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Thermo-physiological Comfort Characteristics of Fine-denier Polypropylene

Fabrics

Article in Research Journal of Textile and Apparel · February 2013

DOI: 10.1108/RJTA-17-01-2013-B014

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RJTA Vol. 17 No. 1 2013

Thermo-physiological Comfort Characteristics of

Fine-denier Polypropylene Fabrics
B. R. Das1*, D. Bhattacharjee2, K. Kumar1 and A. Srivastava1
1
Defence Materials & Stores Research & Development Establishment (DMSRDE), G. T. Road,
Kanpur-208013, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory, Sector–30, Chandigarh, India

ABSTRACT

Three types of polypropylene knitted fabrics in terry pile (uncut) structures with a similar knit
design are developed by using fine denier filaments to make the inner layer for extreme cold
weather clothing. The denier per filament is varied to assess its influence on
thermo-physiological comfort properties, viz. thermal conductivity, thermal resistance and
absorptivity, air permeability, water vapour permeability and wicking. The thermal properties
are measured with an Alambeta instrument, and in-plane liquid flow through the fabrics is
measured by using a gravimetric in-plane wicking tester. A statistical analysis is carried out at
the 95% significance level for different experiments to establish the specific trend exhibited by
the fabrics. It is observed that the water uptake increases, but water vapour permeability
decreases with a decrease in filament denier. The thermal properties and air permeability values
do not show any specific trends with filament denier. The porosity value is observed to be
similar for all three developed fabrics.

Keywords: Air Permeability, Extreme Cold Weather Clothing, Fine-Denier Filament,

Thermal Absoptivity, Thermal Resistance, Water Vapour Permeability, Wicking

1. Introduction the next layers of clothing. The middle layer(s) are

Comfort is one of the important aspects of
clothing and defined as ‘the absence of
unpleasantness or discomfort’ or ‘a neutral state
compared to the more active state of pleasure’
(Slater, 1977). The literature generally classifies
clothing comfort into three broad categories: (a)
thermal comfort, (b) tactile comfort, and (c)
aesthetic or psychological comfort (Pontrelle,
1989). Of these, thermal comfort is primarily
related to the efficiency of heat dissipation from a
clothed human body. The rule of thumb for living
in a cold environment is to create insulation
between the human body and environment. An
ideal clothing system should have several layers
which can be removed/added to adjust thermal
insulation levels. Several thinner garments will
serve this purpose better than one bulky overcoat.
The inner layer should be highly permeable to
water vapour, so that moisture is transferred or
‘wicked’ away from the skin through the fabric to
* Corresponding author. Tel: +91-0512-2451759-78, Fax: +91-0512-2450404
E-mail address: biswaranjandasdmsrde@gmail.com (B.R.Das)
133
mainly for insulation, whereas the main function
of the outer layer is to provide wind and moisture
protection depending on the prevailing conditions
(Giesbrecht, 2003). Human comfort from using
cold weather clothing is basically dependent on
the skin-clothing interaction; hence the design of
the inner layer and management of moisture and
heat transport across the structure are the main
deciding factors. Selection of material for the
inner layer is done with particular focus on
minimizing heat loss from the body to the
environment, so that the metabolic heat generated
from the body is not lost to the environment.
Simultaneously, the material should allow
evaporation of sweat from the body. If sweat gets
accumulated on the skin, it freezes and can cause
frostbite. Thus, two properties viz. minimum heat
loss and sweat evaporation are very important for
the inner layer of extreme cold weather (ECW)
clothing (Kasturiya et al., 1999). Polypropylene is
oleophilic (oil absorbing); hence, it has a greater
tendency to attract and hold oily body odours.
Polypropylene is claimed to be a proven performer
RJTA Vol. 17 No. 1 2013

