INVESTIGATE THE INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BAMBUSA

VULGARIS VAR. GREEN ON ITS WORKING PROPERTIES GROWN IN CHAGNI,

ETHIOPIA.

THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE
ETHIOPIAN THECNICAL UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA

FOR
THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN WOOD TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT

BY
GETIE SILIE

UNDER SUPERVISION OF
DR. SEYOUM KELEMWORK

FACULTY OF CIVIL TECHNOLOGY / DEPARTMENT OF WOOD

TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT

AUGUST . 2021
 DECLARATION

This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “INVESTIGATE THE INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF BAMBUSA VULGARIS VAR. GREEN ON ITS WORKING
PROPERTIES GROWN IN CHAGNI, ETHIOPIA.” submitted to Ethiopian Technical
University, Addis Ababa for the fulfillment of award of the degree of M.Sc. (Wood Technology
management). The work was carried out at Agew Awi Zone of Guangua woreda in Chagni
plantation trial plot Ethiopia. No part of this work has been submitted for the award of any degree
or equivalent.

Dated: August; 2021 (Getie silie)

Addis Ababa /Ethiopia
 BONAFEDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “INVESTIGATE THE INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF BAMBUSA VULGARIS VAR. GREEN ON ITS WORKING
PROPERTIES GROWN IN CHAGNI, ETHIOPIA.” submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for degree of M.Sc. (Wood Technology management) to the Ethiopian Technical
University, Addis Ababa is a record of Bonafede research work carried out by Getie Silie
(MTR/167/12) under my supervision and guidance. No part of the thesis has been submitted for
any other degree or diploma.

Date August; 2021

Place Addis Ababa/Ethiopia (Dr. Seyoum Kelemwork)

ii
 Certificate

This to certify that the thesis entitled “INVESTIGATE THE INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF BAMBUSA VULGARIS VAR. GREEN ON ITS WORKING
PROPERTIES GROWN IN CHAGNI, ETHIOPIA.” is a record of confide work
carried out by Mr. Getie Silie, student of M.Sc. (Wood Technology management) program
of Ethiopian Technical University, Addis Ababa, submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the degree of M.Sc. Wood Technology management. The thesis has been carried out under the
supervision of Dr. Seyoum Kelemwork Wood Technology Management Discipline, Civil
Technology Faculty, Ethiopian Technical University, Addis Ababa.

Date: August; 2021

Place: Addis Ababa/ Ethiopia (Mr.Moti Nebyu)
Department head
Ethiopian Technical University, Addis Ababa.

iii
 THESIS APPROVAL SHEET

As member of the Boards of Examiners of the MSc Thesis Open Defense Examination, we certify
that we have read, evaluated the Thesis prepared by Getie Silie and examined the candidate. We
recommended that the thesis be accepted as fulfilling the thesis requirement for the Degree of
Master of Science in Wood Technology management.

_____________________ ______________ ____________

Chairman Signature Date

_____________________ ______________ ____________

Internal Examiner Signature Date

____________________ ______________ ____________

External Examiner Signature Date

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I want to express my gratitude to almighty God for the most compassionate and
benevolent, without whom I would not have been able to begin and complete my study, as well as
all other duties in my life, at this time.

Besides, I express my gratitude to my advisers Dr. Seyoum Kelemwork, for providing me with
constructive counsel and assistance throughout the process of developing the proposal to the final
write-up of this study.

I'd like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my wife Fnosse Hailu, who has provided me with moral
support and encouragement, as well as taking care of herself while she was pregnant while I was
studying, and to my sister Habtam Silie, she has taken care of my wife and son and has provided
me with encouragement and moral support throughout my studies.

Finally, the Bhair Dar Environmental Forest and Research Center Office provided me with the
sample bamboo culm for this study at the Chagni bamboo plantation trial plot, which I am grateful
for their helpfulness.

v
To investigate the influence of physical properties of Bambusa vulgaris var. Green on its
working properties grown in Chagni, Ethiopia

Getie silie, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Phone: 0912721465, Email: getiesilie167@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
This study aimed to investigate the influence of the physical properties of Bambusa vulgaris Var.
green on its working characteristics. A total of nine B. vulgaris Var. green culm samples were
harvested from three age groups. A completely randomized design (CRD) with three replicate was
used to obtain relevant data sets and the General Linear Model of Multivariate Analysis (Two-way
ANOVA) was employed to analyze the variation in the physical properties among age categories
and culm portions. The result showed that the highest average density (629.45 kg/m3) was found
in age four of the top culm portion, whilst the lower (573.35 kg/m3) was at the bottom culm potion
of age two. In this study, considerably higher moisture content (MC) was observed at the bottom
culm portion of aged two (72.37%), but the lowest (39.91%) was at the top of the culm in four-
year-old. The present study unveiled that an increasing trend in the basic density of bamboo within
an increasing age and basal to the top portion of the bamboo culm. In terms of shrinkage, a
decreasing trend was observed from the basal to the top culm portion in both radial and tangential
direction. Additionally, decreasing trends in culm diameter, culm solid volume and number of
internodes per culm were found within an increase in the maturity of the culm and the portions of
the culm. Also, culm solid volume was higher (912.75 cm3) at the bottom portions of age two and
lower (346.64 cm3) at the top sections of age four bamboo culms, whereas the length of internode
is increasing from bottom towards middle portion again decreasing at top portion. In conclusion,
younger B. vulgaris culm is ideal for bended items because of having low density, longer internode
length, and thin culm wall thickness, and however, it’s not appropriate for structural and outdoor
purposes due to higher moisture content and less dimensional stability.

Keywords: Bamboo, Bambusa vulgaris, Physical properties, working characteristics

vi
 Table of contents
DECLARATION ..............................................................................................................................i
BONAFEDE CERTIFICATE ........................................................................................................ ii
Certificate ...................................................................................................................................... iii
THESIS APPROVAL SHEET .......................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................. v
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................vi
Table of contents .......................................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................................ix
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................... x
LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................................................. x
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .......................................................................................xi
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1. Background of the study ................................................................................................................ 1

1.2. Statement of the problem ............................................................................................................... 3

1.3. Objective of the Study .................................................................................................................... 4

1.3.1. General objective.................................................................................................................... 4

1.3.2. Specific objectives.................................................................................................................. 4

1.4. Scope of the study .......................................................................................................................... 4

1.5. Significant of the study .................................................................................................................. 4

2. Literature Review ..................................................................................................................... 5

2.1. Bamboo .......................................................................................................................................... 5

2.2. Bambusa vulgaris ........................................................................................................................... 6

2.3. Potential of Bamboo in Ethiopia .................................................................................................... 7

2.4. Working properties of bamboo....................................................................................................... 8

2.5. Physical property of bamboo.......................................................................................................... 9

2.5.1. Basic density .......................................................................................................................... 9

2.5.2. Moisture content ................................................................................................................... 10

2.5.3. Shrinkage and swelling ........................................................................................................ 11

2.6. Conceptual Framework of the study ............................................................................................ 14

3. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY.................................................................................... 15

3.1. Description of the study area ........................................................................................................ 15
vii
 3.2. Material and methods ................................................................................................................... 16

3.2.1. Sample harvesting ................................................................................................................ 16

3.2.2. Culm cutting and Sample preparation .................................................................................. 16

3.3. Determination of physical properties ........................................................................................... 18

3.3.1. Determination of Moisture content ...................................................................................... 18

3.3.2. Determination of Density ..................................................................................................... 19

3.3.3. Determination of shrinkage .................................................................................................. 20

3.3.4. Determination of swelling .................................................................................................... 21

3.3.5. Determination of Culm Solid Volume ................................................................................. 22

3.4. Experimental design and data analysis ......................................................................................... 22

3.4.1. Experimental design ............................................................................................................. 22

3.4.2. Data analysis ........................................................................................................................ 23

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................ 24

4.1. The effect of ages and culm portion on the physical properties of B. vulgaris ............................ 24

4.1.1. Basic Density and Moisture Contents (MC) ........................................................................ 24

4.1.2. Effects of Shrinkage and Swelling on working properties of B. vulgaris ............................ 26

4.1.3. Effects morphological characteristics on workability of B. vulgaris ................................... 29

4.1.4. Relationship among dependent Variables ............................................................................ 32

5. Conclusion and Recommendation .......................................................................................... 35

5.1. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................... 35

5.2. Recommendation.......................................................................................................................... 37

6. Reference ................................................................................................................................ 38
7. Appendix ................................................................................................................................ 43

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table :3.1. Sample preparation for the study……………………………………………………17

Table 4.1. The ANOVA of density and moisture content of bamboo by effects age category
and culm portion of B. vulgaris……………………………………………………...24
Table 4.2. Effect of age and culm portions on density and moisture content of B.
vulgaris….…………………………………………………………………...………25
Table 4.3. The ANOVA of shrinkage and swelling of bamboo by effects age category and culm
portion of B. vulgaris………………………………………………………………...27
Table 4.4. The influence of Age of Bamboo and portions of culm on the dimensional change of
Bambusa vulgaris ………………….........…………………………………………….29
Table 4.5. The ANOVA of the morphological characteristics of bamboo by effects of age category
and culm portion of B. vulgaris …………………………………………………………....31
Table 4.6. The influence of Age of bamboo and portions of culm on the morphological
characteristics of B. vulgaris ……………….………………………………………....32
Table 4.7. The Pearson correlation coefficient between the physical properties of B. vulgaris...34

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure, 2.1 The bamboo plant morphology/structure …………………………………………...5

Figure, 2.2 conceptual framework of the influence of physical characteristics on working

properties of Bambusa vulgaris Var. green. …………………………….…………14

Figure 3.1: Map of the study area (Agew Awi zone of Guangua Woreda) …………………….15

Figure 3.2: Merchantable length of the sample Bambusa vulgaris culm ……………………….17

Figure 3.3: Weighing the green mass of the specimens for moisture content determination ….17

