TECHNICALREPORT

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TECHNICAL REPORT ON WATER TREATMENT. UNIVERSITY OF JOS, NIGERIA

FACULTY OF NATURAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
Technical Report · March 2023
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UNIVERSITY OF JOS, NIGERIA
FACULTY OF NATURAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
CHM 380: STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)
NAME:
SAMUEL BARNABAS IFITUMI
MAT NO:
UJ/2017/NS/1365
CONDUCTED AT
MAIN LABORATORY, LAMINGA TREATMENT PLANT, PLATEAU STATE WATER

BOARD, JOS, PLATEAU STATE
FROM 3TH MAY – 29TH OCTOBER, 2021
BEING A TECHNICAL REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY,

FACULTY OF NATURAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF JOS, JOS, NIGERIA, IN PARTIAL
FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.SC) DEGREE IN
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
JANUARY, 2021
SIWES technical report
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this Technical Report was written by SAMUEL BARNABAS
IFITUMI with matriculation number UJ/2017/NS/1365 under the supervision of MR.
L.E. GAMBO.
Samuel Barnabas Ifitumi Date

(Student)
Mr. Amos Monday Katmena Date

(Industry Based Supervisor)
Mr. L.E. Gambo Date

(Institution Based Supervisor)
Mr. B.S. Enoh Date

(Departmental SIWES Coordinator)
Dr. Anthonia E. Eseyin Date

(Head of Department)
Prof. Nestor M.D Chagok Date

(Dean, Faculty of Natural Sciences)
Prof. Georgina Mwansat Date

(Director of SIWES)
i|Page
Submitted by Samuel Barnabas Ifitumi
APPROVAL
This Technical Report has been read and approved to have met one of the conditions (22 nd
stage) outlined for the scheme; The segment gives an approval that SAMUEL
BARNABAS IFITUMI with matriculation number UJ/2017/NS/1365 went for the six (6)
month Industrial Training (IT) at Plateau State Water Board Jos-Plateau State.
Samuel Barnabas Ifitumi Date

(Student)
Mr. Amos Monday Katmena Date

(Industry Based Supervisor)
Mr. L.E. Gambo Date

(Institution Based Supervisor)
Mr. B.S. Enoh Date

(Departmental SIWES Coordinator)
Dr. Anthonia E. Eseyin Date

(Head of Department)
Prof. Nestor M.D Chagok Date

(Dean, Faculty of Natural Sciences)
Prof. Georgina Mwansat Date

(Director of SIWES)
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this technical report to GOD Almighty for the wisdom bestowed that has seen
me thus far in my academic pursuit. I also dedicate the technical report to family and
friends that supported me in one way or the other.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My special thanks go to GOD ALMIGHTY for the gift of life, for allowing me to achieve
this height which would not have been possible without His grace upon my life.
I am extremely grateful to the management and the entire staff of the University of Jos, for
giving me the platform to pursue a career in Industrial Chemistry. A special thanks to my
institution based supervisor Mr L.E. Gambo.
I would also like to thank the management and staff of the Plateau State Water Board
(PSWB) for enabling me observe and to learn from the daily operations in the main
laboratory. My deepest appreciation goes to the leadership and the entire staff in the Main
Laboratory of PSWB Laminga Treatment plant including my industry based supervisors
Mr Amos Monday Katmena, Mr Emmanuel Karsin, Mrs Grace Deshi.
I wish to thank my colleagues for their moral supports in one way or the other at the
course of my period of attachment.
Finally, I wish to thank my parents and siblings for their support through prayers and
encouragement. God bless you all for been part of my success story at this phase and stage
of my academic pursuit.
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ABSTRACT
This SIWES technical report contains four major chapters. All the knowledge
acquired during the six (6) months of industrial attachment at the quality assurance
department of the Plateau State Water Board is summarized in these chapters.
The first chapter which contains a brief history of SIWES, its aims and objectives, brief
history of plateau state water board, its aim and objectives, organization of Plateau State
Water Board (PSWB),the schematic flow chart of LAMINGA TREATMENT PLANT.
The second chapter contains the description of the processes involved in water production
and the water quality analysis.
The third chapter contains all the analysis carried out during water production
process. The analysis are total hardness, total alkalinity, residual chlorine, turbidity,
Chloride test, Jar test, chlorine demand test , pH analysis, microbial analysis etc.
The last (fourth) chapter outlines the recommendations made to SIWES directorate in
enhancing the prospect of the scheme.
Finally, the conclusion which was based on the benefit gained, problems encountered,
reference.
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Table of Contents
CERTIFICATION ..........................................................................................................................................i
APPROVAL ................................................................................................................................................. ii
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. v
CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................................................... 1

1.0 HISTORY OF SIWES ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 PHILOSOPHY OF SIWES ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 AIM OF SIWES ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF SIWES ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 HISTORY OF PLATEAU STATE WATER BOARD ........................................................................... 2
1.5 VISION OF PLATEAU STATE WATER BOARD ............................................................................... 2
1.6 MISSION ................................................................................................................................................. 2
1.7 THE LAMINGA TREATMENT PLANT (LTP) JOS ............................................................................ 2
1.8 PLATEAU STATE WATER BOARD ORGANIZATION CHART ..................................................... 4
1.9 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 6
1.10 TYPES OF WATER .............................................................................................................................. 6
1.11 SOURCES OF WATER ........................................................................................................................ 6
RAIN WATER .......................................................................................................................................... 6
SURFACE WATER .................................................................................................................................. 7
SPRING WATER: ..................................................................................................................................... 7
WELL WATER: ........................................................................................................................................ 7
1.12 USES OF WATER ................................................................................................................................ 7
1.13 HARDNESS OF WATER ..................................................................................................................... 8
TYPES OF HARDNESS OF WATER...................................................................................................... 8
1.14 WATER POLLUTION .......................................................................................................................... 9
SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION..................................................................................................... 9
CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION .................................................................................................. 10
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................................... 11

2.0 LABORATORY SAFETY RULE ........................................................................................................ 11
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2.1 INTRODUCTION TO WATER............................................................................................................ 11

2.3 CHEMISTRY OF WATER ................................................................................................................... 11
2.4 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER .............................................................. 12
2.4.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER ....................................................................................... 12
2.4.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER...................................................................................... 13
THE NEED FOR WATER PURIFICATION ......................................................................................... 13
2.5 WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES ................................................................................................. 14
TREATMENT PLANT: .......................................................................................................................... 14
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES IN LAMINGA TREATMENT PLANT ................................... 14
PRELIMINARY STAGE ........................................................................................................................ 14
PRE-TREATMENT ................................................................................................................................ 15
CHEMICALS USED FOR WATER TREATMENT.............................................................................. 19
HOW TO REMOVE TASTE AND ODOUR FROM WATER .............................................................. 21
2.6 MAINTENANCE .................................................................................................................................. 21
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................................... 24

3.0 PREPARATION OF REAGENTS FOR WATER ANALYSIS ........................................................... 24
3.1 WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS.......................................................................................................... 24
3.1.1 NEEDS FOR WATER EXAMINATION ...................................................................................... 25
3.1.2 FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING ......................................................................................................... 25
3.2 TYPES OF ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................ 25
3.2.1 PHYSICAL EXAMINATION ....................................................................................................... 26
3.2.2 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................... 28
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDNESS AND ALKALINITY ....................................................... 37
3.2.3 BACTERIOLICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER ...................................................................... 40
CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................................... 43

4.0 DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................................ 43
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO) STANDARDS FOR WATER .................................... 43
4.1 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED .............................................................................................................. 44
4.2 RECOMMENDATION ......................................................................................................................... 44
4.3 CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................................... 44
4.4 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 45
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 HISTORY OF SIWES
The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) was established by
Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in 1973 to solve the problem of lack of adequate
practical skills preparatory for employment in industries by Nigerian graduates of
tertiary institutions.
The Industrial Training Funding was established and this was done following the
Government decree on 47 on the 8th of October, 1971. As amended in 1960, it high
lightened the capacity building of human resources in industry, commerce and
government through training and retraining of workers in order to effectively
provide the more needed high quality goods and services in a dynamic economy.
The SIWES was instituted into the academic curriculum in 1973 by ITF during the
leadership major GENERAL YAKUBU GOWON.
Participation in SIWES has become a necessary pre-condition for the award of
diploma and degree certificates in specific disciplines in most institutions of higher
learning in the country, in accordance with the education policy of government.
Operators – the Industrial Training Fund (ITF), the coordinating agencies (NUC,
NCCE, NBTE), employer of labour and the institutions.
Funding – the Federal Government of Nigeria and the beneficiaries are
undergraduate students of tertiary institutions in the following field of study:
Agriculture, Engineering, Environmental Sciences, Education, Medical Sciences,
Pure and Applied Sciences. It has duration of four (4) months for Polytechnic and
Colleges of Educations and six (6) moths for the Universities. The scheme has 59
universities, 85 polytechnic and 62 colleges of educational member of participating
institutions.
1.1 PHILOSOPHY OF SIWES
Bridge the gap between theories and practice (National University Commission 1996)
1.2 AIM OF SIWES
 To expose students for machines and equipment
 To expose students to professional work methods and ways of
safeguarding the work areas and students in industries and other
organizations
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF SIWES
 SIWES enable and strengthen employers’ involvement in the entire
educational process of preparing university graduate for employment in
the industry.
 To expose student to work methods and techniques in handling
equipment and machinery that may not be available in the universities
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 Prepare students for industrial work situation they are likely to meet after
graduation
 Provide students with opportunities to apply their theoretical knowledge
in real work situation.
 To enlist and strengthen employers involvement in entire educational
process of preparing university graduates for employment.
1.4 HISTORY OF PLATEAU STATE WATER BOARD
Plateau State Water Board was established in 1974 as Benue Plateau State
Water Board. It became a sovereign body as Plateau State Water in 1979 after
they split up from Benue State. Plateau State Water Board (PSWB) has since
been expanding its plants across the state to meet the demand for water in the
state with aim of supplying safe water for domestic and industrial purposes in
line with their motto.
These treatment plants are:
1) Laminga Treatment Plant of Jos British-America Junction
2) Yakubu Gowon Treatment Plant Ratt in Barkin Ladi Local Government
3) Langtang Treatment Plant located in Langtang North Local Governement
4) Bokkos treatment plant located in Bokkos Local Government
5) Pankshin Treatment Plant in Pankshin Local Government
6) Bukuru – Yelwa Plant in Jos South Local Government
7) Shendam Treatment Plant in Shendam Local Government
8) Nabor Gwong at Jos North Local Government
9) Mangu Treatment Plant in Gindiri
1.5 VISION OF PLATEAU STATE WATER BOARD