in moisture management due to its hydrophobic Table 1. Denier, diameter and tensile properties of
nature and it has very good thermal characteristics, single filaments
keeping the wearer warm in cold weather and cool Denier Diameter Tenacity Elongation Modulus
in warm weather. (µm) (g/d) (%) (g/d)
5.56 37.2 4.3 35.1% 28.5
Fabrics made from fine denier filaments provide 2.85 26.8 2.6 48.1% 19.6
more air pockets necessary for thermal insulation. 2.28 20.9 3.3 39.2% 25.1
Yet, the spaces between yarns are porous enough
to breath and wick out body moisture away from Table 2. Denier and tensile properties of filament
the skin. When comparing two similar fabrics, one yarns
made from conventional filament and one from a
Yarn Denier Tenacity Elongation Bending
fine-denier filament, generally, the latter fabric
Code (g/d) at break (%) rigidity
will be more breathable and comfortable to wear.
(g. mm4 /d)
Y0 133.4 3.9 35.0 6.4×10-5
2. Materials and Methods
Y1 188.1 2.5 45.0 3.4×10-5
Y2 164.2 3.3 35.0 1.7×10-5
2.1 Measurement of Filament Parameters

Three varieties of filament yarns (Y0, Y1 and Y2)
were produced with dope dyed fibre grade
continuous polypropylene circular cross-sectional
single filaments that carried a different number of
filaments and denier per filament. The Y0, Y1
and Y2 filament yarns comprise 24, 66 and 72
filaments with 5.56, 2.85 and 2.28 denier per
filament, respectively. The linear density of the
multi-filament yarns and single filaments were
determined according to the ASTM D1059
standard by using an electronic weighing balance.
The diameter of the three varieties of single
filaments was measured by a projection
microscope at a magnification level of 40. The
single filament tensile properties were evaluated
with a FAVIMAT fibre tester at a standard gauge
length of 20 mm and straining rate of 20 mm/min.
The denier, filament diameter and tensile
properties of all three types of single filaments are
reported in Table 1. The yarn denier and tensile
properties of all three types of multi filament yarns
are reported in Table 2. The yarn tensile properties
were measured by an INSTRON 4301 tensile
tester according to the ASTM D 2256-02 standard,
after requisite sample conditioning. The bending
rigidity values of the filament yarns are calculated
by using the following equation (Kothari, 2000):
G y = (nEΠ r 4 ) / 4 (1)
Where Gy is the yarn bending rigidity; n is the
number of single filaments; E is the initial tensile
modulus of filament; and r is the filament radius.
2.2 Measurement of Fabric Constructional
Parameters
Three types of polypropylene knitted fabrics in
terry pile (uncut) structures (F0, F1 and F2) were
manufactured on a circular knitting fine gauge
machine by using Y0, Y1 and Y2 filament yarns,
respectively. The fabrics were cleaned and heat set
at 900C for better dimensional stability. The
constructional parameters of F0, F1 and F2 were
measured by using Indian standards (IS) and the
values are reported in Table 3. Fabric thickness
values were also measured at 2 g/cm2 without any
pressure, along with a standard thickness
measurement at 7 g/cm2 of pressure. The
percentage change in thickness with increase in
the applied pressure indicates the looseness/
compactness of the knitted structures. The
porosity values of the knitted fabrics were
evaluated according to the following formula
(Schmidt et al., 2005):
( ρ0 − ρ )
Porosity (ε ) = × 100 (2)
ρ0
where ρ 0 is the membrane polymer density
(g/cm3), and ρ is the apparent membrane
density (g/cm3) calculated from the surface weight
and thickness. In this present context, membrane
polymer and apparent membrane densities are
replaced with polypropylene fibre and knitted
fabric densities, respectively. The polypropylene
fibre density used for the calculation is 0.91
(g/cm3). The density values of F0, F1 and F2 were
calculated to be 0.0133 g/cm3, 0.0115 g/cm3 and