Figure 3.4: Culm Portions prepared from the merchantable length of the sample ………….….17

Figure 3.5: specimen drying in oven drier ……………………………………………………...18

Figure 3.6: weighing the samples after oven drying with electronic sensetive balance ……….18
Figure 3.7: measuring the volume of the sample by immersing in water and weighing with
electronic sensitive balance for density determination. ……………….…………...19
Figure 3.8: measuring the culm wall thickness of the sample for the determination of
shrinkageand swelling.……………………………………………………………….20
Figure 3.9: samples for the determination of swelling among age category and culm portion ….21
Figure3.10: - Illustration of experimental design………………………………………………………….23

LIST OF APPENDICES

Annex 1. Field and laboratory data for physical property investigations of B. vulgaris …….42
Annex 2. Field and laboratory investigation of parameters picture ………………………….43

x
 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ANOVA Analysis of variance

BD Basic density
CM Centimeter
GLM General Linear Model
INBAR International Network for Bamboo and Rattan
ISO International Standardization Organization
Kg Kilogram
LTD Limited
M Meter
M3 Cubic Meter
MC Moisture content
MDF Medium Density Fiberboard
ML Milli litter
OSB Oriented Strand Board
PB Particle Board
RSH Radial shrinkage
RSW Radial swelling
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences
TSH Tangential shrinkage
TSW Tangential swelling

xi
 1. Introduction
1.1. Background of the study
Bamboo is the strongest and fastest growing perennial grass species that belongs to the subfamily
Bambusoideae and family Poaceae or Gramineae in the same family with cereal
crops such as rice, wheat, and sugar cane Scheba et al. (2017). Lobovikov et al. (2007) states that
except for Antarctica and Europe, there are over 1,500 species found in the tropical, subtropical,
and temperate zones of all continents. The highest diversity and area coverage of bamboo is
recorded from the Asian continent, followed by America and Africa (Ohrnberger, 1999). The
majority of the species are found only in Asia, Central and South America, and Africa. (Chaomao,
2006); Das et al. (2008). According to (Mulatu and Fetene, 2014), Madagascar is home to most
Africa's 43 bamboo species, with Tanzania, Malawi, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Zambia all having
bamboo resources. However, only two species of bamboos, namely Arundinaria alpina and
Oxytenanthera abyssinica are found in Ethiopia. Though there are different estimates on natural
bamboo coverage of Ethiopia, According to estimates, it spans over 1 million hectares, or roughly
67 percent of Africa's bamboo forest cover and 7% of the world's total (Embaye, 2003). These
bamboo species growths in different area in Ethiopian, namely, Benishangul Gumuz, Oromiya,
Amhara, Tigrai and Gambela but the amount of distribution is varying. Due to its superior wood
substitute, cheap, efficient, and fast-growing and a high potential for environmental protection and
wide ecological adaptation, bamboo is one of the world’s most important Non-Timber Forest
Products. Now a day, worlds' forest resources are shrinking, and thus potential alternative species
is wanted (Mekonnen et al., 2014). Bamboo grows at a rapid rate, reaching a height of 91 cm in
just 24 hours (Fu, 2001). Bamboos range in size from small annuals to giant perennial timber
bamboo species. Dwarf bamboos can be as small as 10 cm tall, but tall species can reach 15–20 m
in height, with the largest species reaching 40 m in height and 30 cm in culm diameter, such as
Dendrocalamus giganteus and Dendrocalamus brandisii. (Wong, 2004).

Bambusa vulgaris is thought to have originated in Southeast Asia. The ease with which the
branches and culm sections take root has made it the most frequently farmed tropical bamboo.
There are numerous cultivars, including those with varied green and yellow-striped culms that are
sometimes classified as separate types or species as reported by (Compendium, 2020). The working
properties of bamboo is highly influenced by its age, site location, physical property and anatomical

1
structure (Kumar et al., 2021). When compared to other age and species of bamboo, the young age
of Bambusa vulgaris exhibited the highest moisture content. This is because age is one of the
elements that influences moisture content in elementary fiber, as well as the part of the bamboo
that contains a higher concentration of parenchyma fiber, which is thought to store water in the
anatomical structure (Sulaiman et al., 2018). (Razak et al., 2005) reported that bamboo's strength
is controlled by their age (from young to mature), as well as the diameter, thickness, density,
moisture content, species, and position along the culm. The moisture content of the bamboo culm
and derived products influences the dimensional stability of the bamboo material. Moisture content
also affects toughness, density, strength, working properties, and durability (Walter and Tang,
2015). Bamboo density is strongly related to the proportion of vascular bundle and ground tissue,
and it has a significant impact on mechanical qualities. This helps to explain the strength variations
along the culm height. Permeability, which is affected by anatomical characteristics, influences
moisture movement and thereby treatability (Ogunwusi and Onwualu, 2013). According to
(Sulaiman et al., 2018) when density values directly increased, moisture content, thickness, and
width swelling decreased, while density also influenced the measuring of strength qualities on a
material employed. The strength properties of a bamboo have been found to be increasing from
inner to outer layer of the culm (Kariuki et al., 2014). However, little information is available that
revealed the physical properties Bambussa vulgaris. Therefore, the present study was initiated to
determine the physical properties Bambussa vulgaris and its working properties that are widely
cultivated at Chagni, Northwestern Ethiopia.

2
 1.2. Statement of the problem
Bamboo has diverse properties depending on the age and section of the culm height. Based on
the property difference there is also workability difference among the age group and along the
culm portions of the bamboo stand. Medium and small enterprises use bamboo resource
randomly to produce furniture’s and construction structures with different design regardless the
knowledge of its properties. Due to this the product has poor quality, weak joint, high
consumptions of paint and short life span. The physical property of B .vulgaris of green Varity
at different culm portion and age is not studied as a result the resource is not properly utilized.
Despite the good potential in offering economic development and ecological benefits, research
on the physical properties of bamboos is receiving less attention from the scientific community.
The physical property of B. vulgaris and its workability is one of the areas not studied in Ethiopia.
Therefore, this study is giving information on the influence of physical properties among age
group and along culm height on the working property of B. vulgaris to determine its suitability
for its intended purpose and to reduce the wastage of resource by using for unintended purpose.

3
 1.3. Objective of the Study
1.3.1. General objective

The overall objective of the study was to investigate the influence of physical properties
of Bambusa vulgaris Var. green on its working properties grown in Ethiopia.

1.3.2. Specific objectives

Specifically, this study has the following objectives

✓ To evaluate the effects of age on the physical properties

✓ To examine the effects of culm portion on the physical properties
✓ To evaluate the effects morphological characteristics on the workability of
Bambusa vulgaris Var. green

1.4. Scope of the study

This study was conduct on the relationship of physical property and its workability of Bambusa
vulgaris Var. green, species found in Chagni trail plot. The study was only investigating the
influence of physical properties on the workability of B. vulgaris Var. green which have two, three-
and four-years old culm.

1.5. Significant of the study

This study gives basic knowledge and information for bamboo processing industries and scientific
community to utilize each part of B. vulgaris culm effectively for its intended purpose.
Additionally, it contributes for the growth of usability by increasing the workability of the culm.
These industries also produce high quality product, and they might be more competent with
imported products.

4
 2. Literature Review
2.1. Bamboo
Bamboo is the world's most rapidly expanding and diversified plant. Bamboo is part of the
Bambusoideae subfamily of the Poaceae grass family (or Graminaceae). In around 1662 species
and 121 genera, bamboo is widely available globally (Kaur et al., 2019). Bamboo is native to Asia,
Africa, South America, North America, and Australia on five worldwide continents. In Asia, Africa
and Latin America bamboo is found in the greatest abundance and variety. Bamboo forest covers
14 million hectares of the total earth's surface, 80% in Asia (Nirala et al., 2017). It is estimated that
there are around 70 genera and 1,500 species of bamboo in the world (Khalil et al., 2012).

They can be found in a wide variety of climates, from the coldest mountains to the hottest tropical
areas. Bamboo is abundant in east Africa, especially in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda (Lobovikov
et al., 2007). Bamboo resources are located on about 1.47 million hectares, 133, 272 hectares, and
54, 533 hectares in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda, respectively (INBAR, 2018). Managed bamboo
forests cover more than 22 million ha of land worldwide, in addition to wild bamboo (Toensmeier,
2016). It is found distributed in extensively Argo-ecological conditions, starting from sea level to
4,000 m. Africa has about 40 species on over 1.5 million ha of land (Embaye, 2003)and two of
these species are found in Ethiopia (Kassahun, 2014).

Figure, 2.1 The bamboo plant morphology/structure

Source: https://doi.org/10.1533/9781782421276.4.488

5
In temperate, subtropical, and tropical areas bamboo is cultivated. Bamboo consists of an axis
above the ground including new shoot which grows to culm and an axis below ground include
rhizomes, roots and buds are the underground axis of bamboo. Buds on the rhizomes turn into
shoots from the ground (figure 2.1.). Many species of bamboo are identified by their rhizome type
and by their growth habit, especially as underground rhizomes lead to culminated formation. The
bamboo type is strongly based on their growth habit. Bamboo culms are often hollow and have
nodes with internodes between them. The nodes are the strength of the plant. The cliffs originate
from buds in the so-called rhizome, the underground root-system.