The vision of Plateau State Water Board is to provide sustainable, accessible,
safe sufficient and potable water and rural energy to meet the cultural, social
and economic development need of all Plateau people.
1.6 MISSION
Plateau State water Board is guided by the mission to vehicle of state rural
energy development and integrated water resources management through
comprehensive planning and provision of the enabling environment for the
advancement, management and preservation of life.
1.7 THE LAMINGA TREATMENT PLANT (LTP) JOS
The construction of LTP was started in 1970 the contract was executed by
Julius Berger Nigeria Plc. Full work in the Plant commenced by 1974. General
Yakubu Gowon was the Military Head of State on Nigeria at that time.
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The plant has a capacity of producing 40 million litre of water a day. The plant
is located at Dogon Karfe in Jos at a lower altitude aimed at transporting water
under gravity at 3600 m3/hr. from Lamingo Dam which is at higher altitude into
to Laminga Treatment Plant.
The Headquarter of Plateau State Water Board is located at Ray Field Industrial
layout site for the former Jos steel rolling company; At the Laminga treatment
plant, there are three departments which are;
1. Quality Control: Responsible for monitoring and control of water treatment
processes
2. Mechanical Department: Responsible for monitoring connections of pipes
and maintenance of machinery.
3. Electrical Department: Responsible for wiring of electrical connections
and maintenance
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1.8 PLATEAU STATE WATER BOARD ORGANIZATION CHART
Public Relation Unit

Board of Directors
Project
General Manager
Legal Adviser
Internal Audit
AGM Quality AGM- AGM- AGM- AGM- Board

Assurance Finance Operation Technical Commercia Secretary
s
Store Mgt./Fin
Tech Tech Plant Researc
Acc. Assets
Mgr. Mgr. Mgr. h and Mgr
Revenue Elect. Mech. Planning
and
expenditure
Lab Service Quality Civil and Water Marketing Billing Mgt.

Mgr. Surveillance planning Operation Mgr. Mgr Info
Mgr. Mgr Mgr.
System
Mgr.
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Supplier tanker Treated Water outlet for Tankers
Pump for treated water
5|Page
1.9 INTRODUCTION
Water is a chemical compound with chemical formula H2O, one molecule of water has
two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom.
Water is the most abundant chemical compound on the earth. It covers about 70% of the
earth surface, appears in nature in all three common matters (solid, liquid, gas) and takes
many different forms on earth: water vapour and cloud in the sky, seawater in the oceans,
icebergs in the polar regions, fresh and salt water lakes, rivers and aquifers in the ground.
Water plays an important role as a chemical substance. It’s much important function
include being a good solvent for dissolving many solid, serving as an excellent coolant
both mechanically and biologically and acting as reactants in many chemical reactions. It
has a faint blue colour which appears in a range volume of water.
1.10 TYPES OF WATER
There are basically two (2) types of water; Natural and Treated Water.
NATURAL WATER: Natural water is obtained directly from underground sources
protected from pollution risks characterized by its content of certain mineral salt and
their relative proportion guarantees constancy of its composition and the stability of
its flow collected under condition which guarantee the original microbiological purity
and the chemical composition packed close to the point of emergence of the source
cannot be subjected to treatment (except for limited ones such as carbonation, iron or
manganese removal) may claim medicinal effects. This natural water includes, rain
water, spring water, well water, rivers and sea water.
TREATED WATER: Treated water may originated from any type of water supply
(including municipal water) suggested to any treatment that modifies the original
water in order to comply with chemical, microbiological, and radiological safety
requirement for packed water. Treated water is the standard for emerging countries
where purity of water means above all safety.
1.11 SOURCES OF WATER
There are three (3) major sources of water which include:
1. Rain water
2. Surface water (Oceans, Rivers, Ponds, Dams, Lake, Streams)
3. Ground Water (Well, Springs)
RAIN WATER
Rain water is the prime source of all water. A part of the water sinks into the
ground to form ground water, part of it evaporates back into the atmosphere, and
some run off to form streams and rivers which flow ultimately into the sea.
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SURFACE WATER
Surface water originates from rain water. It is main source of water supply in most
part of the world. Examples are river water, sea, lakes. Surface water is prone to
contamination from human and animal sources.
i. Rivers: River water furnishes a dependable supply of water. The chief
drawback is that it is always grossly polluted and quite unfit for drinking
without treatment. It is turbid especially in rainy season which is as a result
of impurities derived from surface washing, sewage, industrial and trade
washes, and drainage from agricultural areas.
ii. Sea-water: Though this source is plentiful, it has many limitations. It
contains 3.5% of salt in solution desalting and demineralization must occur
for it to be potable for drinking.
iii. Ground Water: Ground water is the cheapest and most practical means of
providing water to small communities. Ground water can be taken without
treatment because it is likely to be free from pathogenic agents, these usually
requires no purification, it is less subject to contamination although with
high mineral content like salts of calcium, magnesium which increases
hardness of water. Examples of ground water are springs and wells.
SPRING WATER:
Spring water is cleaner than any other source of water. It contains a considerable
amount of mineral salt but very little suspended impurities such as dust and
bacteria. It is fit for human consumption.
WELL WATER:
Well water contains clay and mineral salt. It is the major source of water in most
areas and communities. Well sunk for drinking purposes should be protected and
dug far away from underground pollution such as suck away. Water from deep
well tends to be less polluted than that of surface well.
1.12 USES OF WATER
Water as one of the basic need of life can be used for municipal and
industrial purposes such as:
 Water can be used to generate power.
 In transportation
 For industrial purposes.
 For fire extinction.
 For irrigation farming.
 As an essential nutrient for plant and animal.
 For manufacturing and production purposes.
 As a source of energy.
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 For laundry purposes.

 As a solvent for chemical reaction.
 For domestic purposes and so forth
1.13 HARDNESS OF WATER
Hard water is water that has high mineral content. Hard water is formed when water
percolates through deposits of calcium and magnesium containing minerals such as
limestone, chalk and dolomite. Hard drinking water is generally not harmful to one’s
health. But can pose serious problem in industrial setting. Where water hardness is
monitored is to avoid costly breakdowns in boilers, cooling towers and other
equipment that handles water. In domestic setting, hard water is often indicated by a
lack of suds formation when soap is agitated in water by the formation of lime scale
in kettles and water heaters.
TYPES OF HARDNESS OF WATER
There are mainly two types of hardness of water: temporary and permanent hardness
1. Temporary hard water: Temporary hardness is a type of water hardness caused by
dissolved bicarbonate mineral (calcium bicarbonate and magnesium bicarbonate).
When dissolved, these minerals yield calcium and magnesium cations (Ca 2+ and
Mg2+) and carbonate and bicarbonate anions. The presence of metal cation makes
the water hard. This temporary hardness can be removed either by boiling the
water or by addition of lime through the softening process of lime softening.
Boiling promotes the formation of carbonate from the bicarbonate and precipitates
calcium carbonate out solution, leaving water that is softer upon cooling.
2. Permanent Water Hardness: this is the type of hardness (mineral content) that
cannot be removed by boiling. When this is the case, it is usually caused by the
presence of calcium sulphate and magnesium sulphate in the water, which do not
precipitate out as the temperature increases. Ions causing permanent hardness can
be removed using a water softener or ion exchange column. Examples are addition
of washing soda, caustic soda.
a) Addition of washing soda: This removes the calcium ion and magnesium ion
from te water as insoluble calcium and magnesium trioxocarbonate (VI)
respectively.
Na2CO3 (aq) + CaSO4 (aq) CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4 (aq)
Insoluble
Na2CO3 (aq) + MgSO4 (aq) MgCO3 (s) + Na2SO4 (aq)
b) Addition of caustic soda: The caustic soda removes the calcium and
magnesium ions from the water as insoluble calcium and magnesium
hydroxides.
2NaOH (aq) + CaSO4 (aq) Ca(OH)2 (s) + Na2SO4 (aq)
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2NaOH (aq) + MgSO4 (aq) Mg(OH)2 (s) + Na2SO4 (aq)