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RJTA Vol. 17 No. 1 2013

0.0125 g/cm3, respectively. 2.3.2 Air Permeability

Table 3. Constructional parameters of knitted Air permeability of fabric is defined as the volume
fabrics flow rate per unit area when there is a specified
Fabrics Test pressure differential across the two faces of the
Parameter fabric (Li, 1997).The air permeability of all three
F0 F1 F2 methods
Wales /dm 88 88 88 IS: A-4 of types of knitted fabrics was tested on a TEXTEST
Courses /dm 176 124 132 5524 FX 3300 air permeability tester in accordance with
Thickness ASTM D737 standard. The measurement details
“mm” are: units of measure = cm3/cm2/s, accuracy =
(7.0 g/cm2) 2.1 2.5 2.0 IS: 7702 better than ± 3% of displayed value, test pressure
(2.0 g/cm )2
2.2 2.6 2.1 = 98 Pa, and test area = 5.07 cm2
(0.0 g/cm2) 2.7 3.1 2.5
Mass per 273.2 284.6 253.7 IS: 1964 2.3.3 Water Vapour Permeability
unit area “g”
Porosity (%) 98.5 98.7 98.6 Theoretical The water vapour permeability of the samples was
measured by using standard laboratory equipment
2.3 Measurement of Fabric Thermo- according to the BS: 7209 (1990) standard. The
physiological Comfort Properties average value of the moisture vapour transmission
rate (MVTR) for three continuous days was
2.3.1 Thermal Properties calculated. The measurement details are: units of
measure = mg/cm2/hrs, cup diameter =7.6 cm,
The thermal properties were tested on an volume of distilled water used = 100 ml, fabric
Alambeta instrument by following ASTM sample diameter = 14.0 cm, and distance between
standard D1518. The measurement details are: water level and sample = 1.90 cm.
fabric sample size = (100 × 100) mm, measuring
head pressure = 200 Pa ±10%, measuring head 2.3.4 Wicking
temperature = 340C, temperature of fabric =18 to
230C, relative humidity =10-80%, and measuring The in-plane wicking behaviour of the fabrics was
area of head =1 dm2. determined by using a gravimetric in-plane
wicking tester developed at the Indian Institute of
Technology, Delhi, India. The schematic view of
the instrument is shown in Fig. 2. A fabric sample
(160 mm×160 mm) was placed on the horizontal
base plate, which is connected to a liquid reservoir
by means of a siphon tube. The fabric sample was
covered by a cover plate so as to ensure intimate
contact between the base plate and the fabric. The
spatial relationship between the bottom surface of
the test specimen in contact with the liquid in the
siphon tube and the liquid level in the reservoir
was adjustable. The water level in the reservoir
Fig. 1. Functional scheme of the Alambeta and fabric level was kept the same. The liquid
instrument: 1-measuring head, 2-copper reservoir was placed on a suitable electronic
block, 3-electric heater, 4-heat flow balance, which was interfaced with a computer.
sensor, 5-measured sample, The balance indicates the weight of water that
6-instrument base, 7-head lifting leaves the reservoir and the difference between
mechanism, 8-resistance thermometer, two consecutive readings shows the weight of
9-wetted textile interface simulating water taken by the fabric with time. The knitted
sweat discharge. pile fabrics are highly porous and experiments
carried out to measure in-plane wicking previously
finished within half a minute, hence water uptake
(g) for 30 sec is considered as the standard to

