, whether for
required to produce an production-related
it? for direct or indirect direct or indirect
end product goods or services
procurement purposes procurement purposes

Raw materials,
Office supplies, Law firms, contractors,
components and parts, Raw materials, wholesale
Examples marketing contingent labor, on-site
machinery, items items, office supplies
services, utilities security services
purchased for resale
How Procurement Works
The procurement process generally involves a number of steps. The business
identifies particular goods and/or services that it needs, sources the suppliers that will
help the company reach its business objectives, negotiates terms and costs and then
purchases and receives the relevant items.

A small company may have just one person handling procurement of all goods and
services. Larger companies may have a team of people specialized in dealing
with different suppliers or supporting specific internal business groups. For some
items, the team may need to gather input from several different business groups in
order to determine the company’s overall requirements.

It’s important to remember that procurement doesn’t consist of a series of isolated acts
— it’s an ongoing process. For example, businesses generally aim to establish
relationships with key suppliers to help obtain the best service and lowest possible
costs, which ultimately translate into higher profit margins. Companies may also need
to conduct regular quality assurance checks and performance analysis to make sure
suppliers consistently meet expectations.

9 Steps in the Procurement Process

Procurement processes vary greatly depending on each company’s structure and
needs, but generally include the following nine core steps:

1. Identify which goods and services the company needs. First, a business must
identify its requirements for a specific item or a service. This may be a new item that
the company hasn’t previously purchased, a restock of existing goods or a
subscription renewal. This step typically involves delving into the nitty-gritty details
of what the business needs, such as the precise technical specifications, materials, part
numbers or service characteristics. At this stage, it’s a good idea to consult all
business departments affected by the purchasing decision to ensure the procured items
accurately reflect the needs of each department.
2. Submit purchase request. When an employee or business group needs to procure
a significant quantity of new supplies or services, they make a formal purchase
request (also known as a purchase requisition). A purchase request notifies the
company that a need exists, usually via department managers, purchasing staff or the
financial team, as well as specifications such as price, time frame needed, quantity and
other important things for the purchasing team to keep in mind. The department
overseeing the purchase can then approve or deny the purchase request. If approved,
the procurement team can proceed with selecting a vendor and making the purchase.

3. Assess and select vendors. With a clear list of requirements and an approved
purchase request, now is the time to find the best vendor and submit a request for
quote (RFQ) – this is what the purchasing team sends to potential suppliers in order to
receive a quote – it is important to be as detailed as possible so you can compare
apples to apples. Vendor assessment should focus not only on cost but also on
reputation, speed, quality and reliability. Many companies consider ethics and social
responsibility as well, since procurement is often intertwined with corporate identity.
A retailer that prides itself on sustainability would stand to benefit from partnering
with environmentally responsible suppliers, for instance.

4. Negotiate price and terms. A common best practice is to get at least three quotes
from suppliers before making a decision. Examine each quote carefully and negotiate
where possible. If you need to walk away from a deal, be sure that you have concrete
alternative options. Once you’ve agreed on final terms, be sure to get them in writing.

5. Create a purchase order. Fill out a purchase order (PO) and send it to the
supplier. The PO should be sufficiently detailed to identify the exact services or goods
needed and to enable the supplier to fill the order.

6. Receive and inspect the delivered goods. Carefully examine deliveries for any
errors or damage. Make sure everything is delivered as specified in the PO and that
the quality meets or exceeds expectations.

7. Conduct three-way matching. Accounts payable should conduct three-way

matching by comparing the purchase order, order receipt or packing list and invoice.
The goal is to ensure the goods or services received match the purchase order and to
 prevent payment for unauthorized or inaccurate invoices. Highlight any discrepancies
between the three documents and resolve issues before arranging payment.

8. Approve the invoice and arrange payment. If the three-way match is accurate,
approve and pay the invoice. Businesses should strive to have a consistent invoice
payment process through accounts payable that checks that payments match the
invoice amount and due date. A standardized process can help make sure invoices are
always paid on time, which can prevent late fees and build good relationships with
suppliers.

9. Recordkeeping. It’s important to maintain records for the entire procurement

process, from purchase requests to price negotiations, invoices, receipts and
everything in between. These records may be useful for multiple reasons. They help
the company reorder goods at the right price in the future, as well as assist with
auditing processes and calculating taxes. Clear, accurate records can also help resolve
any potential disputes.