2.2. Bambusa vulgaris

Bambusa vulgaris bamboo one of the most easily cultivated and strong and medium to large, with
relatively open clumps and are found in temperate, tropical, and subtropical regions (Wahab et al.,
2009). They have culms which are not straight, and the internodes are often curved. These species
are of two kinds, namely B. vulgaris vittata and B. vulgaris wamin, the former having yellow culms
and the latter having green culms and they are grown as ornamental plants (Akinlabi et al., 2017).
It is a medium-sized bamboo, not densely tufted with culms 8–20 m tall and culms has yellow or
green stripes, but flowering is not common. It has internodes length 25–35 cm, diameter 5–10 cm
and wall thickness ranges 7–15 mm. Bambusa vulgaris is a pan-tropical species and origin of the
species is unknown but most cultivated everywhere, especially the horticultural varieties with
yellow culms, green culm varieties common in naturalized populations(Wahab et al., 2010).
Moreover three groups are recognized: green culm group B. vulgaris, var vulgaris, yellow culm
group with thicker walls than green culms, B. vulgaris var vittata, Buddha’s belly group B. vulgaris,
cv wamin, indigenous to South China (Rao et al., 1998).

There are a lot of Bambusa bamboo and other species in the world few types of exotic bamboo
species found in Ethiopia. Since 2007, Ethiopia has welcomed 23 exotic bamboo species belonging
to seven genera, which were imported in two waves by various groups. Bambusa (five species, two
of which have two sub variants each), Dendrocalamus (six species), Gigantochloa (three species),
Guadua (two species), Phyllostachys (five species), Schizostachyum (one species), and
Thyrsostachys (one species) are the seven genera of introduced bamboo species (one species). The
Ministry of Agriculture was the first to submit an entry in August 2007, followed by the East Africa
Bamboo Project and the European Union-Energy Project/INBAR. Denderocalamus asper,
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Dendrocalamus giganteus, Dendrocalamus membranaceus, Bambusa

6
vulgaris sub. Var. green, Bamusa vulgaris sub. Var. vitiate, and Bambusa balcooa were the first
seven species introduced, with growth performance in Mana, Welmera, Arsi-Negele, Yeki,
Guangua-Ch. The second set of entries includes 16 species that Morel Agro Industries LTD
introduced in 2008. According to (Yigardu and Mengistie, 2009), these species are being multiplied
at the Central Ethiopia Environment and Forest Research Center's Holetta and Gurd-shola nurseries
in Addis Ababa (Mulatu et al., 2016).
Bambusa vulgaris is the most prevalent bamboo species in Ghana, accounting for over 95% of the
country's total bamboo resources. It can be found in forest reserves, community spaces, and fallow
farm fields, and is considered a natural species. Oxytenanthera abyssinica, Bambusa arundinacea,
and Dendrocalamus strictus are three other bamboo species that have been identified as native. In
Ghana, two separate varieties of Bambusa vulgaris are found: the more common green type,
Bambusa vulgaris var. green, and the yellow variety, Bambusa vulgaris var. vittata, which is
widely grown (Coffie et al., 2014). Because of its fast growth rate, robust culm walls, regular
diameters between nodes and internodes, and high output of shoots, Bambusa vulgaris is primarily
grown by rural communities. The physical characteristics and properties such as the culms height,
numbers of internodes, internode length, internode diameter, culms wall thickness, girth, moisture
content and basic density are important factors in determining the suitability of bamboo for various
applications (Razak et al., 2005).

2.3. Potential of Bamboo in Ethiopia

Africa possesses about 43 species on over 1.5 million ha of land; 40 of these species are primarily
distributed in Madagascar while the remaining three species are found in mainland Africa and two
of these species are found in Ethiopia (Embaye, 2003). Though there are different estimates on
natural bamboo coverage of Ethiopia, the work (Kindu and Mulatu, 2010) reported that it is about
1 million ha, which is about 67% of the African bamboo forest cover and 7% of the world’s total.
Ethiopia is one of the greatest endowed countries in bamboo resources in Africa (Embaye, 2003).
The two indigenous bamboo species in the country are the African alpine bamboo (Arundinaria
alpina) and a monotypic genus of lowland bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica) (Oumer et al.,
2021). Moreover, twenty-three different bamboo species under seven genera were introduced in
Ethiopia since 2007 (Mulatu et al., 2016). O. abyssinica is a species of Ethiopia's natural forests
are exclusively found in the country's western regions, along major river valleys and in areas
bordering Sudan, and contain significant cities and towns such as Tigray, Gonder, Gojam, and

7
Welega (Getachew and Wubalem, 2014). Additionally (Mulatu et al., 2016) reported that Ethiopia
is one of the most endowed countries in bamboo resources in Africa and there are two indigenous
bamboo species namely African alpine bamboo ( Arundinaria alpina) and lowland bamboo
(Oxytenanthera abyssinica). In addition, twenty-three bamboo species belonging to seven taxa have
been introduced in Ethiopia since 2007. The Ministry of Agriculture/the erstwhile East Africa
Bamboo Project and the European Union-Energy Project/INBAR were the first to submit entries.
Denderocalamus asper, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Dendrocalamus giganteus, Dendrocalamus
membranaceus, Bambusa vulgaris sub. Var. green, Bambusa vulgaris sub. var. vitata, and
Bambusa balcooa were the first species to be studied for their adaptation and growing performance
in various places. Morel Agroindustry LTD introduced the second entry, which includes 16 species.
These species are under multiplication at Holetta and Gurd -shola nurseries of Central Ethiopia
Environment and Forest Research Center, Addis Ababa.

2.4. Working properties of bamboo

Bamboo is a flexible, fast-growing, and environmentally friendly building material that can replace
wood in several applications. Ethiopians in rural areas depend primarily on raw bamboo culms for
various building and furniture purposes Getachew and Wubalem (2014). Bamboo has over 1,000
different applications. Food, green raw materials, and regenerative energy are all provided by
bamboo (Liese et al., 2015). Lower-density particleboards have higher bending strength, internal
bond, modulus of elasticity, screw withdrawal, water absorption, and thickness swelling than
higher-density species. Not only does wood density have an impact on product qualities, but it also
has an impact on processing (Tadesse et al., 2012).

Culms have excellent practical properties and are used in construction, scaffolding, handicrafts,
furniture, and as a raw material for secondary items like bamboo mats, boards, and flooring.
Bamboo houses are home to over 1 billion people, ranging from plain homes to four-story city
houses and engineered structure uses. As compared to other wood species, bamboo has the
following advantages: rapid growth, high efficiency, fast maturity, and better mechanical
properties. Due to its high strength and properties, it has been widely used as a raw material for
wood products produced in some Asian factories in recent years, such as pulp and paper, plywood,
Medium Density Fiberboard (MDF), Particleboard (PB), and Oriented Strand Board (OSB)
according to (Malanit et al., 2009). (Anokye et al., 2016) reported that the strength of bamboo strip

8
in bending is an important mechanical property since most of the structures constructed from
bamboo are likely to be subjected to loads that may cause it to bend.

2.5. Physical property of bamboo

Physical properties of bamboo vary greatly from species to species, and to some extent within a
species. Culms are generally long, straight and the hollow internodes make it comparatively light.
The strength of bamboo varies within the species, age of culm, moisture content and portion of
culm. Bamboos generally increase density until it reaches maturity Anokye et al. (2014a). Physical
property of bamboo includes specific gravity, moisture content, swelling and shrinkage.

2.5.1. Basic density

Understanding the density of bamboo and its behavior can increase the use of bamboo for various
applications. Knowledge on bamboo density will help to determine its suitability for utilization
such as volume/weight, machining properties, glue/preservative chemicals consumption since
density is an important factor for wood and wood related material utilization. Bamboo has a density
variation along its culm height, across the culm wall thickness and among age groups (Abdullah et
al., 2017). The density of bamboo varies from about 0.4 to 0.9 g/cm3, depending on the anatomical
structure such as the quantity and distribution of fibers around the vascular bundles (W. T. Liese
and Thi, 2015). The older bamboo culm has higher density than the younger culms however, the
basal section has lower density than the top section of the bamboo culm as reported by
(Kamruzzaman et al., 2008), Anokye et al. (2014b), (Wahab et al., 2009). B. vulgaris has highest
basic density (703 kg/m3) at the top portion and lowest basic density (490 kg/m3) at the basal portion
of the culm (Adam and Jusoh, 2019). Bamboo culm has different parts with different
characteristics. The outer culm contains high vascular bundle, and the number of fibers is higher
and compact layer coverage with wax, smooth and bright surface. The inner part has contained
week and soft tissue this indicate the outer culm having a far higher density than the inner part.
Anatomically bamboo contains long fiber length and high amount in the culm. The amount of fiber
lower it gives lower density but longer its gives higher density. According to (Zakikhani et al.,
2017) the number of fibers increased from the inner layer to the outer layer and became denser
from the bottom to the top portion. Bamboo culm with wide and thick cell wall has very high
density than the smaller diameter and thin cell wall. The basal portion of bamboo culm is wider but
the cell wall thickness thin, long internode whereas middle portion has medium cell wall thickness
9
and the top portion internode is tapper and its cell well is thick so the density increased from the
basal towards the top of the bamboo culm (Abdullah, et al., 2019). The middle portion of the culm
has longer internode, thick wall thickness than the basal portion and medium culm diameter and it
also has medium density. The upper portion has shorter and tapper culm length than two portions,
small culm diameter and thick cell wall thickness and it has higher density. This means that the
density of the internodes increases along the culm from basal section to the top section. Along
bamboo height the Density of internodes at the top section are highest compared to the middle and
basal sections for the reason The distribution and concentration of vascular bundles and fiber
sheaths increased from the basal portion towards top portion (Anokye et al., 2014a).

Normally the density of bamboo increased with an increase in age, young culms have low density
and old culms have high density. Chemical property such as hemi-cellulose in bamboo higher in
younger than matured bamboo and the lignin content higher in older bamboo culm higher than
younger bamboo so different age group and portion has different density. Density increases from
younger to matured bamboo culms. And the density of different portion also different. In the other
hand similarly finding the younger culm has lower density and the mature bamboo higher but the
oldest bamboo has higher than the younger and mature bamboo age groups (Yohannis and Dessie,
2018).