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RJTA Vol. 17 No. 1 2013
achieve wicking behaviour. The measurement
details are: fabric sample size - 16×16 cm, water
absorbed by fabric per 30 seconds - measured in
grams, and water used-distilled water.
Fig. 2. In-plane wicking tester
2.4 Statistical Analysis
A statistical analysis was carried out for different
experiment results to establish the specific trend
exhibited by the fabrics. A detailed procedure of
the statistical analysis adopted in the drawing of
inference is as follows (Booth, 1996):
H0: null hypothesis, no difference between sample
mean values;
H1: alternate hypothesis, sample mean values are
different; and
Sample parameters: mean value ( X 1 , X 2 ), sample
standard deviation (S1, S2), and number of tests
(n1, n2).
Pooled estimate of the population standard
deviation:
(n1 − 1)S12 + (n2 − 1)S2 2
S=
(n1 + n2 − 2)
t value from equation:
X1 − X 2
t=
1 1
S ( + )
n1 n2
The t value was also looked up from the statistical
table at different degrees of freedom (ν); ν = (n1+
n2-2). The inference of the statistical analysis is
drawn based on a comparison of the t value
calculated and reported in the statistical table at
different levels of confidence. The 95% and 99%
136
significance levels indicate that the inferences
drawn from the results are 95% and 99% assured.
If the calculated value is smaller than the values
reported in the statistical table, then the null
hypothesis will be accepted and alternate
hypotheses will be rejected or vice versa. A
statistical analysis is preferably carried out at a
95% significance level for scientific research.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Thermal Properties
The sensation of comfort is an unconscious
reaction to the efforts of the body to cope with
prevailing conditions, and warmth is undoubtedly
one of the more important contributory factors.
The perception of warmth is largely determined by
an imbalance of the rate of heat loss from the skin
surface and the heat flow produced at the skin by
physical activity, called metabolic heat. Several
important parameters which explain the thermal
properties of clothing are: thermal conductivity,
thermal resistance and thermal absorptivity.
Thermal conductivity and thermal resistance
decide the rate of heat transfer through the fabric.
A higher thermal resistance of the clothing means
that the wearer will feel warmer; hence, fabrics
used for ECW clothing should offer higher
resistance to heat transfer. The thermal
conductivity of fabrics is highly influenced by the
presence of air rather than fibres, and their thermal
resistance largely depends on the fabric thickness
and conductivity. Thermal absorptivity is a
transient phenomenon of heat flow which reflects
that the ‘warm-cool feeling’ effect of fabrics
depends on the smoothness/roughness of the fabric
surface. Fabrics with smooth surfaces have higher
thermal absorptivity values as they provide a large
area of contact with human skin. Fabrics with
rough surfaces decrease surface contact; hence,
this results in a decrease in the thermal
absorptivity value (the contact feeling is warmer)
(Özçelik et al., 2007). Fabrics with low values of
thermal absorptivity are more comfortable to wear
in extremely cold regions.
The thermal properties of the fabrics are given in
Table 4. A statistical analysis was carried out at the
95% significance level and it was observed that
there is no difference between the thermal
conductivity values of all three developed fabrics.
This could be ascribed to the similar chemical
RJTA Vol. 17 No. 1 2013