Stages of Procurement
The nine major steps of the procurement process can also be thought of in three
distinct stages: the sourcing stage, the purchasing stage and the receiving stage.

 Sourcing stage: This covers the initial steps in which the business identifies its needs, creates a
purchase request and assesses vendors. Even after the initial sourcing steps are complete, it’s a
good practice to build a strong relationship with suppliers. They can establish grounds for
suppliers to learn from partners, improve products and processes and develop trust.
 Purchasing stage: This stage includes negotiating terms, creating orders and receiving and
inspecting goods and services.
 Payment stage: Accounts payable conducts three-way matching to ensure order and invoice
accuracy. The invoice can then be approved and the payment is arranged. Records of all
invoices, orders and payments should be kept and carefully maintained.

The 9 major steps of procurement fall into three stages: sourcing, purchasing, and payment.
 Procurement Life Cycle
Organizations commonly think of steps in the procurement process as a life cycle.
This perspective provides a reminder that all the tasks and stages in the procurement
process overlap and rely on each other and that the process is continuous. A carefully
thought-out procurement life cycle also recognizes the integration between the process
and the business as a whole, including the need to align with existing company rules
and procedures covering areas such as budgeting. The process is not always linear,
and sometimes adjustments need to be made to account for a dynamic digital supply
chain with shifting suppliers, availabilities and costs.

Three Components of Procurement

Three key components work together to make the procurement process happen:
people, process and paperwork.

 People: People generally are responsible for initiating or authorizing every step of the
procurement process. In addition to procurement specialists, the people involved include other
stakeholders, such as accounts payable and the business groups that request the goods and
services. The number of people involved often depends on the value of the goods and services;
more stakeholders may be involved in specifying and approving high-value purchases.
 Process: An effective procurement process can help a company succeed by keeping costs down
and ensuring supplies arrive when the business needs them. A well-designed and methodical
process helps to promote accuracy and timeliness because every person involved knows exactly
what they need to accomplish and how long they have to complete the tasks. In contrast, a
disorganized procurement process results in inefficiencies and potentially costly errors.
Overpayments, for example, can impact the bottom line, while late payments negatively affect
relationships with suppliers.
 Paperwork: It’s important to maintain records for every stage of the procurement process and
ensure they are easily accessible. These records act as a store of organizational knowledge about
payment terms and supplier performance, helping the business maintain an efficient procurement
process — even if the procurement staff changes over time. In the case of an audit or a dispute, a
 business must be easily able to follow the paper or electronic trail through each stage of the
procurement process.

Procurement, Purchasing and Supply

Chain: What’s the Difference?
The terms procurement, purchasing, sourcing and supply chain are often used
interchangeably. However, there are important distinctions between them.

 Procurement vs. purchasing: If procurement involves purchasing, you might be wondering:

What’s the difference between purchasing and procurement? The answer is that purchasing is
essentially transactional, focusing on managing specific orders to meet company needs.
Procurement is a much broader and more complex set of processes, including establishing and
maintaining supplier relationships. Another way to think about the difference between
purchasing and procurement is that procurement takes a proactive approach that starts with
analyzing the company’s needs, whereas purchasing is a reactive approach — simply focusing
on obtaining what the company has already decided it needs.
 Procurement vs. sourcing: Sourcing, like purchasing, is only part of the overall procurement
process. Sourcing is an early stage of the procurement cycle. It encompasses activities such as
identifying and assessing potential suppliers of goods or services, negotiating terms and selecting
the vendors that best meet the company’s needs.
 Procurement vs. supply chain: Procurement covers one aspect of supply chain management.
Procurement includes sourcing, obtaining and paying for goods and services. Supply chain
management also covers the logistics involved in obtaining goods, such as shipping and
warehouse management, as well as transforming the procured goods into products and
distributing them to customers.

Purchasing Sourcing Supply Chain

Procurement

Definitio All activities related to Buying goods and Selecting and vetting Managing the c
n carefully sourcing and services vendors to provide network of com
obtaining goods and goods and/or services facilities and bu
 Purchasing Sourcing Supply Chain

Procurement

activities involv
services needed to
sourcing, devel
support business
manufacturing
operations
delivering prod

Includes sourcing,
Part of the
negotiation, purchasing, Part of the Includes the en
Scope procurement
receiving and procurement process procurement pr
process
recordkeeping

Ensuring the company Cutting costs w

Establishing good,
gets the most value from Usually focuses on goods to the cu
long-term
Focus goods or services to getting a good quickly as poss
relationships with
increase the business’s price sacrificing qual
suppliers
profitability accuracy

Procurement, Purchasing and Supply Chain: What’s the Difference?