2.5.2. Moisture content

Moisture relationship has an important influence on bamboo properties and performance. The
initial moisture content of bamboo is decreasing with increases of culm height and age. Green
bamboo has averagely contained higher moisture content depending upon the age, season,
geographical location, and species. There is a strong relation between insect attacks and the levels
of starch plus humidity content of bamboo culm. Besides bamboo store food and sap material in
ground tissue this tissue has contains nutrients and starch that can be a cause to attract beetles,
insects, microbes and blue-stain fungi in green condition, these things clean or drying properly
before use. Drying bamboo is fundamental to its conservation for various reasons. Bamboos are
seasoned by air drying keeping in vertical position. The moisture content reduces from bottom to
top for green as well as bamboo at stages of seasoning. There is a variation in moisture content
along the culm height (Wakchaure and Kute, 2012) in each age group. The basal portion of culm
containe the highest proportion of moisture content whiles the lowest, the top height positions.
Moisture content decreased as the height of culm increased (Yohannis and Dessie, 2018).

10
Anatomically bamboo has different stricture depend up on the age and portion different. Younger
bamboo culms (1–2 years of age) or immature culms with lower lignin content can be more easily
split. And contain high moisture content than the other age. Younger bamboo has higher moisture
content present bottom portion and lowest at the middle portion. Mature bamboo (3–4 years of age)
anatomical property is well developed and it ready to use different application. And the amount of
moisture content is lower than the younger. The amount of MC in Mature bamboo has lost than the
younger (Falayi et al., 2014). In other perspective mature bamboo culm has lower moisture contents
than the younger bamboo culms. Younger culms have higher percentage of moisture content. The
moisture content decreased as the stand age increased (Yohannis and Dessie, 2018). Oldest or
decline aged bamboo has anatomically weak this mean the amount of vascular bundle higher, lignin
content higher, the storage of food and sap materials (Ground tissue /parenchyma) weak and the
water conduction as well as for the sap displacement treatment is less because of the Meta xylem
vessels fill with extractive. So, the movement of water is less or the amount of MC present in older
bamboo less than the younger or mature bamboo culm. Generally, the moisture content amount
present in culm depend up on the age, younger bamboo culm contains higher moisture content than
the mature and oldest bamboo culm. Since the mature or old bamboo has some extractive that fills
the cell cavity of the culm. Moisture content influences the utilization of bamboo in a similar way
like that of wood. The moisture content of bamboo depends on Bamboo species, the different
species have a different amount of parenchyma cells which correlate to the water holding capacity.
Culm zones are the base has a higher value than the top. The inner part of the culm cross section
has a higher value than the outer part. Nodes or internodes the nodes have a lower value than
internodes.

2.5.3. Shrinkage and swelling

When the climate is warm bamboo become lose its moisture below the fiber saturation point or
shrinkage is occur. And bamboo gain moisture in rain session or the surround area cold, the bamboo
cell well become full with water (swelling). The proportion of shrinkage in wall thickness was
highest in younger bamboo culm the oldest bamboo culms and the bottom portion shrink higher
amount as compared to the top portion (Yohannis and Dessie, 2018). Shrinkage of bamboo is the
basic cause of many problems that occur during drying of culms and during their service life. most
wood species, shrinkage of bamboo starts to become apparent in a decrease of both cell wall
thickness and cell diameter which is due to capillary forces leading to cell collapse as soon as
11
moisture begins to decrease. Green bamboo is susceptible to collapse due to capillary tension
during drying, Cells while still filled with liquid water collapse which leads to unusual high
shrinkage. Collapsed tissue regions exhibit a higher density than non-collapsed regions(Walter and
Tang, 2015). The amount of shrinkage at the radial direction is slightly higher than the tangential
direction of Bambusa Vulgaris (Anokye et al., 2014b). The top section still has the highest
percentage of shrinkage at radial direction the same pattern in both species. under very mild drying
conditions, the bamboo will not collapse and will shrink almost equally in radial (culm wall) and
tangential (culm diameter/ circumference) direction. According to (Gutu, 2013) when the amount
of moisture present in bamboo culm the shrinkage differs with the moisture content of bamboo.
Radial and tangential shrinkages variation along the culm portions. High radial shrinkage than
tangential shrinkages in single culm (Kelemwork, 2012).

Bamboo there are no rays or knots which give a bamboo a far more evenly distributed stresses
throughout its length. The distributions and sizes of vascular bundles in the outer part of bamboo
culm wall than inner parts responsible for higher radial shrinkages than tangential (Kelemwork,
2012). The inner part of bamboo culm wall has thinner walled parenchyma and conducting cells
which are responsible for high shrinkages. Culm has nods in different dimeter when the presence
of nodes the shrinkages amount vary with species to species and portion to portion. The portions
of bamboo culm has different shrinkage in different (Yohannis and Dessie, 2018). The arrangement
and high amount of fiber and the cell structure present in the culms the result of shrinkages varies
in all direction, higher shrinkage in tangential about one-half as much in radial, and much less along
the longitudinal direction. Additionally, the radial shrinkage strong relationship with the specific
gravity, the shrinkage value decreases, when the specific gravity value increases. The shrinkage of
the whole wall appears to be governed by shrinkage of the outer most portion, which possesses also
the highest specific gravity due to the higher fiber content. The arrangement of cell structure along
age has different shrinkage, Mature culms shrink less than younger ones (Malanit, 2009) and
another points of view, The proportion of shrinkage in wall thickness highest in younger bamboo
culm while lowest in mature and oldest bamboo culms (Yohannis and Dessie, 2018). Compared to
the softwood and hardwood, the tangential shrinkage is approximately two times greater than the
radial direction. Behavior is the same as in softwoods and hardwoods. The dimensional change in
wood is greater in the tangential direction, while the shrinkage and swelling of bamboo are similar
in the radial and tangential direction due to a different anatomical structure compared to wood with
no radial cells. The bamboo which has been dried carefully will exhibit volumetric shrinkage and
12
swelling behaviour very similar to most wood species but with less anisotropy (Walter and Tang,
2015). And other perspective According to (Malanit, 2009) Regard to anisotropic shrinkage,
bamboo is similar to wood. The dimensional stability in the radial direction is affected by the
position along the culm, while the dimensional stability in tangential direction has no variation
along the culm length, D. asper are the small shrinkage and swelling values compared to wood
species (Malanit et al., 2009). According to (Walter and Tang, 2015) tangential shrinkage of wood
is almost double as shrinkage in radial direction, apparent shrinkage of bamboo in radial direction
is greater or equal to shrinkage in tangential direction and similar shrinkage in radial and tangential
direction. And when bamboo culms dry, the main moisture transport is radially directed toward the
space, and collapse becomes visible mainly in the radial direction.

13
 2.6. Conceptual Framework of the study

The researcher wants to find out what are the influence of physical characteristics on working
properties of Bambusa vulgaris Var. green, grown in Chagnii district on certain relationship of
independent variable include age and portion of bamboo culms, whereas dependent variables are
density, moisture content (MC), shrinkage, swelling and morphological characteristics of B.
vulgaris of green variety.

➢ Density
• Oven-dry weight
• Green volume
➢ Age of
bamboo ➢ Moisture content
culm • Green weight
• Age Two
• Oven-dry weight
• Age Three
Bambusa • Age Four ➢ Shrinkage
vulgaris • Radial ➢ Working
green variety • Tangential properties
➢ Culm Portion • Longitudinal • Bending
of bamboo • Painting
• Bottom ➢ Swelling
• Splitting
• Middle • Radial
• Tangential
• Top • Longitudinal

➢ Morphological
characteristics
• Total culm length
• Solid volume
• Internode length
• Culm diameter
• Culm wall thickness
Figure, 2.2 conceptual framework of the influence of physical characteristics on working
properties of Bambusa vulgaris Var. green.

14
 3. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
3.1. Description of the study area

Culm samples used for this study were harvested from Chagni district of the Agew Awi zone of
Amhara regional state northwestern Ethiopia. The study area was located at 565 Km from Addis
Ababa and 171 Km away from Bahir Dar town on 10o57’N and 36o30’E latitude and longitude,
respectively. The area were the B. vulgaris samples was collected has a mono-modal rainfall pattern
with an unpredictable distribution of average rainfall of 1749 mm the area gets the maximum rain
in June to August and the minimum is receive from February to late April and have an altitude of
1920m above sea level. The average minimum and maximum annual temperature of the area is
14.0°C and 30.0 °C, respectively (Anonymous, 2021).

Figure 3.1: Map of the study area (Agew Awi zone of Guangua Woreda)

15
 3.2. Material and methods
3.2.1. Sample harvesting

Culms of the Bambusa vulgaris green variety were collected in the Chagni plantation area in
northeastern Ethiopia for this investigation. This is a bamboo species that has been introduced from
other countries. In 2007, this species was introduced to Ethiopia and planted in two locations
Jimma and Chagni (Mulatu et al., 2016). Two, Three- and Four-years old B. vulgaris sample culms
were selected randomly from different clumps in Chagni plantation forest trial plot. The ages of
culms were selected based on the recorded evidence in the plantation area and by the help of
experienced field personnel who is familiar with this bamboo species.