Advantages of hard water
I. Hard water taste better than soft water
II. It help to build strong teeth and bones
Disadvantages of Hard Water
i) Hard water leads to scale formation on heaters and kettles
ii) Hard water form scum and when agitated with soap as a result of the calcium
and magnesium octadecanoate
iii) It causes dulling of white fires
iv) Is of economic disadvantage both domestically and industrially
1.14 WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (like lakes, rivers, oceans,
aquifers and ground water). This occurs when pollutant are directly or indirectly
discharge into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful
compound. Water pollution affect the entire biosphere plant and organism living
in these bodies of water in almost all cases the effect is damaging not onto to
individual species and population, but also to the natural biological communities.
SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
1. Industrial waste: Industries produce huge amount of waste which contain toxic
chemicals and pollutants which can cause air pollution and damage to us and
our environment. There certain pollutants are lead, mercury, sulphur, nitrate ad
many more harmful chemicals. Many industries not have proper waste
management system and drain the waste in the fresh water which goes into
rivers, canals and later into sea.
2. Sewage and waste water: The sewage and waste water that is produced by
each household is chemically treated and released into sea with fresh water.
The sewage water carries harmful bacteria and chemical that can cause
harmful problems.
3. Mining activities: Mining is the process of crushing the rock and extracting
coal and other minerals from underground. These elements when extracted in
raw form contain harmful chemicals and can increase the amount of toxic
elements when mixed up with water which may result in health problems.
4. Main dumping: The garbage produced by each household in the form of paper,
aluminium, rubber, glass, plastic, foods if collected are deposited into the sea.
The items take 2 weeks to 200 years to decompose. When such items enter the
sea, they do not only cause water pollution but also harm animals in the sea.
5. Chemical fertilizer and pesticides: Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used
by farmers to increase yield and to protect crops from insects and bacterial.
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They are harmful for the plant growth. However when these chemicals are
mixed up with water produce harm to plants and animals.
CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION

i) Refuge should be burnt in an incineration with a built device to prevent air
pollution.
ii) Chemical water should be converted into harmless biodegradable
substances before being expelled into water bodies
iii) Industrial waste should be recycled properly in order not to destroy aquatic
life when expelled into water bodies.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LABORATORY SAFETY RULE
Chemical reagent employed in the analysis are to be treated with utmost care and
suppliers warning sign like poison, danger, caution, flammable are needed in handling of
such chemicals. Laboratory test equipment should be operated and handled according to
the suppliers operating instructions.
In addition the following laboratory safety rules and regulations should be strictly
adhering to;
1. All laboratory staff should clean white laboratory coat
2. Follow the laboratory procedure exactly as in the manual.
3. Look carefully at the label of a bottle before using its content.
4. Never pipette dangerous chemicals with mouth. Safety pipetting should be used
whenever possible.
5. Replace the reagent bottles back to their correct positions as soon as you finish
using them.
6. Examine all glassware before use and report any breakage of defects.
7. Record your observation and reading accurately.
8. Keep work place tidy. All apparatus and equipment used should be thoroughly
cleaned immediately after use.
9. Any spillage should be clean.
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO WATER
Water is a universal solvent due to the presence of Hydrogen bonding and its polarity.
This is as a result of high electro negativity of the oxygen atom which pulls the shared
electron pair to it, thereby making the hydrogen atom partially positive and the oxygen
partially negative.
Water is a colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid at room temperature (potable water)
and is formed by the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen gases.
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
Water is also a chemical substance consisting of mainly hydrogen and oxygen with
molecular formula H2O and molar mass of 18g/mol.
Molar mass of H = 1 g/mol
Molar mass of O = 16 g/mol
Therefore, Molar mass of H2O is 2(1) + 16 = 18 g/mol
Water is angular or bent shape and not linear, this is because of the repulsion of lone
pairs of electrons on the Oxygen atom.
2.2 CHEMISTRY OF WATER
The polarity of water: Water has a simple molecular structure. It is composed of one
oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to the
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oxygen via a shared pair of electrons. Oxygen also has two unshared pair of electrons,
thus there are four pair of electrons surrounding the oxygen atom, two pair involved in
covalent bond with hydrogen and two unshared pairs on the opposite side of the oxygen
atom. Oxygen is an electronegative or electron loving atom compared to hydrogen.
Water is a polar molecule meaning there is an uneven distribution of electron density.
Water has a partial negative charge near the Oxygen atom due to unshared pair of
electrons and partial positive charge near the Hydrogen atom.
Oδ-
104.5o
Hδ+ Hδ+
POLARITY OF WATER
An electrostatic attraction between the partial positive charges near the hydrogen atoms
and the partial negative charge near the oxygen results in the formation of hydrogen
bond.
The ability of ions and other molecules to dissolve in water is due to polarity. Many other
unique properties of water are due to hydrogen bonds.
The boiling point of water (and other liquids) is dependent on the biometric pressure. At
sea level, water boils at 100oC (212oF). The density of liquid water is 1000 kg/m3. The
maximum density of water occurs at 3.98oC (39.16oF). Most known pure substance
become denser as they cool, however, water has anomalous property of becoming less
dense when it is cooled to its solid form (ice). During cooling, water becomes denser
until reaching 3.98oC.
2.4 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
2.4.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
 One molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to single
oxygen.
 Water is a tasteless, odorless and colourless transparent liquid at ambient
temperature and pressure.
 Liquid water has weak absorption bands at wavelengths of around 750nm
which causes it to appear to have blue colour.
 Water has a molar mass of 18.01528 g/mol.
 Water has a density of 1000kg/m3.
 Boiling point of 99.98◦C, melting point of 0◦C.
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 Acidity of 15.17pKa and basicity of 15.74pKb

 Refractive index of 1.3330nD and viscosity of 0.001 Pascal at 20◦C
2.4.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
 Water is a polar substance that at standard conditions slightly dissociates
disproportionately into hydronium ion and hydroxide ion.
2H2O H3O+ + OH-
 Water acts as an acid when it reacts with ammonia by donating a proton (H+)
H2O + NH3 NH4+ + OH-
 Water can act as Lewis acid or base, forming hydrogen bonds between the
electron pair donors and the hydrogen atoms of water.
i. Water molecule has the ability to bond with a proton making oxonium
ion.
H+ + H2O → H3O+
(Lewis acid) (Lewis base)
ii. Water molecule reacts with chlorine to produce equilibrium mixture

of hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid.
Cl2 + H2O → HCl + HOCl
(Lewis base) (Lewis acid)
 When salt of weak acid or weak base is dissolves in water, water can
partially hydrolyze the salt thereby producing the corresponding base or
acid, and this gives aqueous solutions of soap and baking soda their basic
pH.
Na2CO3 + H2O NaOH + NaHCO3
 Reaction with metals to give alkaline and liberate hydrogen gas
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2 (g)
Water is categorized into two. These include soft and hard water due to the
absence or presence of magnesium or calcium ions respectively.
THE NEED FOR WATER PURIFICATION
Generally, water is an essential constituent of plant and animal and has to be
treated for drinking and domestic purposes in order to meet the World Health
Organization (WHO) standard which is safety to health. The impure water or the
raw water contains some impurities or contaminants such as bacteria, odor, color,
etc. which needs to be purified.
Due to the presence of these contaminants, some of the reason why water is treated
are:
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 To remove pathogenic bacteria

 To make the water aesthetically safe for drinking.
 To remove color objectionable odor and taste
 To remove dissolve gases, suspended impurities and harmful mineral.
 To remove suspended as well as dissolve organic matter
Therefore, water is subjected to purification process because the water may contain
physical, chemical and biological impurities, the water may contain some metals
and dissolve gases which can cause corrosion of pipes and fittings
2.5 WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
The aim of water treatment are to remove unwanted constituents in the water and
make it safe, fit, and potable for drinking and other specific purposes in industrial
or medical applications
TREATMENT PLANT:
Treatment plant must produce water which is:
i) Safe
ii) Clear
iii) Colourless and odourless
iv) Reasonably soft
v) Non-corrosion
vi) Low organic contents
vii) Palatable
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES IN LAMINGA TREATMENT PLANT
1. Preliminary stage
2. Pre-treatment
a. Aeration
b. Pre-liming
c. Pre-chlorination
3. Coagulation
4. Flocculation
5. Sedimentation
6. Filtration
7. Disinfection
8. Post treatment
PRELIMINARY STAGE
This is the first stage of water treatment. It occurs at the dam, the source of raw water.
This is when the surveillance officer carries out surveillance to observe the various
activities going on around the dam.
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It also includes screening and removal of debris in-order to enhance efficient