7 Common Principles of Procurement

In public-sector organizations, the procurement process is generally similar to the
process in private-sector organizations — but with a few important differences.
Because the people involved handle public funds, they generally must follow rigorous
principles during the procurement process.

These principles can be regarded as an ethical code of conduct that holds public
servants accountable for their purchases. Some of the principles may also be
beneficial to private-sector organizations.
The principles vary somewhat depending on the organization. Here are seven of the
most common procurement principles:

Value for money:

The organization must manage funds efficiently and economically when procuring
goods and services. This may include conducting cost-benefit analyses and risk
assessments. It’s worth noting that low cost does not necessarily equate to greater
value; characteristics such as quality and durability also factor into determining
whether the purchase represents value for money.

Fairness:
Procurement should not provide preferential treatment to individuals or suppliers. All
bids should be assessed objectively, based on how well they meet the organization’s
needs.

Competition:
Organizations should seek competitive bids from multiple suppliers, unless there are
specific reasons not to do so, such as a sole-source provider where the good or service
is only available from a single vendor.

Efficiency:
Procurement processes must be carried out efficiently to help maximize value and
avoid delays.

Transparency:
Organizations should make relevant procurement information available to everyone,
including the public as well as suppliers. Information should be kept confidential only
when there are legal or other valid reasons to do so.

Integrity:
Those who practice public procurement should always strive to be perceived as
trustworthy, reliable, honest and responsible. Funds must be used for their intended
purpose and in the public interest.

Accountability:
People involved in the procurement process are accountable for their actions and
decisions. They are required to report procurement activities accurately, including any
errors.

How Procurement & Finance Can Work

Together
In many companies, procurement and finance teams operate as separate departments.
Historically, they have sometimes been at odds for one major reason: Procurement
spends money, while finance focuses on profitability, which sometimes means finding
ways to spend less.

However, a strategic partnership between the two groups can benefit the business as a
whole, partly because each group can provide unique insights into the business’s
operations. For example, a well-run procurement team may have a deep understanding
of how carefully sourced goods and services can help business groups maximize
profitability. This helps the finance group get a better overall picture of company
spending and how it affects the bottom line.

Integrated supply chain management software that can connect information from
across the business, including finance, is an important tool to bridge the traditional
divide and help teams work together to advance business objectives. Supply chain
management software can also help you track progress toward goals by providing the
information you need for key performance indicators (KPIs) in a simple-to-understand
format for your procurement team.

Procurement KPIs
By monitoring procurement KPIs, businesses can boost the efficiency of their
procurement process, track progress toward business objectives and identify areas for
improvement. Here are some commonly measured procurement KPIs:

Purchase order cycle time: Monitor the average number of hours or days it takes to
process requisitions and send purchase orders to suppliers.

Purchase order cycle time = # of hours or days it takes to process requisitions and
send purchase orders to suppliers / # of purchase orders sent to suppliers

Supplier lead time: The average number of days it takes for suppliers to send items
after they receive a purchase order.

Supplier lead time = # of days it takes for item(s) to arrive after supplier receives
purchase order / total # of purchase orders sent to supplier

Number of suppliers: Having more suppliers gives the company more options but
also increases administrative work. Many procurement groups monitor the number of
vendors in their supplier networks and periodically remove little-used suppliers to
increase efficiency.
Supplier defect rate: An important measure of supplier quality, this is usually
measured as the number of defective parts divided by the total number of parts
supplied.

Supplier defect rate = # of defective parts from vendor / total # of parts from same
vendor

Supplier availability: This measures each supplier’s ability to respond to last-minute

or emergency demands.

Supplier availability = # of times supplier fulfilled business orders / # of orders sent

to supplier

Fulfillment accuracy: This measures the percentage of orders that suppliers fill
accurately and match the purchase order exactly.