3.2.2. Culm cutting and Sample preparation

A total of 9 culms representative of three different age groups were cut 30 cm above the ground so
as to keep its regeneration trend and the branches of the culm was removed by using sharp hack-
saw to clean the culms (Wahab et al., 2009). Furthermore, the culm was cut from the tip until to
obtain the merchantable culm diameter 50 mm by using sharp blade hacksaw. Eventually, the
proper merchantable length for determination of the physical properties of the bamboo of each aged
culm was record. Moreover, each culm which have merchantable length were divided into three
equal portions, such as basal, middle, and top portions and the total height, number of nodes,
number of internodes, length of the internode, diameter of each portion of culm was recorded as
illustrated in figure 3.4. From these three representative age groups of bamboo culm a total of 27
specimens from the second internode of all culm portions with 30 mm length were prepared in
Chagni technical and vocational college for the determination of density, moisture content,
shrinkage and swelling as listed in table 3.2. Then after the prepared sample was recorded its green
volume, green weight, green dimension (culm wall thickness and culm diameter); moreover, the
prepared specimens were transported to Woldia University for laboratory experiments like oven
drying.

16
Figure 3.2: merchntable length of bamboo culm Figure 3.3: culm portion preparation

Figure 3.4: prepared sample for the investigations of basic density

Table :3.2. Sample preparation for the study.

Independent Descriptions Dependent variable (density, moisture
variable content, shrinkage, swelling, culm diameter,
culm wall thickness, solid volume)
Age group Two, Three and Four 3 sample form each age group
Culm Basal, Middle and Top 3 portions from each culm
portion
Replication 3 replicates from each age and portion
Specimens (3 age group × 3 culm portion) × 3 replicate
(Basic density &moisture content = 27× 2= 54 pcs
and shrinkage & swelling),culm
solid volume

17
 3.3. Determination of physical properties
3.3.1. Determination of Moisture content

The moisture content determination test was carried out in accordance with the ISO D22157: 2019.
A total of 27 specimens was cut at the center of the second internode from fresh culms, the size of
specimen is 30 mm height, and all samples was taken free from any defects. Each specimen was
labeled with a marker such as year (Y2, Y3 & Y4), culm number (C1, C 2 & C 3), culm portion (B, M
&T) and samples (S1, S2 &S3) the mass of the specimen were also measured and record as initial
(green) weight of the samples with the help of sensitive digital weighing balance (Fig 3.6). This
measurement was conducted at the field after the bamboo culm harvested. As many as all the
sample were dried in oven at 103±2°C with 24-hour interval until a constant mass was attained in
the experimental Laboratory as shown in figure 3.5 . The moisture content of the sample was
calculated by using the following formula:
Wg − Wo
Moisture content =  100% ………………… Equation 2
Wo

Were,

Wg = the green weight of the sample (g)

Wo = the oven dry weight of the sample (g)

Figure 3.5: specimen drying in oven drier Figure 3.6: weighing the samples after oven drying

18
 3.3.2. Determination of Density

The samples use for density determination was the same as for MC determination in accordance
with ISO 22157:2019. Sample for this investigation was prepared from the middle portion of the
second internode at the basal, middle, and top culm portions of all age categories. The basic density
of bamboo was measured from fresh samples on the fields based on the most used wood specific
gravity measure, which is defined as the weight of any given volume of substance divided by the
weight of an equal volume of water. The volume were measured at fresh level by using water
displacement method by immersing in two third filled beaker of water (Fig 3.7) according to (Adam
and Jusoh, 2019). The volume determination was after the samples were cut with 3-cm long from
the middle part of the second internodes in each culm portions of all age groups. The weight of
each specimen was obtained after dried with oven dry machine with a temperature 103  2 oC (Fig
3.5) until constant weight record. The basic density of the samples was calculated as follows.

oven dry weight of sample (kg)

Basic density = ……………………Equation 3
grean volume of sample (m3 )

Figure 3.7: Measuring the volume of the sample by immersing in water and weighing with
electronic sensitive balance for density determination.

19
 3.3.3. Determination of shrinkage

From three ages group with three replicates at the center of the second internode of each portion
(bottom, middle and top) at a green condition were cut; three samples with 30 mm length and totally
27 specimens were prepared. Each of them was marked with a permanent marker to measure at the
same point before and after drying. The dimension of all samples was measured with digital Varner
caliper and record all specimens at a green condition along three directions (radial (R), tangential
(T) and longitudinal (L)). And the specimens was dried by using oven dry machine at a temperature
of 103  2oC (Anokye et al., 2014b). The dimensions of these specimens were record with 8-hour
interval until constant measurements will attain. Then after the amount of shrinkage of the bamboo
along radial direction (R), tangential direction (T) and longitudinal direction (L) were determined
by using the following equations.

𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑓
Shrinkage in radial direction (R) (%) = 𝑋 100 …………….….… equation 4(a)
𝑇𝑖
𝐷𝑖 −𝐷𝑓
Shrinkage in tangential direction (T) (%) = 𝑋 100……………...…. equation 4(b)
𝐷𝑖
𝐿𝑖 −𝐿𝑓
Shrinkage in longitudinal direction (L)(%) = 𝑋 100...........................equation 4(c)
𝐿𝑖
Were
Di, = initial dimensions of outer diameter in mm
Ti, = initial dimensions of wall thickness in mm
Li = initial dimensions of length, in mm
Df, = final dimensions of outer diameter in mm,
Tf, = final dimensions of wall thickness in mm.
Lf = final dimensions of length in mm.

Figure 3.8: measuring the culm wall thickness of the sample for the determination of
shrinkageand swelling

20
 3.3.4. Determination of swelling

The samples use for the determination of swelling were the same used for shrinkage. From thus
three age group with three replicates at the center of the second internode of each portion (bottom,
middle and top) at a green condition was cut three sample with 30 mm length and totally 27
specimens were prepared. Each of them was marked with a permanent marker to measure at the
same point before and after dipping in water. All samples were measured and record at oven-dried
conditions along three directions (radial direction (R), tangential direction (T) and along length
(L)). After recording the oven dry weight and dimension of the specimen was soak in distilled water
at 20oC for 24 hours until it reached at constant measurements for all direction. Thus, samples were
measured and record their weight and dimension immediately removed from the water by using
sensitive balance and digital Varner caliper respectively. After that the amount of swelling was
determined with three different direction, radial direction (R), tangential direction (T) and
longitudinal direction (L) by the following equation.

𝑇𝑓 −𝑇𝑖
Swelling in radial direction (R) (%) = 𝑋 100 …………….……. equation 5(a)
𝑇𝑖
𝐷𝑓 −𝐷𝑖
Swelling in tangential direction (T) (%) = 𝑋 100 ……….……equation 5(b)
𝐷𝑖
𝐿𝑓 −𝐿𝑖
Swelling in longitudinal direction (AL) (%) = 𝑋 100 ................equation 5(c)
𝐿𝑖
Were
Di, = initial dimensions of outer diameter in mm
Ti, = initial dimensions of wall thickness in mm
Li= initial dimensions of length, in mm
Df, = final dimensions of outer diameter in mm,
Tf, = final dimensions of wall thickness in mm.
Lf = final dimensions of length in mm.

Figure 3.9: samples for the determination of swelling among age category and culm portion

21
 3.3.5. Determination of Culm Solid Volume

As mentioned above on the sample preparation a total of 9 culm sample will harvest randomly from
different age group (two, three and four). After the merchantable height of the culm is obtained it
was divided in to three portions (Basal, middle, and top). The diameter and culm wall thickness of
each culm portion was measured at two ends with digital Varner caliper and record immediately at
the field and solid volume and culm wall thickness of each sample were estimated at green
conditions by sum up the volume of culm hollow portions and the diameter of each culm portions.
(Tandug and Torres, 1985) were used to the following equation to determine the solid volume of
each culm portions.

 ( Ba − Bb) + (bs − bh) 

V= 
2  L ………………...………………. Equation (6)
 

Were,
V= solid volume of the section (cm3)
Ba = area at the large end of the portion (cm2)
Bb= area at the large end of the hollow portion section (cm2)
bs = area at the small end of the portion section (cm2)
bh = area at the small end of the hollow portion section (cm2)
L= length of the section (cm).

3.4. Experimental design and data analysis

3.4.1. Experimental design

For this study completely randomize design (CRD) with three replicate experiments were used.
The independent variable of age (two, three and four) and culm portion (basal, middle, and top)
was used to observe the variations of dependent variables such as density, moisture content,
shrinkage, swelling, total culm length, culm diameter, number of nodes, culm wall thickness and
internode length of the B. vulgaris green Varity culm. The overall experimental design and
procedures was performed based on the following illustration.

22
 Figure3.10: - Illustration of experimental design
3.4.2. Data analysis
The effects of bamboo ages (two, three, and four) with culm potions (lower, middle, and top) on
the physical properties of Bambusa vulgaris were analyzed by General Linear Model procedures
of multivariate analysis (Two-way ANOVA) using SPSS V. 26 at http//www.spss.com) at p < 0.01
and 0.05 significant levels. Mean comparisons were made using post hoc or least significant
difference (LSD) at 5 % levels, to determine variations in the physical properties parameters among
age and across culm portion. The Pearson correlation coefficient was also employed to analysis the
interrelation between the physical properties of Bambusa vulgaris. Furthermore, descriptive
statistic such as mean, standard deviation (SD), and tables were also utilized to analysis the relevant
data generated form the laboratory experiment to examine the effects of physical properties on the
working properties of B. vulgaris.