transportation of the water through gigantic pipes to the treatment plant. Due to the high
altitude of the dam, the water is transported by gravity and it arrives the treatment plant at
the speed of 3600 m3 /hr and is delivered through an inlet pipe.
PRE-TREATMENT
After aeration process, the pre-treatment stage sets in. This is the initial addition of
chemicals to raw water before any treatment process (before the raw water gets into the
flocculation basin), these pre-treatment includes addition of alum, pre liming and pre
chlorination.
a. Aeration: This is the process in which water is exposed to air or oxygen to bring
about certain beneficial changes, undesirable gases such as CO2and H2S and metals
are expelled while oxygen from the atmosphere is being absorbed. This process is
made possible by water falling over cascades. Iron and manganese if present in the
raw water are oxidized and precipitated.
Aeration is a means of controlling taste, odour, colour and corrosion in the
treatment plant.
The equation for aeration is shown below:
2Fe (aq) + 3O2 (g) 2Fe2O3(S)
2Mn + O2 2MnO
b. Pre-liming: This is the addition of hydrated lime calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2 to

increase the alkalinity of the water and to also improve the pH
Ca (OH) 2 (aq) + H2O (l) CaO(s) + 2H2O (l)
c. Pre-chlorination: This is the addition of chlorine to water for disinfection to kill
micro-organism present in the water e.g. algae, bacteria and also for the oxidation
of heavy metals in the water which are responsible for colour, odour and taste.
Cl2 (g) + H2O (l) HCl (aq) + HOCl (aq)
Reaction of Chlorine with Water
The chemical action of chlorine is that it reacts with water to form hypochlorous
acid and nascent oxygen, both of which are powerful germicides
Cl2 + H2O HCl + HOCl (hypochlorous acid)
HOCl HCl + (O) (nascent oxygen)
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Aeration, Pre-chlorination and Pre-liming takes

place here
2.1.1 Coagulation
This is the addition of coagulant Alum (Al2(SO4)3) to react with the suspended and
disolved impurities in the water to form to form precipitate (ppt.) flocs alum.
Al2(SO4)3 do not react with water directly but only with the impurities. After
coagulation the water then enter the clarifier from the base of the clarifier and
comes up in the flocculation basin and sedimentation basin.
Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3Ca(OH)2 (s) 2Al(OH)3 (s) + CaSO4 (s)
Below is a picture of clarifier.
Clarifier
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2.1.2 Flocculation
Flocculation is the continues mixing (agitation) of the flocs or proper mixing by
the help of a coagulator machine (stirring device) for proper reaction to take place
and form larger flocs.
Flocculation is divided into two:
a. Fast flocculation: To ensure even (equal) distribution of the coagulant
b. Slow flocculation: This is to ensure larger or bigger floc formation.
Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3Ca(OH)2 (s) 2Al(OH)3 (s) + CaSO4 (s)
Alum Lime Flocs
2.1.3 Sedimentation
Sedimentation is the settlement of larger flocs as sludge; the settlement of the
flocs depend on the particle size, and shape of the particle the clearer water at the
upper part of the sedimentation basin is pass through water channels to the filter
beds.
2.1.4 Filtration
The lighter flocs which may not settle down in the sedimentation basin will be
trap by the filter bed. The beds are arrangement of gravels, medium sand, fine
sand and filter used is rapid sand gravity filters. There are two types of sand filters
which are rapid sand gravity filter and slow sand filter
Filtration bed
2.1.5 Disinfection
After filtration the water enters the balancing tank and the water is
disinfected in the balancing tank to kill the microorganism the disinfection is done
using chlorine as the disinfectant. The chemical action of chlorine is that it reacts
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with water to form hypochlorous acid and nascent oxygen, both of which are
powerful germicides.
Cl2 +H2O HCl + HOCl (hypochlorous acid)
HOCl HCl + (O) (nascent oxygen)
2.1.6 Balancing Tank

The water in the balancing tank or storage tank the sample is taken for daily
routine water analysis to ensure that the water is potable and save for
consumption. e.g. the W.H.O standard or the pH (6.5 – 8.5), residual chlorine (0.2
– 0.5 mg/L). After the analysis the water is pump to the reservoirs for distribution
to consumers.
2.1.7 POST-TREATMENT
This is the final process of water treatment, it is the application of chemicals after
all the purification treatment of water are completed, here water from filter beds
are pumped to the treated water (balancing) tank where post liming takes place to
adjust pH to a range between 6.5-8.5, post chlorination is also applied to disinfect
and also raise the amount of chlorine that has reduced during treatment which
aims to maintain the treated water with a residual chlorine ranging from 0.2-0.5
mg/L recommended by the world health organization WHO standard before its
goes into the reservoir in order to take care of the micro-organisms along the pipe
lines during distribution of the treated water.
i. pH Adjustment: The pH of the finished water may require adjusting so that
it neither to acidic, which may corrode metal distribution pipes and
household plumbing or too alkaline which will result in the deposition of
salts within the distribution system causing a reduction on flow. The pH
may be adjusted to a number of unit processes, such as coagulation, to
ensure maximum efficiency alkalis such as lime, sodium carbonate or
caustic soda are used to increase the pH, whereas acid are used to decrease
it.
ii. Residual Chlorine: The residual chlorine of finished water may also require
adjusting so that it is neither too low nor high in other to attained (WHO)
standard for residual chlorine (0.2 – 0.5 mg/L) whether to add more
chlorine or to stop the flow rate of chlorine.
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Post treatment chamber Structure standing on balancing tank

CHEMICALS USED FOR WATER TREATMENT
2.1.8 Alum (Al2(SO4)3)
Alum is a chemical that is used to aid sedimentation by coagulation. As a
coagulant, alum coagulant dust particles, biological organism, inanimate
organic and inorganic solid that remain suspended on water due to like charges.
Alum makes them clump together by charge neutralization giving them a
higher density than that of the water which now allows them to settle down.
Bags of Alum
2.1.9 Chlorine (Cl2)

Chlorine and its compound are readily available in gas (Cl2), liquid (NaOCl),
solid (Ca(OCl2) forms. It is easy to add water; it has a high solubility
(700mg/L) and is cheap. The residual it leaves in solution continue to destroy
pathogens after the water has left the treatment plant and as it travels through
the distribution system. Although it is toxic to microorganism, it is not
generally thought to be harmful to humans at the concentrations used.
Reaction with water
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Cl2 (g) + H2O (l) HCl (aq) + HOCl (aq)

Forms of Chlorine
i. Chlorine gas (Cl2)
ii. Liquid (NaOCl) Sodium Hypochlorite
iii. Solid (Ca(OCl2) Calcium Hypochlorite
Calcium Hypochlorite
2.1.10 Hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2)

Hydrated lime (Calcium Hydroxide) is important in water treatment because it
is generally used to maintain the pH of water for a good treatment process. For
alum to work effectively, a pH range of about 6.5 – 8.5 is needed. If the water
is highly acidic, lime is used to reduce the quality and if water is highly
alkaline, alum is used to reduce alkalinity so that alum works effectively. Lime
as an alkali is also used to raise the pH value of the treated water to reduce the
aggressiveness and corrosiveness of water. The reactions of lime are shown
below.
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 6H2O (l) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 + 7H2O (l)
Bags of Hydrated Lime
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2.1.11 Other types of disinfectants use in water treatment

i. Ozone (O3)
ii. Bromine (Br)
iii. Ultraviolet light
iv. Photo catalytic
HOW TO REMOVE TASTE AND ODOUR FROM WATER
There are different ways of removing taste and odour from water which include:
a) Oxidation: It is the best method for controlling taste and odour problems. Oxidants
such as chlorine are mostly used, others include potassium permanganate and
hydrogen peroxide can also be used.
b) Aeration: is a practical solution for taste and odour control when the problem is
caused by volatile compounds such as hydrogen sulphide. It is generally not the
best method for controlling taste and odour that are caused by algae.
c) Adsorption: is the addition of powdered activated carbon (PAC) to water. Using of
granular activated carbon (GAC) in the water filter can remove taste and odour.
2.6 MAINTENANCE
This is done to keep the filter bed good and functional shape.
2.6.1 Backwashing
This is the process of introducing air into the filter beds so as to open the
nozzles which are blocked by flocs leading to improper and wastage of the
treated water as the result of the blocked filter nozzles. Backwashing is done as
a form of prevention maintenance so that the filter media can once again be
reused. In water treatment plant, backwashing can be an automated process that
is run by local programmable logic controllers.
Procedure involved in the backwashing
1. The filter is taken off line and the water is drained to a level which is above
the surface of the filter beds
2. Compressed air is pushed up through the filter material causing the filter
beds to expand breaking up the compacted filter bed and forcing the
accumulated particles into suspension.
3. After the air scour circle. Clean backwash water is forced upwards through
the filter beds continuing the filter expansion and carrying the particles in
suspension into backwash through suspended above the filter surface.
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4. Backwashing continues for fix time or until the turbidity of the backwash
water is below an established value.
5. At the end of the backwash circle, the upward flow of water is terminated
and the filter bed settles by gravity into its initial configuration
6. Water to be filter is applied to the filter surface until the filter clogs and the
backwash circle needs to be repeated.
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CONVENTIONAL SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF LAMINGA WATER