Fulfillment accuracy = # of accurate orders from supplier / total # of orders from

same supplier

Total ROI of procurement process: This measures the value a business’s

procurement strategy delivers to the organization. It’s the ratio of the annual savings
generated by the procurement group to the total annual amount spent on procurement.
How Technology Can Help Manage
Procurement
As with almost any other area of the business, technology can increase the
productivity of procurement groups, while reducing process costs by as much as 30%
(opens in a new tab). You can also simplify steps such as soliciting bids, creating
orders and paying for supplies using ERP solutions with procurement software. It can
also enable teams to better analyze savings and track supplier performance.
Procurement dashboards show selected procurement KPIs and metrics on a single screen so
companies can easily monitor important trends and spot problems. You can track metrics such
as vendor performance, total spend, outstanding transactions. Leading solutions include
dashboards preconfigured for different roles within the company, with the ability to customize
the dashboards based on each user’s needs.
 Procurement can play a key role in a business’s profitability and overall success. It
includes a broad range of related activities, each of which requires attention to detail
to ensure the business gets the most value. Supply chain management software
solutions can help accelerate, simplify, analyze and reduce the cost of the entire
procurement process.

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In This Article

 What Is Procurement?
 Procurement Explained
 Video: What Is Procurement Software?
 Types of Procurement
 How Procurement Works
 9 Steps in the Procurement Process
 Stages of Procurement
 Procurement Life Cycle
 Three Components of Procurement
 7 Common Principles of Procurement
 How Procurement & Finance Can Work Together
 Procurement KPIs
 How Technology Can Help Manage Procurement

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6 Procurement Methods
Last updated: May 17, 2023

In the world of business, procurement is an essential function that involves acquiring goods and
services from external sources. Suppose you're a manager or director in procurement, sourcing,
purchasing and supply chain departments. In that case, you must stay up-to-date with the latest
modern procurement methods to ensure the smooth operation of your business.

This article explores a few procurement methods in-depth and provides you with the knowledge
and insights you need to evaluate their suitability for your business. We cover the key features
and benefits of these methods and any potential drawbacks or challenges you may face when
implementing them.

Gain a better understanding of six common procurement methods and learn the information you
need to make informed decisions that will benefit your organization.

6 Different Procurement Methods

With the advent of modern procurement methods, organizations have access to various tools and
strategies that can help them optimize their procurement process. Here are six procurement
methods you can use to acquire goods and services.

1. Open Tendering
In open tendering, potential suppliers submit bids for a specific project or requirement in
response to a published advertisement inviting them. This process is open to all interested parties
and ensures all suppliers have an equal opportunity to bid for the contract.

One of the key features of open tendering is its transparency. Organizations can promote
competition by making the procurement process available to all interested parties, resulting in
better quality outcomes and lower costs. Additionally, the process ensures that all suppliers have
an equal opportunity to bid for the contract, which can promote fairness and accountability.

However, open tendering can be time-consuming and resource-intensive, particularly for larger
or more complex projects. Additionally, evaluating the bids can become complicated and time-
consuming, mainly when there are many bids to assess.

Despite these potential drawbacks, open tendering remains a popular procurement method in
both the public and private sectors due to its transparency and potential for cost savings.

2. Restricted Tendering

Restricted tendering is another procurement method that organizations widely use. It's a
procurement process where the organization identifies and invites only a limited number of
suppliers to submit bids for a particular project or contract. This method is usually applied when
the organization has a pre-determined list of suppliers with the required skills, experience and
qualifications to deliver the project successfully.

The main benefit of this method is that it saves time and resources, as the organization only has
to evaluate a limited number of bids. By selecting suppliers through a limited tendering process,
the organization can also make them feel valued and build and maintain strong relationships.
However, restricted tendering can result in limited competition and may not result in the
best value for money for the organization.
It can be challenging to justify selecting a limited number of suppliers, as stakeholders may view
it as unfair and lacking transparency, thus posing another drawback. To address this, the
organization must treat all suppliers equally and make the selection criteria clear and objective.

Overall, restricted tendering can be an effective procurement method when used appropriately. It
can provide benefits such as reduced procurement time, stronger supplier relationships and a
more streamlined process. However, ensuring that the selection process is fair and transparent
and that the organization can still achieve the best value for money is essential.

3. Request for Proposals (RFP)

Request for proposals (RFP) is a procurement method in which the buyer requests proposals
from potential suppliers. Businesses often use this method for complex or specialized goods and
services. In an RFP, the buyer outlines the specifications and requirements of the project or
service and invites suppliers to submit proposals outlining how they can meet those
requirements. The buyer then evaluates the proposals and selects the most suitable supplier based
on various criteria such as cost, quality and experience.

One of the key benefits of using an RFP is that it allows the buyer to select a supplier based on a
wide range of criteria, not just cost. This can be particularly valuable for complex projects where
quality and experience are just as important as pricing. Additionally, by soliciting proposals from
various suppliers, the buyer can better understand the market and what is available.