23
 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. The effect of ages and culm portion on the physical properties of
B. vulgaris
4.1.1. Basic Density and Moisture Contents (MC)
The effects of age and culm portion on physical characteristics (density and MC) of B. vulgaris
green variety were presented in Table 4.1. There was a significant (P<0.05) variation in bamboo
density among age groups and along culm portion a result of multivariate analysis using the General
Linear Model. The data, on the other hand, revealed that the moisture content of B. vulgaris differed
significantly (P<0.05) between age groups and culm height. However, the present study showed
that there was no interaction effect both (F (2, 26) = 0.33; P>0.05, R2=0.35) and (F (2, 26) = 0.52;
P>0.05, R2=0.41) in the density and moisture contents respectively between age groups and
portions of culm are shown in Table 4.1

Table 4.1. The ANOVA of density and moisture content by effects age category and culm portion
of B. vulgaris

Dependent
Variables effects SS DF MS F

Density Age (Y) 2819.21 2 1409.66 5.39*

Portion (P) 2532.98 2 1266.49 4.84
(YP) 342.64 4 85.66 0.33NS
MC Age(Y) 1951.456 2 975.77 7.87*
Portion (P) 1090.176 2 545.10 4.40
(YP) 173.85 4 43.46 0.52NS

DF, Degree of Freedom; SS, sum of square; MS, Mean Square; F, Fischer test; MC (%), Percent
of Moisture Content
Significant effects are indicated by asterisks and ns behind F-values (***, **, * and ns indicated P
< 0.001, 0.01, 0.05 and not significant (ns), respectively). Total sum of squares (SS) is the same for
all models (4, 26), and effects are thus directly comparable across models

The mean variation in density and moisture content are indicated in Table 4.2. As a result, there
was a significant (P<0.05) difference in density and moisture content between age two and ages
three and four bamboo culms; however, there was no significant (P<0.05) difference in density and
moisture content of B. vulgaris between ages three and four. Even though there was no statistically

24
significant difference between age three and four, there was a numerical difference in moisture
content and density, as shown in table 4.2. age four bamboo at the top portion of the culm had the
highest average density (629.45 Kg/m3), followed by the age three top portion of the culm (616.05
Kg/m3), and the age two bottom portion of the bamboo culm had the lowest average density (573.35
Kg/m3). Additionally, the highest quantity of MC was found at the bottom of aged two bamboo
(72.37 %), followed by the middle portions of aged two bamboo (68.54 %), but the lowest mean
value (39.91 %) was found at the top of the culm in four-year old bamboo. The results also revealed
that the density of the bamboo was increasing as the ages and height of the culm increased from
the basal to the top. In general, bottom portion of the bamboo culm has lowest density than the
other parts of the culm in all age categories. The density in woody material increasing as a bigger
amount of vascular bundle massed in a smaller space reducing the total air volume within that area
(Siam et al., 2019)

Table 4.2. Effect of age and culm portions on density and moisture content of B. vulgaris
Age of the Portions of the Culm
DV Bamboo Basle Middle Top mean
(Years)
Two 573.35a* 593.16a 601.95a 589.49
b* b b
Density Three 601.74 606.78 616.05 608.19
(kg/m3) Four 601.26b* 609.02b 629.45b 613.24
a* a a
Two 72.37 68.54 64.97 65.26
Moisture Three 58.88b* 51.62b 41.59b 50.69
content Four 61.91 b*
49.65 b 39.91 b
50.49
(%)

As the same (Correal and Arbeláez 2010) states that a high amount of sclerenchyma fibers at the
top portion can also contribute to the high density at the top portion of the bamboo culm. In lines
with the present study (Wahab et al., 2010) investigated the increasing of density from the basal
towards the top of Bambusa vulgaris culm. The result of this study revealed that the higher
moisture content was recorded at the basal portion and drops heavily to the middle section but drops
uniformly from the middle to the top portion of bamboo. In general, there was decreasing trends
of the moisture content of the bamboo with an increasing in the age and portion of the culm (from
bottom to tip) as shown in table 4.2.
This could be attributed to increasing vascular bundles proportion and decreasing parenchyma
tissue proportion from the basal portion of the culm compared to the top (Anokye et al., 2014b).
Furthermore, the results also revealed that the moisture content was increased by 55.15 % related
to the minimal (39.91 %) value of the four aged top portions of the bamboo culm. In line with this
25
(Adam and Jusoh, 2019) found that decrease in culm wall thickness from the base to top section
for both D. asper and B. vulgaris that reduced in moisture content. In the same way (Wahab et al.,
2010) studied that Bambusa vulgaris decreases from 97.3% to 94.4% at bottom portion, 92.1% to
90.3% at middle portion and 86.4 to 82.5% in 2 and 4 year-old culms, respectively. In contrary
(Wakchaure and Kute, 2012) stated that MC does not show much variation along culm height. And
(Anokye et al., 2014b) further revealed that the moisture content was not significantly varied
among the culm portions in both the G. Scortechinii and B. vulgaris; however, a decreasing trend
from the basal to the top portion was reported in both the bamboo species.
In general, the working characteristics of B. vulgaris are different among different age groups and
along culm portions. Age four top section has higher basic density and lower moisture content.
Thus, having these physical properties of the bamboo culm portion is virtually and practically
important for outdoor purpose since it has lower shrinkage value, and the material did not take
more painting material to the inner side of the culm because the fluid penetration is low in higher
density and lower moisture content value of bamboo product. On the other hand, younger and
bottom portion of bamboo culms have low basic density and longer internode length at the middle
culm portion that can be able to split and bend more easily. Consequently, this trend in physical
characteristics makes the bamboo too desirable and ideal for producing bended and woven products
(Harries et al., 2012). However, it is difficult to use for outdoor purpose those have lower density
and higher amount of moisture content, because it may shrinkage or swell more while the
atmospheric air changed. The age two bamboo have high amounts of moisture content and low
basic density. This is supported by (Rao et al., 1998) increase in the values of basic density and
mechanical strength is observed with the decrease in the thickness in the rattan stem especially of
the upper portions. This could be ideal for bended products than the mature and oldest bamboo
culms (Walter et al., 2015).
4.1.2. Effects of Shrinkage and Swelling on working properties of B. vulgaris

The GLM multi variant analysis showed that there was a significant difference (P<0.01) in
tangential shrinkage among the age groups and across culm portion of the bamboo (Table 4.3). In
contrary this there were no significant difference of shrinkage with respect to the radial direction
in both age category (F (2, 26) =1.14; P=0.34, R2= 0.19) and culm height position (F (2,26) =2.86;
P=0.83, R2=0.19). Moreover, there were not considerable variation in the interaction effects
between the ages of bamboo and culm portions on radial shrinkage (F (4, 26) = 0.12; P=0.97,
R2=0.19), and tangential shrinkage (F (4, 26) = 0.31; P=0.87; R2=0.73) (Table 4.3).
26
Table 4.3. The ANOVA of shrinkage and swelling by effects age category and culm portion of B.
vulgaris

DV source effect SS DF MS F

RSH Year(Y) 9.58 2 4.79 1.14 NS

Portion(P) 23.96 2 11.98 2.86NS
(YP) 2.06 4 0.52 0.12 NS

TSH Year(Y) 47.14 2 23.76 17.02 ***

Portion(P) 78.66 2 39.33 28.18***
(YP) 1.74 4 0.44 0.31 NS

RSW Year(Y) 1.62 2 0.81 0.23 NS

Portion(P) 21.38 2 10.69 3.04 NS
(YP) 1.20 4 0.30 0.85 NS

TSW Year(Y) 30.01 2 15.01 10.26**

Portion(P) 103.94 2 51.97 35.51*
(YP) 2.06 4 0.51 0.73 NS

DV, Dependent Variable; DF, Degree of Freedom; SS, sum of square; MS, Mean Square; F, Fischer
test; RSH; radial shrinkage; TSH; tangential shrinkage; RSW; radial swelling; TSW; tangential
swelling
Significant effects are indicated by asterisks and ns behind F-values (***, **, * and NS indicated
P < 0.001, 0.01, 0.05 and not significant (NS), respectively). Total sum of squares (SS) is the same
for all models (4, 26), and effects are thus directly comparable across models.

The study also revealed that age two bottom portion of the culm was considerable higher shrinkage
in tangential (15.97 %), but age four top portion of the culm has been lower (8.50 %) value of the
culm of B. vulgaris. Furthermore, the radial shrinkage was higher in age two bottom section (9.72
%) but lower in age four top sections (5.72%) of the bamboo culm (Table 4.4). Moreover, shrinkage
in longitudinal direction was negligible due to the mean value was almost zero. Generally, there
was a decreasing trend both in radial and tangential shrinkage from the basal portion to the top
portion of culm and from younger to mature age of B. vulgaris. This variation shrinkage in radial
within ages and portions of the culm ascribed to the amount of moisture in the cell wall and
presences of soften vascular tissue which could be possibly higher shrinkages and thus the younger
and bottom to middle segments of the culm shrinks relatively higher than the top section and older
27
aged culm (Anokye et al., 2014b); Walter and Tang (2015) and (Jin et al., 2014). Consistently,
shrinkage in tangential direction decreased arithmetically with increasing the ages of the bamboo
(Table 4.4). Thus, higher average value (9.71 %) of shrinkage in culm diameter was registered at
the bottom portions of the culm in two aged bamboo and the lower (5.72 %) was in four years at
the top culm portion. The same result was found by Anokye et al. (2014b) in B. salarkhanii and B.
tulda bamboo species. They further noted that highest (9 %) tangentially shrinkage was shown in
B. salarkhanii and B. balcooa while lowest (2 %) in M. baccifera.

Results on the swelling properties for the ages and culm portions of the Bambusa vulgaris are
presented in Table 4.3 and 4.4. Thus, the tangential swelling had statistically significant (P<0.01)
difference within the culm portions and along with the ages of bamboo (Table 4.3), however
swelling in radial direction hadn’t significant difference both in age category (F (2, 26) = 0.23;
P=0.80; R2=0.45) and across culm height (F (4, 26) = 3.04; P=0.73; R2=0.45) of the B. vulgaris
culm. Moreover, there hadn’t an interaction effects among the treatment factors in radial direction
(F (4, 26) = 0.09; P=0.80; R2=0.45) and tangential direction (F (4, 26) = 0.73; P=0.58 R2=0.77) of
the B. vulgaris respectively (Table 4.3). On the other hand, the post-hoc test revealed there was a
significant variance (P<0.05) in tangential swelling between age two and other age groups; but
there were not a significantly (P < 0.05) between age three and age four B. vulgaris (table 4.4).}
higher swelling mean value (7.81%) was measured in radially direction of the basal portion of age
two bamboo, followed by the bottom (7.58 %) of age three and the lower was observed in the top
culm portion age four (5.11%) of B. vulgaris (Table 4.4).