nature of the material (polypropylene) used for the 3.2 Air Permeability
fabric manufacture and same amount of air
presence in the fabrics, due to a similar value of Air permeability is a critical parameter of
porosity (%) observed (Table 3). The thermal extremely cold weather clothing, as it contributes
resistance value of F1 is higher than F0 and F2, to the comfort level of the wearer. It is dependent
and there is no difference between the thermal on the cloth cover and packing fraction of the
resistance values of F0 and F2. The higher thermal filament yarn. Generally, a value of 30 cc/cm2/sec
resistance value of F1 in comparison to the others is found to be adequate for apparel purposes
is due to its thickness, which is the highest, as (Shekar et al., 1999). The air permeability values
shown in Table 4. The degree of correlation of the three types of fabrics for the both pile
coefficient between the thermal resistance and upward and pile downward directions are
fabric thickness is calculated to be 0.99.The mentioned in Table 5. It was suspected that the
reason behind the lack of difference between the pile height and pile length may distort during
thermal resistance values of F0 and F2 is due to airflow through the fabric, hence a statistical
similar fabric thickness. The fabric thickness analysis was carried out at the 95% and 99%
values of F0 and F2 were statistically analyzed levels of significance. It was observed that the
to assess the difference at the 95% significance direction of the piles (upward/downward) has no
level and it was inferred that there is no difference effect on the air permeability values of the fabrics.
between the thickness values. F2 displays the
highest values in thermal absorptivity followed by Table 5. Air and water vapour permeability values of
F0 and then F1. F2 comprises filament yarns that knitted fabrics
carry the lowest denier per filament and has a Fabric Air permeability (cc/cm2/sec) WVP
lower bending rigidity, which leads to the Code Pile Pile Average (mg/cm
formation of small sized loops. The smaller loops 2
(downward) (upward) /hrs)
are resilient and lead to regular contact with F0 108.0 103.6 105.8 1.41
human skin because of its very smooth surface. F2 (8.9) (4.7) (7.3)
comprises filament yarns that carry lower denier F1 113.6 118.6 116.1 1.31
per filament and lower bending rigidity compared (13.3) (5.7) (10.3)
to F0, but display lower values in thermal F2 77.01 75.34 76.18 1.27
absorptivity. This peculiarity observed could be (7.3) (6.8) (6.9)
ascribed to the higher loop deformability of F0
compared to F2. The deformed larger loops will Table 5 indicates that the air permeability value is
lead to higher surface contact between the skin highest for F1 followed by F0 and F2. Air
and clothing, due to a more flattening effect. permeability of knitted fabric is dependent on the
specific surface area of the filaments, density of
Table 4. Thermal and wicking properties of fabrics filaments (wales/dm and courses/dm) and porosity
Fabrics of the structure. A higher specific surface area and
Parameter
F0 F1 F2 more filament density offer higher resistance to
Thermal conductivity airflow, hence decreasing air permeability. The
“ W/mK” 0.04 0.04 0.04 porosity of the knitted structure facilitates the ease
Thermal resistance 0.06 0.07 0.06 of airflow across the fabric. The resultant effect of
(10-3) “Km2/W” the three factors; specific surface area, filament
Thickness “mm” density and porosity of structure, determines the
(2.0 g/cm2 under 2.1 2.6 2.1 air permeability values of the fabrics. The
pressure) calculated porosity (%) value for the three types of
Thermal Absorptivity fabrics are similar, as shown in Table 3, Hence, the
(W/m2/s 1/2/K) 59.8 54.2 61.1 contribution of porosity (%) towards the air
In-plane Wicking (g) permeability values of the fabrics is similar. The
0 sec 0 0 0 specific surface area of the filament is inversely
10 sec 4.2 4.1 5.9 proportional to the filament diameter for circular
20 sec 8.9 10.5 12.5 cross sections. Finer denier and more single
30 sec 13.1 16.4 18.6 filaments per yarn will increase the specific
surface area; hence, this offers higher drag
137
RJTA Vol. 17 No. 1 2013
resistance to airflow across the fabric. F2 displays
the lowest air permeability value, because it
comprises yarns that have the lowest filament
diameter and highest number of single filaments
per yarn. F1 carries yarns that have a lower
filament diameter and more single filaments
compared to F0, and it still displays a higher air
permeability value. This peculiarity observed
could be due to the lower course density of F1
compared to F0, as shown in Table 3. One more
factor that is expected to lead to such peculiar
behaviour could be the resistance offered by the
pile loops. The pile loops with lower stability will
deviate from their original position during airflow.
The distorted pile loops will fall into the zone of
the inter spaces between the base loops. As the
inter spaces are the major contributors of airflow,
due to uninterrupted airflow through it, the
hindrance occurs due to fall off, and the distorted
pile loops will obviously affect the air
permeability value. The stability of the pile loops
is assessed by the change in fabric thickness with
increase in pressure. The rate of change in the
fabric thickness with increase in pressure indicates
that the change is significantly higher between no
pressure and 2 g/cm2 than between 2 g/cm2 and 7
g/cm2. The initial higher decrease followed by a
lower decrease in fabric thickness with increase in
applied pressure is due to the distortion of the pile
and base loops, respectively. The percentage
decrease in the fabric thickness between no
pressure and an applied pressure of 2 g/cm2 for F0