PURIFICATION PROCESSES
Raw
water
Addition of Alum
Raw water
Chamber Pre-treatment (Pre-liming, Pre-
chlorination)
Sedimentation basin
Coagulation process (Clarifier)
Flocculation
(Alum + Lime)
Filtration process (Each

bed is made up of Fine
sand, medium sand and
coarse aggregates)
Balancing /Storage tank

(Post-treatment takes
place in this tank)
Distribution tank
(Reservoir)
Treated
water
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 PREPARATION OF REAGENTS FOR WATER ANALYSIS
Ammonia buffer: Add 67.5g of ammonium chloride to 570ml of ammonia solution,

dissolve 0.616g of magnesium sulphate in 50ml of distilled water, add 0.93g of
Ethylenediamminetetraacetic acid disodium salt (EDTA) and add to the
ammonia/ammonium chloride mixture and dilute it with distilled water to 1Liter.
Bromothymol blue: warm 0.1g of bromothymol blue with 1.6ml of sodium hydroxide
0.1N and 5ml of alcohol until dissolve and dilute to 250ml with 20% alcohol.
Silver Nitrate Solution: 0.1N, Dissolve 17g of silver nitrate with distilled water to make
exactly 1Litre
Potassium chromate indicator solution: Dissolve 50g of potassium chromate, K2CrO4
in 100ml of distilled water. Add standard silver nitrate solution until define red
precipitate is formed. Allow solution to stand for 12hrs filter and dilute the solution to
1000ml with distilled water.
Methyl Orange Indicator Solution: Dissolve 0.5g methyl orange powder in distilled
water and dilute to 1Litre.
Phenolphthalein indicator solution: dissolve 5g in 500ml ethyl alcohol and add 500ml
of distilled water.
Sulphuric acid solution: 0.1N, add 2.8ml of concentrated sulphuric acid and dilute with
distilled water by 1litre
Sulphuric acid solution: 0.01N, add 0.28ml of concentrated sulphuric acid and dilute
with distilled water by 1litre.
Ethylenediamminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) solution: 0.01N, Dissolve 3.723g of
EDTA in distilled water and dilute to 1000ml in a volumetric flask.
O-tolidine: Dissolve 1g of O-tolidine in 100ml of concentrated HCl and dilute with
distilled water to 1litre
Sodium Hydroxide solution 0.02N: Dissolve 4g NaOH in 1litre water. This gives 0.1N
NaOH solution. Take 2ml of this 0.1N solution make it up to 1Litre to obtain 0.02N
NaOH solution
Phenolphthalein Indicator: Dissolve 5g phenolphthalein disodium salt in distilled water
and dilute to 1litre
Sulphuric acid solution: 0.02N, add 0.56ml of the concentrated sulphuric acid and
dilute with distilled water to 1litre
3.1 WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

The essence of water analysis before distribution for municipal use is to
ascertain the purity of the water by analysing it’s chemically, physically and
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bacteriological analysis. It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the

requirements of one or more biotic species and to any human need or purpose. It is most
frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance can be
accessed. The most common standards used as a reference to good water quality relate to
health of ecosystems, safety of human contact and drinking, domestic use or industrial
purposes.
3.1.1 NEEDS FOR WATER EXAMINATION
Laboratory examination of water is under various reasons among which are:
1. It tell us the extent to which the water contains organic, inorganic or
bacteria pollutants knowing that this information tells us to which extent the
water needs to be treated.
2. Examination of water after every stage during water treatment process tells
us how effective each stage is; which could be used for formative
evaluation to each stage.
3. Analysis of the treated water gives is the assurance; the water has been
made safe for public consumption.
3.1.2 Sampling
Sampling is a statistic method of obtaining representative data or observation
from a group (lot, batch population or universe). Sample collected for
examination should be a true representation of the entire water body. Sample
should not be restricted to polluted or cleared part of the water. In collecting
water samples, care must be taken not to contaminate the water.
Sample bottles
3.1.2 FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING
The frequency of sampling is the number of times in which samples are
collected for daily routine water analysis. In Laminga treatment plant (main
laboratory), the frequency of sampling is two hourly, that is to say that samples are
collected every 2 hours.
3.2 TYPES OF ANALYSIS
There are various analysis performed to certify the purity of water which includes:
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1. Physical analysis
2. Chemical analysis
3. Bacteriological analysis
In Laminga treatment plant, main laboratory analysis carried-out includes physical,
chemical and bacteriological examinations.
3.2.1 PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
Physical examination of water is very key in water treatment because it guides us
on the quantity and qualities of chemicals to be added. Natural water contains
impurities where as pure distilled water has the principle composition of only
hydrogen and oxygen. The impurities found in natural water are suspended and
dissolved substance.
The physical characteristic of water is the parameters that can be determined by the
sense of touch, sight, smell and taste. This parameter includes turbidity, odour,
colour, taste and temperature.
3.2.1.1 COLOUR
The color of the water is commonly caused by the extraction of coloring
materials from the humus of forests or the deposit of vegetable matter in
swamps and low-lying areas.
But usually color results from certain types of dissolved and colloidal
organic matter, leached soil or decaying vegetation.
Experiment No: 1
Title: Test for colour in water
Aim: To determine the colour of the water sample
Apparatus: Nessleriser, Hazen colour disc, Comparative test-
tube
Analytical Method: Hazen disc method.
PROCEDURE:
i. Fill a clean nessleriser glass tube to the 50 ml with the sample
ii. Place it in the right hand compartment of the nessleriser. The left
hand side should contain a tube filled with distilled or deionized
water as the blank.
iii. Compare the colour of the sample with matched tube containing
distilled or deionized water using the Hazen colour disc.
iv. If turbidity is present report reading as apparent colour.
v. If colour exceeds the disc reading, dilute the sample with distilled
water in known proportions until the colour is within range of the
standards in the disc.
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vi. Measure the pH of the sample and record. Colour of the sample is
related to pH
Calculation:
If the sample has been diluted calculate the colour unit by forward
given below.
Colour Unit = A x
A = Estimated colour of the diluted sample
B = Volume in ml of sample taken from dilution
Conclusion: The true colour of a sample is the determined colour after
filtration and treatment while the colour before treatment which is
impacted by dirt or foreign substance is covered the apparent colour.
The values of 5unit is recommended by (WHO) as the standard colour.
3.2.1.2 TURBIDITY
Turbidity is an indication of the clarity of water and is defined as the optical
property that causes light to be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted
in straight line through a sample of water. Turbidity in water is caused by the
presence of suspended matter, such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and
inorganic matter, plankton and other microscopic organisms.
Experiment No: 2
Title: Test for turbidity of water
Aim: To determine the turbidity of water sample.
Analytical method: Nephelometric method
Apparatus: Turbidity, Sample cells
PROCEDURE:
i. Turn on instrument, check status of and allow 10 minutes for
stabilization.
ii. Pour about 25 ml of sample into sample cell
iii. Select 10 NTU standard from standards provided.
iv. Put standard into sample holder in the hole provided. Cover with
light shield and light is allowed to pass through it.
v. The reading was done from the display screen.
Interpretation of results
The World Health Organization (WHO) guideline for turbidity of
treated water is maximum of 5NTU. Therefore, turbidity greater
than 5 NTU is not acceptable. As a result more alum should be
added for effective coagulation and filtration to reduce turbidity to
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less than 1 unit and in well operated plant to less than 0.5unit.
Turbidimeter for measuring turbidity
Significance of the Analysis
Turbidity test is very important in monitoring the treatment works
carried out in the treatment plant such as coagulation,
sedimentation and filtration. Therefore measurement of turbidity is
important because it is one of the visual factors affecting
consumer’s acceptance of water. In order words, it gives a high
degree of clarity of the water
Result: Some of the results obtained are as follows:
Raw water (H2O) = 10.01 NTU, 8.15 NTU, 9.22NTU, 6.67 NTU, 5.98
NTU
Treated Water (H2O) = 3.87 NTU, 6.46 NTU, 5.03 NTU, 4.08 NTU,
4.14 NTU
Turbidimeter
Precaution:
1. I ensured the sample cell was properly cleaned with lint-free cotton so
as to avoid error in my reading.
3.2.2 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Chemical Analysis of Water Performed in Laminga Treatment Plant
The chemical characteristics of water are quantified in terms inorganic
constituents that may be present. The chemical characteristics are used to assess
the suitability of water for use as a public water supply. Run off cause’s erosion
and weathering of geological formation, rocks and soils the run off travels to the
surface water bodies. During this period of contact with rocks, and soil, the water
dissolves inorganic minerals, which enter the natural waters. Inorganic compounds
may dissociate to varying degrees, to cations and anions. These organic and
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inorganic mineral substances are determined using chemical test. Some of these
mineral element are determine by titrimetric method, and are known as macro
elements e.g. chloride, alkalinity, free carbon dioxide, calcium, magnesium etc.
while the mineral elements that cannot be determine by titrimetric method are
known as micro elements and are determine using highly sensitive equipment.
Examples of these elements are iron, lead, manganese, arsenic, chromium, nitrite,
nitrate, sulphate, sulphide, fluoride etc. Below are some the parameters that can be
determine in a water sample
Some of the chemical parameters that can be determined in water sample are; pH,
chlorine residual, total hardness, total alkalinity.
Chemical analysis undertaken to certify the purity of water includes: alkalinity,
total hardness, chloride test, and residual chlorine.
3.2.2.1 pH
pH is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration and it is
a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a water sample. It is of the most
important determinations in water chemistry since many of the process
involved in water treatment are pH dependant. Pure water is only slightly
ionized and contain equal amount of hydrogen and hydroxyl ion.
Experiment No: 3
Title: Test for pH of water sample
Aim: To determine the pH of the water sample
Analytical Method: The colorimetric technique for the determination
of pH employs special indicators which when
added to water reveal pH by colour development
Apparatus: Comparator, pH disc, test-tube
Reagent: Bromothymol blue indicator
PROCEDURE:
i. Fill both test-tube to the 10 ml mark with the water to be tested.
ii. Add to the right hand tube only, the appropriate quantity of
indicator with the pipette provided
iii. Carefully mix.
iv. Insert the appropriate disc in the recess on the lid of a Lovibond
comparator; revolve until the nearest colour match is obtained.
v. Read the value in the indicator recess at the bottom right hand
corner of the comparator.
vi. Steps on most of the disc are of 0.2 divisions and value can usually
be interpolated between these. The reason for using a blank in the
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left hand test-tube is to give compensation for any inherent colour