Table 4.4. The influence of Age of Bamboo and portions of culm on the dimensional change of
Bambusa vulgaris
DV Age of Portion of culm
culm Bottom Middle Top Mean
b b b
2 9.71 7.67 6.53 7.97
b b b
RSH 3 7.95 6.87 5.92 6.89
4 7.41 b 6.61 b 5.72 b 6.58
a a* a**
2 15.97 12.78 11.55 13.17
TSH 3 13.17b 11.06 b* 8.82 b** 112.02
4 12.23 b 10.30b* 8.50b** 10.34
a a
2 7.81 5.75 5.50a 6.35
a a a
RSW 3 7.58 6.55 5.32 6.49
a a a
4 6.95 5.68 5.11 5.91
2 14.79a 11.84a 8.70a 11.78
TSW 3 11.56 b 9.75b 7.05b 9.36
b b
4 11.50 9.70 7.71 b 9.64
Note:-TSH; Tangential Shrinkage; RSH; Radial shrinkage; TSW; Tangential Swelling; RSW; Radial Swelling.
28
Correspondingly, the highest swelling value (14.79%) in tangentially was recorded in year two
bamboo at the bottom portion of the culm and the lower (7.71%) was in age four at the top culm
portion of the B. vulgaris (Table 4.4). Apart from this, the swelling properties of radial and
tangential directions are decreased with increasing the age of bamboo and the culm height (Table
4.4). In line with (Wakchaure and Kute, 2012) reported that along the height, dimensional changes
observed to be lower at top portion than that at bottom of bamboo culm. This variation in the
swelling properties of the B. vulgaris is ascribed to the difference in radial direction or cell cavity
of the bamboo in which the immature bamboo (age two) has thinner cell wall and wider cavity
than the oldest (age four) bamboo. This implies that as the age of the bamboo become oldest the
cavity is going to be narrower and in turn filled with extractives due to this the culm absorbs little
water from the ambient air. While soaked in water it shows dimensional increments in the
tangential and radial direction but not in the longitudinal direction (Zhu et al., 2019).

The working characteristics of B. vulgaris may influenced by the dimensional changes (shrinkage
and swelling) properties of bamboo culms. The bottom and younger B. vulgaris culm has highest
value of dimensional changes this may affect the end uses of bamboo culms. The culm which had
higher shrinkage and swelling value needs higher amount of finishing material because of its thin
cell wall and wide cavity than the culm which have lower dimensional change. Therefore, the culm
that had higher dimensional change is not good for outdoor purposes due its easily losing and
gaining of humidity.
4.1.3. Effects morphological characteristics on workability of B. vulgaris

The ANOVA result of culm diameter, culm wall thickness, culm solid volume, internode length
and number of internodes per culm in three age categories and parts of the culm are presented in
the Table 4.5. The GLM of multivariate test revealed that there was significant (P ≤ 0.01) difference
in culm diameter, culm solid volume, internode length and number of internodes among the ages
of the bamboo (Table 4.5). Moreover, there was significant (P ≤ 0.01) difference in culm wall
thickness across the bamboo culm portions. However, there was not an interaction effect of the
combined factors (Ages and portions of the culm) in culm diameter (F2, 26 = 0.058; P>0.05;
R2=0.03), culm solid volume (F2, 26 = 0.168; P>0.05; R2=0.28) and number of internode (F2, 26
= 0.11; P>0.05; R2=0.37) of the culm (Table 4.5). The results showed that culm wall thickness and
internode length were significantly (P ≤ 0.01) influenced by the portion of the culm, however, the
age of the bamboo hadn’t a significant effect on the culm wall thickness of the morphological
characteristics of the bamboo. Similarly, the interaction effects between ages of the bamboo and
29
culm portions hadn’t significant influence on the culm wall thickness (F2, 26 = 0.456; P>0.769;
R2=0.416) and internode length (F2, 26 = 0.168; P>0.952; R2=0.69)}.

Table 4.5. The ANOVA of the morphological characteristics of B. vulgaris by effects of age
category and culm portion

DV source effect SS DF MS F

CD Year(Y) 329.96 2 164.83 9.92***

Portion(P) 16.03 2 8.02 0.48NS
(YP) 3.82 4 0.96 0.06 NS

CWT Year(Y) 0.54 2 0.27 0.42 NS

Portion(P) 15.45 2 7.73 11.94***
(YP) 1.17 4 0.29 0.45 NS

CSV Year(Y) 152313.72 2 76156.86 1.36 ***

Portion(P) 21325.71 2 410662.86 7.36 NS
(YP) 37608.90 4 9402.23 0.17 NS

IL Year(Y) 493.96 2 246.98 25.61***

Portion(P) 136.12 2 68.06 7.06***
(YP) 6.50 4 1.63 0.17 NS

NL Year(Y) 2.74 2 1.37 4.11**

Portion(P) 4.96 2 2.48 7.44***
(YP) 0.15 4 0.04 0.11 NS

DV, Dependent Variable; DF, Degree of Freedom; SS, sum of square; MS, Mean Square; F, Fischer
test; CD, Culm Diameter (cm); CWT, Culm Wall Thickness (mm); Culm Solid Volume (cm3); IL,
Internode Length (cm); NI, Number of Internode
Significant effects are indicated by asterisks and ns behind F-values (***, **, * and ns indicated
P < 0.001, 0.01, 0.05 and not significant (ns), respectively). Total sum of squares (SS) is the same
for all models (4, 26), and effects are thus directly comparable across models.
The average values of morphological characteristics are indicated in Table4.6. Irrespective of the
interaction effect, the maximum average culm diameter values (32.16 mm) were found in aged two
bamboos at the basal sections of the bamboo pieces, while the lowest (21.73 mm) was found in
aged four bamboos at the top portion (Table 4.6). Similarly, the highest mean value of culm solid

30
volume (912.75 cm3) was found on two years old bamboo at the bottom part of the culm, while the
lowest (346.64cm3) was found on four years bamboo at the top culm portion. Additionally, year
two bamboos have a much higher number of internodes (6.67) at both the bottom and middle
regions of the culm; however, year four bamboo has a significantly lower number of internodes
(5.00) at the top culm portion (Table 4.6). Additionally, the multivariant test revealed higher culm
wall thickness and internode length(5.9 4mm; 39.06 cm) were found to be in the bottom portion of
the bamboo, followed by the (5.54 mm; 24.09 cm) and the lower was observed in the top culm
portion (3.5 mm; 22.77 cm) of B. vulgaris, respectively as stated in (Table 4.6).

In all these parameters measured values were deceased with increasing the maturity of the culm
and height portions of the culm (Table 4.6). These results are closely agreed with the previous
findings of (Zakikhani et al., 2017), who stated significantly highest culm diameter, culm height,
internode length and clump height of long internode bamboos were found in the B. polymorpha
(5.45 cm, 11.40 m, 86.25 cm and 11.83 m, respectively). In the same ways variations in culm
diameter, culm solid volume and internode length with the species, age and culm portion have been
reported by (Tewari et al., 2014) and (Annapurna et al., 2015).

31
Table 4.6. The influence of Age of bamboo and portions of culm on the morphological
characteristics of B. vulgaris
DV Age of Portion of culm
culm Bottom Middle Top Mean
culm 2 30.43a 32.16 a 29.74 a
30.78
diameter 3 25.09b 27.45 b
26.15 b
26.23
4 22.05 b 22.89 b
21.73 b
22.22
culm wall 2 5.05 b 4.81 b
3.5 b 4.45
thickness 3 5.94 b 4.51 b
3.63 b
4.69
4 5.54 b 4.95 b
3.88 b
4.79
Culm solid 2 912.75a 844.1 a
681.14 a
812.68
volume 3 703.76 b 502.50 b
477.26 b
561.17
4 437.07 b 379.84 b
346.64 b
387.85
Internode 2 33.27 a 33.22 a
39.06 a
35.19
length 3 27.75 b 29.36 b
32.98 b
30.03
4 22.77c 24.09 c
27.27 c 24.71
Number of 2 6.67 a 6.67 a
5.67 a
6.36
internodes 3 6.00 b 6.00 b
5.33 b
5.89
4 6.33 ab 5.67 ab
5.00 ab
5.56
Note:- The same letters are indicating there is no significant difference between treatments and
different letters are significant difference between treatment parameters.

4.1.4. Relationship among dependent Variables

Bayesian Statistics of Pearson correlation analysis was employed to determine the relationship
among dependent variables such as culm diameter, culm solid volume, culm well thickness,
internode length, number of internodes, basic density, moisture content, shrinkage and swelling,
in radial and tangential direction presented in table 4.7. The culm diameter was positively
associated with culm solid volume (r=0.79**), radial shrinkage (r=0.51*) and tangential shrinkage
(r=0.52*). This clarifies that as the culm diameter wider the volume of culm in solid content and
shrinkage in radial and tangential direction increase. The culm wall thickness of the present study
was positively associated with tangential swelling r=(0.64**) of the culm. This investigation
ascribes that the culm more swell as the thickness of the bamboo becomes thick. This could be
related to the development of new lamellae as well as the thickening of the present cell wall. This
implies that as the culm solid volume increase the moisture content of the culm also increase; due
to this the dimensional change also occurred while the ambient air changed. The basic density was

32
found to be strongly and negatively correlated to tangential shrinkage (r=-0.55**), tangential
swelling (r=-0.49**), radial shrinkage (r= -0.31**), and tangential swelling (r=-0.25**) as
indicated in Table 4.7. This means that when the bamboo's density rises, its shrinkage and swelling
characteristics reduce due to the ambient air. Moisture content was also positively correlated with
tangential shrinkage (r=0.62**), tangential swelling (r=0.57**). There is a substantial association
between bamboo moisture content and anatomical structure and chemical composition between the
culms age and location along the culms according to (Wahab et al., 2010). This indicates that when
the amount of moisture in bamboo is high amount there might be higher level of dimensional
changes while the bamboo drying and gaining water.