However, RFPs can also have drawbacks. They can be time-consuming and expensive to prepare
and may deter smaller suppliers who need more resources to respond to an RFP. There is also the
risk that suppliers may submit proposals that aren't feasible or that they cannot deliver, leading to
delays and additional costs.

RFPs can be a valuable procurement method for complex or specialized projects where quality
and experience are as important as cost. Buyers should carefully evaluate the potential benefits
and drawbacks of using an RFP and ensure the evaluation criteria are well-defined and aligned
with the project goals.

4. Two-Stage Tendering

Two-stage tendering is a procurement method often used for complex projects requiring
suppliers' input during the planning. In this process, the procurement team first invites suppliers
to submit a high-level technical proposal outlining their proposed approach to the project. Based
on these proposals, the procurement team shortlists several suppliers to participate in the second
stage of the tendering process.
During the second stage, the organization asks shortlisted suppliers to submit a detailed technical
and commercial proposal. The procurement team then evaluates the proposals and selects a
preferred supplier based on technical and commercial factors.

One of the critical benefits of two-stage tendering is that it allows the procurement team to gain
valuable input from suppliers during the planning phase of the project, which can help to ensure
that the final solution is optimal. This can be particularly useful for complex projects where the
requirements still need to be fully defined at the outset. Additionally, the two-stage process can
reduce the risk of suppliers submitting proposals that are not realistic or feasible.

However, there are also some potential drawbacks to this procurement method. For example, the
two-stage process can be more time-consuming and costly than other procurement methods,
requiring more suppliers' input during the planning phase. Additionally, some suppliers may
choose to refrain from participating in the first stage of the process, which could limit the pool of
potential suppliers for the second stage.

Overall, two-stage tendering is a procurement method that can be effective for complex projects
requiring suppliers' input during the planning phase. When deciding whether to use this
approach, one should consider its benefits and drawbacks carefully.

5. Request for Quotations (RFQ)

Businesses commonly use the procurement method of request for quotations (RFQ) to purchase
goods, services or products. This method involves inviting potential suppliers to submit a quote
for the required goods or services. Businesses can use the RFQ as a straightforward procurement
method when they have a well-defined scope of work and can describe the required goods or
services in detail.

The RFQ process begins with the buyer requesting quotations from potential suppliers. The RFQ
typically includes the specifications of the required goods or services, the delivery requirements
and any other relevant information. Suppliers then submit their quotes, and the buyer evaluates
them based on price, quality and other relevant criteria. The buyer then selects the supplier that
provides the most competitive quote and awards the contract.

One of the main benefits of the RFQ method is that businesses can complete it quickly and with
minimal effort. It's ideal for businesses requiring urgent goods or services or having a limited
budget. Companies typically use RFQs for smaller purchases, so they're an excellent choice for
businesses that need more resources to handle larger procurement projects.

However, the RFQ method also has some drawbacks. The main disadvantage is that it may not
attract the most qualified suppliers, as it's primarily focused on price. Additionally, the RFQ
process can be less transparent than other procurement methods, making it more challenging for
buyers to assess the quality of the suppliers' work.

Overall, the RFQ method is a simple procurement method that businesses of all sizes can use.
While there may be more suitable methods for some procurement projects, it's an effective way
to purchase goods or services quickly and with minimal effort.

6. Single-Source

In the single-source procurement method, the organization awards a contract to a specific

supplier without going through a competitive bidding process. Typically, organizations use this
method when they need to procure a highly specialized item or when only one supplier can meet
their needs.

The main benefit of single-source procurement is that it can save time and resources by
bypassing the lengthy bidding process. It can also lead to a more efficient procurement process
as the organization can work closely with suppliers to ensure that the product or service meets
their specific requirements. Additionally, this method can maintain existing relationships with a
supplier with a proven track record of delivering high-quality goods or services.
However, there are also some drawbacks to single-source procurement. It may be easier to
ensure that the organization pays a fair and reasonable price for the product or service with a
competitive bidding process. Single-source procurement may also lead to accusations of
favoritism or corruption if there is no apparent justification for awarding the contract to a
specific supplier.

As with any procurement method, the organization should base the decision to use single-source
procurement on a thorough analysis of its needs and the available options. In some cases, it may
be the best method for meeting the organization's procurement needs, while in other cases, a
competitive bidding process may be more appropriate.