or turbidity in the sample under test.
Interpretation:
The World Health Organization (WHO) guideline for treated water
recommended a pH of 6.5-8.5. At Laminga treatment plant, the
pH of the treated water is between 6.0 -7.6.
Significance of analysis
The test for pH of water is very important such that it provide a
means for control of water softening, coagulation and chlorination
processes in water treatment. It also provides a means of
classifying and collating other characteristics or behavior such as
corrosive activity and also, most of the other parameters in water
analysis are pH dependent
Raw Water (H2O) = 6.0, 6.2, 6.4, 6.6
Treated Water (H2O) = 7.0, 7.2, 6.6, 6.8
Conclusion: for treated water going into distribution, the (WHO)
guideline recommends a pH of 6.5 to 8.5.
Comparator
3.2.2.2 TOTAL ALKALINITY

It is measure of the basic constituents of water. In natural water, it is usually
present as the carbonate and bicarbonate salt of calcium, magnesium, sodium
and potassium, analysis often quote alkalinity in terms of CaCO3 instead of
carbonate [CO32-] and bicarbonate [HCO3-] ions content. This is convenient for
of expression whereby the sum of the constituent salts is expressed in
equivalent terms of calcium carbonate. Generally, alkalinity has no sanitary
significance but it is important in connection with coagulation softening and
corrosion control. Bicarbonate ions are able to neutralize hydrogen [H+] or
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hydroxide ions while carbonate ion are able to react with water and neutralize
to hydrogen ion [H+]
CaCO3 (s) Ca2+ (aq) + CO32- (aq)
CO32- (aq) + H2O (l) HCO3- (aq) + OH- (aq)
[OH-] is a strong base, when the concentration of hydroxide ion [OH-] increase
it causes the pH of the water to increase.
Experiment No: 4
Title: Test for alkalinity of water.
Aim: To determine the alkalinity of water sample
Analytical Method: Titrimetric method employing sulphuric acid as titrant.
Apparatus: Conical flask, pipettes, Burette, funnel, buffer.
Reagent: 0.02N H2SO4 Methyl orange indication.
PROCEDURE:
i. Pipette 50 ml of water sample into 100 ml conical flask.
ii. Add 0.1 ml (2 drops) of methyl orange indicator to the sample.
iii. Titrate with 0.02 N H2SO4 solutions mixing gently until the sample
change to a pink colour as the end point.
iv. The volume of H2SO4 used was recorded.
Calculations:
( )
Total alkalinity [mg/L] =
Total alkalinity of raw water:
Volume of titrant is = 1.0 ml
Volume of sample = 50 ml.
( )
Total alkalinity =
Total alkalinity = = 20 mg/L
Total alkalinity for treated water
Volume of titrant = 0.5 ml
Volume of sample = 50 ml
Total alkalinity = = 10 mg/L
31 | P a g e
Initial Color (Orange) End Point (Yellow)
Result: Some of the results are as follows:

Raw water (H2O) = 22 mg/L, 24 mg/L, 28 mg/L
Treated Water (H2O) = 14 mg/L, 10 mg/L, 22 mg/L, 20 mg/L
Significance of Analysis
To determine the basic and acidic level of both treated warm water
Interpretation
The acceptable range is between 0 - 400 mg/l
Conclusion: The essence of total alkalinity is to determine the basic and acidic
level of both treated and raw water. The alkalinity of most natural water us in the
range of 100 – 200 mg/L, but few contain up to 400 mg/L. No harm comes from
the consumption of such water.
3.2.2.3 CHLORINE RESIDUAL
The chlorination of water supplies accomplishes number of treatment
objectives, the destruction of microorganisms being the primary function.
Excess chlorine in water result to undesirable effects like taste and
odours which then react with certain organic substances, particularly
phenol residual chlorine in water after treatment is necessary for the
following reasons.
i. To ensure that enough chlorine remain after disinfection is
completed.
ii. To help in protecting the distribution system in pipeline from
re-infection.
Experiment: 5
Title: Test for residual chlorine in water
Aim: To determine the amount of residual chlorine in water after
treatment.
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Analytical method:Colorimetric method

Apparatus: Comparator, residual chlorine disc, test-tube
Reagent: O-tolidine reagent
PROCEDURE:
i. Fill 1 test-tube with 10 ml sample and 1 with 10 ml distilled water (blank)
ii. Place on test-tube (the blank) into the left hand compartment of the comparator. It
will act as compensation for any inherent colour.
iii. To the other add 0.1 ml (2 drops) of O-tolidine reagent to the test-tube containing
sample.
iv. Mix the solution with a glass rod and put in the right hand compartment of the
comparator.
v. Match immediately. The result is free radical chlorine in mg/L
vi. If the colour continues to develop, this indicates the presence of chloramines.
vii. Leave the solution for 15 – 20 minutes and match. The reading gives total residual
chlorine in mg/L.
Interpretation
The acceptable range between 0.2 -0.5 mg/l
Significance of Analysis
It is desirable to maintain a free chlorine level of 0.2-0.5 mg/l in the distribution
system to reduce the risk of microbial regrowth.
Treated Water (H2O) = 0.1 mg/L, 0.3 mg/L, 0.2 mg/L.
A chlorine residual of 0.2 mg/L is normally recommended for treated water going into
distribution system.
Conclusion: The disinfection power of chlorine depends on the form of chlorine present,
the contact time, temperature and pH value of the water. For a pH value less than 8, 0.2
mg/L of free residual chlorine will destroy bacteria in 10 minutes contact time all
temperatures. In general, it is desirable to maintain a free chlorine level of 0.2 – 0.5 mg/L
in the distribution system to reduce the risk of microbial re-growth.
3.2.2.4 TOTAL HARDNESS
Total hardness of water is caused principally by the presence of calcium,
magnesium cations, other contributing cations include; iron, manganese, and
aluminium. The associated anions are usually sulphate, chlorides, nitrates and
bicarbonates.
The presence of the above compounds in water normally causes it to react with
soap to produce precipitate that appears as scum or curd on the water surface.
Until enough soap has been dissolved to react with these compounds no lather is
33 | P a g e
formed. Water which behaves like this is said to be HARD. There are two forms
of hardness.
i. Carbonate or temporary hardness which is caused by the bicarbonate of
calcium and magnesium. This type of hardness always causes scale to form
on boilers, heaters and kettles. Temporary hardness can also be removed by
addition of slake lime.
 Addition of heat which decomposes the [Ca/Mg(HCO3)2].
Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) + Heat → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
 Addition of slaked lime {Ca(OH)2}
Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O(l)
ii. Non carbonate or permanent hardness is caused by the presence of

sulphate, chlorides, and nitrate of calcium and magnesium. These types of
hard water do not precipitate out as the temperature increases.
 Addition of washing soda (Na2CO3): this removes the calcium and
magnesium sulphate (CaSO4 and MgSO4) respectively
Na2CO3 (aq)+ CaSO4(aq)→ CaCO3(s)+ Na2SO4(aq)
Na2CO3 (aq)+ MgSO4(aq)→ MgCO3(s)+ Na2SO4(aq)
 Addition of Caustic soda (NaOH): NaOH removes the Ca and Mg
present in the water as insoluble calcium and magnesium hydroxide
2NaOH (aq) + CaSO4 (aq) → Ca(OH)2(s)+ Na2SO4(aq)
2NaOH (aq) + MgSO4 (aq) → Mg(OH)2(s)+ Na2SO4(aq)
Permanent hardness can be removed by addition of chemicals such as washing