33
Table 4.7. The Pearson correlation coefficient between the physical properties of the bamboo

CD CWT CSV IL NI BD MC TSH RSH TSW RSW

CD 1 0.07 0.79** 0.53** 0.57** -0.17 0.50** 0.52** 0.51** 0.44* 0.19

CWT 1 0.35 -0.42 0.50** -0.05 0.30 0.48* 0.51** 0.64** 0.50**

CSV 1 0.53** 0.74** -0.19 0.62** 0.60** 0.54** 0.53** 0.27

IL 1 0.16 -0.18 0.40* 0.06 -0.02 -0.14 -0.16

NI 1 -0.50 0.66** 0.62** 0.53** 0.62** 0.35

BD 1 -0.45* -0.55** -0.31 -0.49** -0.25

MC 1 0.62** 0.44* 0.57** 0.24

TSH 1 .65** 0.94** 0.50**

RSH 1 0.72** 0.84**

TSW 1 0.56**

RSW 1

D; Density; MC; Moisture Content; TSH; Tangential Shrinkage; RSH; Radial shrinkage; TSW; Tangential Swelling; RSW; Radial Swelling;
CD, Culm Diameter (cm); CWT, Culm Wall Thickness (mm); Culm Solid Volume (cm3); IL, Internode Length (cm); NI, Number of Internode
Significant effects are indicated by asterisks behind r value (**, * indicated P < 0.01, 0.05).

34
 5. Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1. Conclusion
Basic density, moisture content, shrinkage and swelling, culm solid volume, culm wall thickness,
number of internodes per culm, internode length, and culm diameter are all essential physical
parameters that assist define the workability of bamboo for various applications. It is conceivable
to draw the following conclusion based on the findings of this study.

1. The moisture content of age four bamboo culms was lower than age three bamboo culms and
significantly lower than age two bamboo culms. The moisture content of younger and mature
B. vulgaris culms differed substantially. On the other hand, the bottom regions of age two
bamboo culms had higher moisture content(72.37 %), whereas the top portions of age four
bamboo culms had lower moisture content(39.91 %). From the bottom to the top of the
bamboo culm, there was a general descending trend.

2. The top portion of four-year-old B. vulgaris had a higher (629.45 kg/m3) basic density, while
the bottom portion of two-year-old B. vulgaris had a lower (573.35 kg/m3) density. Culms
that are two and three years old have a low basic density, and the density has increased from
younger bamboo culms to mature bamboo culms, as well as from the bottom to the tip of the
culms. B. vulgaris that have higher basic density and lower moisture content are viable for
structural and outdoor purpose because of its lower dimensional change value.

3. The bottom component of the culm shrank significantly in both the radial and tangential
directions, but the top portion of the culm shrank very little in comparison to the other parts
of the B. vulgaris culm. The younger and bottom portions of the culm shrink faster than the
rest of the culm portion and the older culm. The ages of the bamboo and the parts of the culm,
on the other hand, had no effect on longitudinal shrinkage.

4. Swelling characteristics in tangential directions differed significantly. While there were no

statistically significant differences between the culm portions and the ages of bamboo in the
radial direction, there were no interaction effects between the treatment components (age and
culm portion) both radially and tangentially. In both radial and tangential directions of the B.
vulgaris, the most swelling was detected at the bottom area of the bamboo, followed by the
middle, and the lowest was observed at the top culm portion. Furthermore, as the age of the
bamboo grows older, the radial and tangential swelling properties of the bamboo
35
 decrease. The swelling qualities of bamboo decrease as the bamboo culms age. Thus, culm
that had higher dimensional change is not good for outdoor purposes due its easily losing and
gaining of moisture from the surrounding atmosphere. The workability of B. vulgaris was
unaffected along the length of the bamboo culm.

5. The largest culm diameter and number of internodes were found in the middle culm part of
two-year-old bamboo culms, while the smallest culm diameter and number of internodes were
found in the top portion of four-year-old bamboo culms. A two-year-old bamboo culm had
the highest culm solid volume, while a four-year-old bamboo culm had the lowest. The
thinnest culm wall thickness was identified at the tops of two-year-old, while the thickest was
found at the bottoms of three-year-old. Culm diameter and culm wall thickness were
positively and significantly correlated with culm solid volume, although basic density was
adversely correlated.

6. The morphological features may influence the working characteristics of B. vulgaris. culms
that have small culm diameter and longer internode (little number of internode) may be ideal
for bended product parts due to its easily bendability of the culm however it doesn’t
recommend for structural parts that require enough strength. On the other hand, culms that
have thick culm wall thickness, wider culm diameter and short internode length might .good
for structural purpose.

36
 5.2. Recommendation
Based on the findings of this study following recommendations are forwarded:

Bamboo-related companies require high-quality resources for producing quality product as well
as conveniently processed raw materials. Because of the low density, longer internode length, and
thin culm wall thickness, the younger B. vulgaris culm may be ideal for bended items due to their
easy bending characteristics and make perfect curve the work parts. Furthermore, mature culms
are appropriate for straight structural and outdoor use due to their structural and physical qualities,
which include high density, thick culm wall, and good dimensional stability behavior of the
bamboo, resulting in high-quality products. The morphological /structure characteristics (like
culm diameter, culm wall thickness, internode length and number of internodes per culm) of
bamboo has an important factor on the workability such as dimensional stability, bending quality
(flexibility) and splitting of the culm. Because all thus parameters are the determining factors to
producing market competitor goods and utilities.

37
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7. Appendix
Annex 1. Field and laboratory data for physical property investigations of B. vulgaris
age of portion CD CWT CSV IL NL BD MC TSH RSH TSW RSW
culm of culm (mm) (mm) (cm3) (cm) (pcs (kg/m3) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
year 2 Bottom 30.49 6.26 1341.07 37.14 7 598.31 76.21 16.11 9.19 14.46 7.92
year 2 Bottom 23.08 4.37 509.86 32.25 6 553.63 67.61 14.57 9.38 13.78 7.53
year 2 Bottom 37.71 4.53 887.33 30.43 7 568.12 73.28 17.21 10.55 16.14 7.97
year 2 Middle 37.58 4.61 1234.07 37.07 7 604.26 73.8 13.68 9.33 12.28 6.45
year 2 Middle 25.66 3.2 421.46 32.17 6 584.26 61.01 12.4 4.19 10.36 3.28
year 2 Middle 33.24 6.61 876.89 30.43 7 590.95 70.8 12.25 9.5 12.87 7.52
year 2 Top 32.71 3.77 866.75 43.17 6 592.63 71.17 10.08 8.96 8.37 7.17
year 2 Top 21.85 2.86 305.75 38.6 5 591.14 59.46 10.73 3.86 7.45 5.61
year 2 Top 34.67 3.87 870.92 35.42 6 622.07 64.29 13.84 6.77 10.29 3.73
year 3 bottom 23.19 5.23 656.26 27.67 6 593.05 45.83 12.97 8.4 11.46 8.32
year 3 bottom 25.3 7.14 643.71 26.58 6 618.39 57.14 14.14 8.24 13.01 7.71
year 3 bottom 26.77 5.46 811.3 29 7 593.79 73.66 12.4 7.21 10.22 6.72
year 3 middle 26.56 4.31 304.39 27.67 6 575.14 48.13 11.95 7.05 10.05 7.16
year 3 middle 27.26 4.8 555.58 26.67 6 627.28 52.6 11.02 8.25 10.17 7.41
year 3 middle 28.52 4.43 647.53 33.75 6 617.92 54.11 10.2 5.11 9.05 5.08
year 3 Top 27.9 3.93 384.45 33.2 5 632.91 47.62 9.45 7.56 8.26 6.32
year 3 Top 25.48 3.72 463.62 31.9 5 614.04 46.13 9.42 4.92 7.32 4.5
year 3 Top 25.07 3.23 583.71 33.83 6 601.19 31.02 7.59 5.27 5.58 5.15
year 4 bottom 22.28 5.73 467.08 22.75 6 597.74 67.37 13.15 11.35 11.93 10.56
year 4 bottom 21.88 5.22 376.24 22.5 5 607.08 55.52 12.05 5.27 11.76 5.1
year 4 bottom 22 5.67 467.9 23.07 7 598.95 62.86 11.47 5.6 10.82 5.18
year 4 middle 24.52 4.73 423.63 22.75 6 602.05 56.66 11.54 8.36 10.81 6.71
year 4 middle 22.53 5.11 318.09 22.6 5 612.94 34.45 10.49 6.1 9.89 5.25
year 4 middle 21.62 5 397.79 26.92 6 612.08 57.84 8.85 5.36 8.4 5.09
year 4 Top 23.29 3.74 372.44 27.1 5 641.77 49.14 9.08 6.81 8.63 7.85
year 4 Top 22.07 4.21 303.01 22.4 5 627.21 13.99 9.02 6.37 8.35 5.84
year 4 Top 19.82 3.69 364.46 32.3 5 619.38 56.59 7.41 3.99 6.14 1.63

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Annex 2. Field and laboratory investigation of parameters picture

Sample culm harvesting

44
 Merchantable height and portion coding

Sample preparation and green weight measuring

45
 Oven drying and volume measurement

Measuring Oven dry weight and sample immersion for swelling determination

46
Sample marking for dimensional change measurement and culm wall thickness measuring

47