soda (Na2CO3), caustic soda or caustic alkaline (NaOH) and it is as shown by the
following equation.
Na2CO3 (aq) + CaSO4 (aq) CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4 (aq)
Na2CO3 (aq) + MgSO4 (aq) MgCO3 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq)
2NaOH (aq) + CaSO4 (aq) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq)
Experiment No: 6
Title: Test for total hardness in water sample
Analytical method: Titrimetric method employing EDTA
(Ethylenediamminetetraacetic acid) as titrant
Apparatus: Burettes, pipettes, conical flasks, measuring flasks,
measuring cylinder.
Reagent: 0.02N EDTA solution, ammonia buffer, Erichrome black
T/NaCl indicator
34 | P a g e
PROCEDURE:
i. Pipette 50 ml of sample into a 100 ml conical flask.
ii. Add 2 ml of ammonia/ammonium chloride buffer.
iii. Add 1 total hardness indictor tablet or 0.1 – 0.2 g of Erichrome black
T/NaCl indicator.
iv. Titrate immediately with 0.02 N EDTA switching continuously until the
reddish colour disappears.
v. The end point is clear blue colour through with water might be neutral
grey.
vi. Note the volume V2 of EDTA used.
Calculations:
( )
Total hardness as mg/L CaCO3 =
Total hardness for raw water:
Volume of titrant EDTA = 0.6 ml
( )
Total hardness =
( )
Total hardness = mg/L of CaCO3 = 12mg/L CaCO3
Result: Some of the results are as follows
Raw water (H2O) = 20 mg/L, 30 mg/L, 18 mg/L, 32 mg/L
Treated water (H2O) = 14 mg/L, 12 mg/L, 16 mg/L, 18 mg/L, 10 mg/L
Non-carbonate hardness = 60 – 50 mg/L = 10 mg/L as CaCO3
When total hardness is numerically equal to or less than the sum of the carbonate
and non-carbonate alkalinity, then all of the hardness is carbonate and non-
carbonate. This is
i. Total hardness = 30 mg/L as CaCO3
ii. Total alkalinity =50 mg/L as CaCO3
Then, carbonate hardness = 30 mg/L as CaCO3
Non-carbonate hardness = 0 mg/L
iii. Total hardness = 30 mg/L as CaCO3
iv. Total alkalinity =50 mg/L as CaCO3
Non-carbonate hardness = 0 mg/L
v. Total hardness = 30 mg/L as CaCO3
vi. Total alkalinity = 30 mg/L as CaCO3
Non-carbonate hardness = 30 mg/L as CaCO3/MgCO3
35 | P a g e
Conclusion: Total permanent hardness = calcium hardness + magnesium hardness. The

calcium and magnesium hardness is the concentration of calcium and magnesium ions
expressed as equipment of calcium carbonate total hardness measured in mg/L as CaCO 3
may be described as follows:
0 – 50 mg/L soft
50 – 100 mg/L Moderately soft
100 – 150 mg/L Slightly hard
150 – 200 mg/L Moderately hard
Over 200 mg/L Hard
Over 300 mg/L Very hard
3.2.2.5 CHLORIDE TEST

Chlorides which are compounds of chlorine with another element or radical are
found in nearly all waters and the range of concentrations could be very wide.
They are derived from sources such as mineral deposits, sea water, agricultural
or irrigation discharges or from sewage and industrial effluents. Chlorides are
the most stable components in water with concentration being unaffected by
most natural physiochemical or biological processes.
Experiment No: 7
Title: Test for chloride in water.
Aim: To determine the chloride level in water sample
Analytical method: Titrimetric method employed silver nitrate as titrant and
potassium dichromate as indicator.
Apparatus: Burette, pipette, conical flasks.
Reagents: Potassium dichromate as indicator solution, standard
silver nitrate solution.
PROCEDURE:
i. Using the sample from alkalinity determination add 1ml potassium
dichromate indicator
ii. Titrate swirling the flask continuously, with silver nitrate solution
until a brick red end point
iii. Note the burette reading. It may be easier to do several rough
titrations to get used to the end point
iv. Occasionally, it is necessary to determine an indicator blank by
adding 1ml potassium dichromate to 100ml deionised water and
titrating drop wise until the end point.
36 | P a g e
Initial Color (Orange) Alkalinity (Yellow) End Point (Reddish-Brown Tinge)
1ml of K2CrO4 added
v. A blank correction of between 0.1 – 0.3 ml is usual for this method

and should be deducted from all chloride titration values.
Calculation:
( )
Chloride mg/L Cl- =
Where:
A = Titre value in ml for sample 0.6 ml
B = Titre value in ml for blank (0.3)
N = Normality of silver nitrate (0.1)
( )
Chloride mg/L Cl- = = 21.27 mg/L
Interpretation
According to World Health Organization (WHO) the acceptable range for chloride
in water is between 0- 250 mg/l.
Conclusion: Based on taste consideration a guideline value of 250 mg/L chloride in
drinking water is recommended.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDNESS AND ALKALINITY
When the total hardness is numerically greater than the sum of the carbonate and the
bicarbonate alkalinity, the amount of hardness which is equivalent to the total alkalinity
is called carbonate hardness.
The amount in excess is called non-carbonate hardness.
Total hardness = 60 mg/L as CaCO3
Total alkalinity = 50 mg/L as CaCO3
37 | P a g e
3.2.2.6 JAR TEST

This test is conducted to know the quantity and chemical which is suitable for
water treatment. Jar test aimed of achieving the actual quality of coagulant to be
used in the coagulation/flocculation processes.
Experiment No: 8
Title: Jar Test
Aim: To determine the suitable amount of coagulant.
Analytical method: Jar test method.
Apparatus: Laboratory stirring device (flocculator), glass
beakers
Reagent: Aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3, water sample.
PROCEDURE:
i. A weighing balance was used to weigh the different quantity of the
chemical to be used.
ii. Six (6) beakers were used to put the different quantity of the
chemical
iii. Equal volume of the water sample was added to the beakers.
iv. The content in the beakers are placed on the flocculator.
v. The flocculator is switched on to allow stirring the content and
allowed to settle
Table of result;
SAMPLE/CONCENTRATION A B C D
0.8 ml 1.0 ml 1.2ml 1.4 ml
Size of flocs 4 3 1 2
Settlement of the flocs 4 3 2 1
Clarity 4 3 1 2
Turbidity (NTU) 6.93 6.11 6.28 5.39
pH 6.2 6.4 6.2 6.2
Calculation:
Q = Plant flow rate
V = Volume of the tank
e = Pump dosing capacity
J = Jar test
Weight of chemical =
38 | P a g e
Solution strength =
Dosing rate =
Stroke setting =
Conclusion: Any of the contents that form flocs faster and better, that quantity
of the chemical is ideal and suitable for coagulation and the treatment process.
Laboratory flocculator Jar Test
3.2.2.7 CHLORINE DEMAND

This test is conducted to know the quantity chlorine which is suitable for water
treatment. Chlorine demand test is aimed at achieving the actual quantity of
chlorine to be used in the disinfection processes.
Experiment: 9
Analytical method- comparative (colourimetric) technique
Aim – To determine the amount of chlorine needed in the treatment plant.
Apparatus- Beakers, conical flask, comparator, measuring cylinder.
Procedure;
a. Dissolve 0.1 g of chlorine in 1litre of distilled water.
b. Measure 100 ml of raw water each into nine (9) separate conical flasks.
c. The concentration of the stock solution was varied in each of the conical flask
containing raw water starting with 0.5 ml, 1 ml, 1.5 ml, 2 ml, 3 ml, 4 ml, 5 ml,
6 ml, 10 ml respectively
d. Allow each conical flask upon the addition of the stock solution to stand for
10minutes, to allow for proper contact before analyzing for chlorine residual.
39 | P a g e
Comparator
e. Tabulate result.
f. plot a chlorine demand curve .
g. The break point of the chlorine demand curve is used to apply to the
following calculations.
TABULATED RESULT
S/N CHLORINE DOSAGE(mL) CHLORINE RESIDUAL
1 0.5 0.3
2 1 0.6
3 2 0.8
4 3 0.6
5 4 0.7
6 5 0.8
7 6 0.9
8 10 1.0
Interpretation
A chlorine residual of 0.2 mg/l is normally recommended for treated water going into the
distribution system.
3.2.3 BACTERIOLICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER

Natural and treated water vary in microbiological quantity. Ideally, drinking
water should not contain any microorganisms know to be pathogenic (causing
disease). It should also be free from bacteria indicative of pollution with
excreta.
Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique: in this method different amounts of
water are added to the tubes containing a suitable culture medium. The bacteria
present in the water reproduces and from the number of tubes inoculated and
40 | P a g e
the number with a positive reaction, the Most Probable Number (MPN) of
bacteria present in the original water sample can be determined statistically.
These are some of the method involve in the examination of microorganism
which are; pour plate method, filter membrane, standard plate count method,
ATP testing, and multiple tube technique method. The multiple tube technique
method is applicable to all kinds of water sample.
Experiment No: 10
Title: Bacteriological examination of water sample
Aim: To determine the microbial free quantity of water
sample
Analytical method: Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique
Medium: Mac Conkey broth
Apparatus: Conical flask, Durham tube, incubator, sterilizer,
sterile
Pipette
Media preparation
1. Double Strength (D/S)
a. Dissolve 80 g in 1 litre of distilled water or deionised water as per
manufacturer’s instructions.
b. Distribute in 50 ml and 10 ml quantities into tube containing
Durham tubes
2. Single Strength (S/S)
a. Dissolve 40 g in 1 litre of distilled or deionised water as per
manufacturer’s instructions.
b. Distribute in 5 ml quantities into bottles containing Durham tubes.
PROCEDURE:
1. Sterilization:
a. All bottles both (D/S) and (S/S) are sterilize by autoclaving at 121oC
(15psi) for 15minutes.
2. Inoculation:
b. Add 50 ml quantity of water to 50 ml D/S medium
c. Add 10 ml quantities of water each to five of the 10 ml D/S medium
d. Add 1ml quantities of water each to five of the 5 ml S/S medium
3. Incubation:
e. Incubate all bottles at 37oC ± 0.5 and examine first after 24 hrs.
f. All tubes showing acid production (change in colour) and gas (as included
in Durham tubes) are considered as ‘’presumptive positive’’.
41 | P a g e
g. Bottles found to be negative are re-incubated for another 24 hrs. Any

bottles showing positive result at the end of this 24hrs is discarded. The
most probable number (MPN) of presumptive coliform present in 100 ml
of original sample is read off from the probability table at the end of
48hrs.
h. The presumptive positives are confirmed by sub-culturing into another
medium Brilliant Green 2% Bile Broth at the end of 24 hrs and again at
the end of 48 hrs.
i. Reading of result
Some of the results are as follows.
Raw water (H2O) = 1 of 50ml (D/S media) +ve, each five of 10ml
(D/S media) +ve, each five of 1ml (S/S media) +ve.
Treated water (H2O) = 1 of 50ml (D/S media) –ve, each five of 10ml
(D/S media) –ve, each 1ml (S/S media) –ve.
Bacteriological Test Incubator
42 | P a g e
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 DISCUSSION
The main aim and objective of the water board is to treat water and produce potable
quality water for both domestic and industrial uses. The treatment is done by the use
of chemicals and disinfectants such as alum (Al(SO4)3, lime (Ca(OH)2, and chlorine
(HOCl or Cl2). The right proportion of these chemicals and disinfectants produce
potable water. In other to know the portability of the water, it is always necessary to
analyse the water before and after the treatment. These type of analysis are physical,
chemical and bacteriological examinations the physical analysis includes pH test,
and turbidity of water. The chemical analysis includes: total hardness, total
alkalinity, residual chlorine and chloride test. The bacteriological examination of
water which is done weekly to determine the microbial free quality of water sample;
the daily analysis of water includes pH test, residual chlorine, total hardness,
alkalinity, turbidity etc.
These analyses were carried out for (raw water) and (treated water) the treatment of
water to ensure that the water distributed to the consumer is potable and acceptable:
To also ensure that all the results of the analysis fall within the acceptable range by
World Health Organization (WHO).
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO) STANDARDS FOR WATER
LABORATORY ANALYSIS W.H.O STANDARD
1. 6.5 to 8.5
pH Test
2. Residual Chlorine 0.2 to 0.5 mg/L
3. Alkalinity Test 0 to 300 mg/L
4. Total Hardness Test 0 to 500 mg/L
5. Turbidity Test 0 to 5 NTU
6. Microbial Analysis 0 Colony Forming Unit (CFU}
43 | P a g e
4.1 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED

The following problems where encountered students on attachment at Laminga
Treatment Plant Main Laboratory:
1. Power is not in constant supply
2. No enough materials for further research
3. Some of the instrument used were obsolete and worn out, and need to be
replaced.
4. Security challenge (insecurity).
5. Strike action embarked upon by staff of plateau state water board.
4.2 RECOMMENDATION
Based on my experience during Industrial Training, I have the following
recommendations to make:
 Industrial training fund should carry-out constant monitoring and evaluation
of industries and industrial practices to ensure that obsolete equipment and
techniques are phased-out to give way to modern equipment and techniques so
that graduates from Nigerian universities and other institution of higher
learning can be at par with their counterparts from any part of the world.
 Create competition among industries and also among IT students for the
purpose of stimulating critical thinking on ways to improve the current
practice as a way of inducing national development.
 Funding of research for the purpose of national development.
4.3 CONCLUSION
The scheme has helped a lot by bridging the gap between theory practices. As a result of
this scheme I have been acquainted with the use of certain machines and equipment on
their operation, how they are handled and maintained.
The scheme has broadened my horizon on the need for water treatment for domestic and
industrial purposes. The Processes involved, the chemicals used and how they are applied
are silent knowledge gained as these will go a long way in determining how pure the
water is before being certified fit, potable for drinking
44 | P a g e
4.4 REFERENCES
Crittenden, John C, et al, Eds (2005) Water Treatment: Principles and Design. 2nd
Edition. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-11018-3
Edzwald, James K., Ed. (2011) Water Quality and Treatment 6th edition. New York:
McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07163011-5
Filter Backwash Recycling Rule Accessed 2021-10-20
Hering J. G. and Elimelech M., Arsenic Removal by Enhanced Coagulation and
Membrane Process. AWWA, Denver, 1996.
Kawamura, Susumu (2000), Integrated Design and Operation of Water Treatment
Facilities 2nd edition. New York: Wiley. Pp74-75, 104. ISBN 0-471-35093-1
Manahan, S. E.(2010) Environmental Chemistry,9th edition, CRC press, National Primary
Drinking Water Regulations: Filter Backwash Recycling Rule Federal Register.
Pp. 66,111
Dahling, D., P.V Scarpino, M. Lucas, G. Berg and S.L. Chang (1972): Destruction of
Viruses and Bacteria in Water by Chlorine. Washington, D.C pp 26
Ashbolt N.J, Grabow WO, Snozzi M. Chapter 13, Indicators of Microbial Water Quality.
Assessing Microbial Safety of Drinking Water. Pp. 290-315
WHO (2003) Iron in Drinking Water. Background document for preparation of WHO
Guidelines for Drinking Water; Geneva, World Health Organization.
(WHO/SDE?WSH/03.04/8)
IPCS (2003). Elemental Mercury and Inorganic Mercury Compounds Human Health
Aspect Geneva, World Health Organization. International Programme on
Chemical Safety (50)
Rusin P.A et al. (1997): Risk Assessment of Opportunistic Bacterial Pathogens in
Drinking Water. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
152:57-83
Grabow WOK (2001): Bacteriophages: updates on application as models of viruses in
water. 27:251-268
45 | P a g e
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TECHNICAL REPORT ON WATER TREATMENT. UNIVERSITY OF JOS, NIGERIA

Technical Report · March 2023

Barnabas Ifitumi Samuel

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

CHM 380: STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

SAMUEL BARNABAS IFITUMI

MAIN LABORATORY, LAMINGA TREATMENT PLANT, PLATEAU STATE WATER

FROM 3TH MAY – 29TH OCTOBER, 2021

BEING A TECHNICAL REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY,

Samuel Barnabas Ifitumi Date

Mr. Amos Monday Katmena Date

Mr. L.E. Gambo Date

Mr. B.S. Enoh Date

Dr. Anthonia E. Eseyin Date

Prof. Nestor M.D Chagok Date

Prof. Georgina Mwansat Date

Samuel Barnabas Ifitumi Date

Mr. Amos Monday Katmena Date

Mr. L.E. Gambo Date

Mr. B.S. Enoh Date

Dr. Anthonia E. Eseyin Date

Prof. Nestor M.D Chagok Date

Prof. Georgina Mwansat Date

CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................................... 11

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO WATER............................................................................................................ 11

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................................... 24

CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................................... 43

1.5 VISION OF PLATEAU STATE WATER BOARD

1.8 PLATEAU STATE WATER BOARD ORGANIZATION CHART

Public Relation Unit

AGM Quality AGM- AGM- AGM- AGM- Board

Lab Service Quality Civil and Water Marketing Billing Mgt.

Supplier tanker Treated Water outlet for Tankers

Pump for treated water

 For laundry purposes.

2NaOH (aq) + MgSO4 (aq) Mg(OH)2 (s) + Na2SO4 (aq)

CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION

 Acidity of 15.17pKa and basicity of 15.74pKb

ii. Water molecule reacts with chlorine to produce equilibrium mixture

 To remove pathogenic bacteria

It also includes screening and removal of debris in-order to enhance efficient

b. Pre-liming: This is the addition of hydrated lime calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2 to

Aeration, Pre-chlorination and Pre-liming takes

2.1.6 Balancing Tank

Post treatment chamber Structure standing on balancing tank

2.1.9 Chlorine (Cl2)

Reaction with water

Cl2 (g) + H2O (l) HCl (aq) + HOCl (aq)

2.1.10 Hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2)

Bags of Hydrated Lime

2.1.11 Other types of disinfectants use in water treatment

CONVENTIONAL SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF LAMINGA WATER

Filtration process (Each

Balancing /Storage tank

Ammonia buffer: Add 67.5g of ammonium chloride to 570ml of ammonia solution,

3.1 WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

bacteriological analysis. It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the

left hand test-tube is to give compensation for any inherent colour

3.2.2.2 TOTAL ALKALINITY

Initial Color (Orange) End Point (Yellow)

Result: Some of the results are as follows:

Analytical method:Colorimetric method