and F1 is 24.19% and 19.16%, respectively; hence,
the pile loops of F0 are more unstable than those
of F1. This instability of the pile loops could be
the reason behind the observed peculiar behaviour
of the air permeability value. The instability of the
loops is due to the size of the loops. The smaller
loops are highly resilient and chances of distortion
are less, whereas the larger loops easily distort
with applied force. The size of the loops formed in
the knitted fabric is determined by the bending
rigidity of the yarns used. A higher bending
rigidity takes a larger curvature during bending;
hence, leading to larger sized loops. The bending
rigidity of Y0 used in F0 has a higher bending
rigidity than Y1 used in F1, as shown in Table 2;
hence, this supports the claim of higher pile loop
instability of F0 compared to F1.
3.3 Water Vapour Permeability
Resistance to the flow of air affects the comfort
138
provided by fabric used for clothing. Aside from
that, one such quality is the resistance to the
diffusion of water vapour across the fabric. If the
air on one side of the fabric is humid and on the
other side, it is dry, then there will be a balance of
water molecules that transfer from the damp side
to the dry. For comfort, the permeability to water
vapour of clothing fabric should be as high as
possible, to allow for the escape of water vapour,
which is constantly being released from the skin
(Kothari, 2000). The magnitude of water vapour
transmission across the knitted piled fabric is
dependent on the porosity of the fabric, nature of
the filament, and diameter and number of single
filaments per yarn. According to Schmidt et al.,
a positive degree of association exists between
water vapour permeability and porosity (%). The
calculated liner regression equation is as follows:
y = 0.2119 x + 0.0593 (3)
Where 0.2119 is the slope of the equation and
0.0593 is the constant. The degree of correlation is
0.9195 [9]. The calculated porosity (%) value for
the three types of fabrics are similar, as shown in
Table 3, Hence, the contribution of porosity (%)
towards water vapour permeability of fabrics is
similar. Most textile fibres are able to absorb a
certain amount of moisture from the adjacent air;
damper air means that the fibres will absorb more
water vapour. The rate at which water vapour
passes through a fibre depends on the nature of the
fibre. With hydrophobic fibres, the rate is very
slow whereas with hydrophilic fibres, it is
relatively fast. As polypropylene is a hydrophobic
material, which is used for knitted fabric
manufacture, and as the fibre type is relatively
unimportant in connection with the water vapour
permeability of fabrics that are low in bulk density
because of the very large proportion of air spaces
present in the fabric, hence, the contribution of the
fibre type is insignificant. A finer filament
diameter and higher number of filaments per yarn
increase the specific surface area, as the space
between the fibres in the fabric decreases and
offers higher drag resistance to water vapour flow
(Das et al., 2008). In this present context, the
relative difference between the water vapour
permeability values is ultimately determined by
the effect of fibre diameter and number of single
filaments per yarn. Table 5 indicates that the
MVTR is highest for F0, followed by F1 and F2.
F0 has the lowest specific surface area; hence, it
RJTA Vol. 17 No. 1 2013
permits the highest amount of water vapour to
transmit across it. F2 has the highest specific
surface area; thus, it offers the highest drag
resistance to the flow of water vapour. Although
the difference between the MVTR values of F0,
and F1 and F2 is significant, it is still expected to
have the least impact on the level of comfort
feeling experienced by the wearer.
3.4 Wicking
Liquid flows through fabrics by the capillaries
inside the warp and weft yarns (between the
fibres) and the geometry of the alveoli on the
fabric surface that depends on the weave structure
(Rengasamy et al., 2009). The knitted pile fabrics
used for this study are similar in construction;
hence, the effect of the alveoli geometry on
wicking behaviour is similar for all three fabrics.
The relative difference between the wicking
behaviour will be determined by the capillaries
present inside the fabric. The amount of water (g)
taken by F0, F1 and F2 with time in the case of
in-plane wicking has been given in Table 4. The
water uptake is the highest for F2, followed by F1
and F0. F2 comprises yarns that carry a greater
number of finer filaments; hence, it offers a
greater number of capillaries with smaller
diameters. As the capillary effect is inversely
proportional to the capillary diameter, F2 has the
highest number of capillaries with smaller
diameters which enhance its water uptake. The
trend of increase in water uptake with decrease in
filament fineness for all three fabrics has been
reported earlier with a similar explanation.
4. Conclusions
The porosity (%) of all three developed fabrics is
statistically similar. A statistical analysis carried
out at the 95% confidence interval infers that there
is no difference between their thermal
conductivity values. The thermal resistance value
of F1 is higher than F0 and F2, and there is no
difference between the thermal resistance values
of F0 and F2. The degree of correlation coefficient
between the thermal resistance and fabric
thickness is calculated to be 0.99. F2 displays the
highest value of thermal absorptivity followed by
F0 and F1. The direction of the pile loops
(upward/downward) has no effect on the air
permeability values of the fabrics. The air
permeability value is observed to be the highest
139
for F1, followed by F0 and F2. Pile loop stability
is one of the factors which influence the air
permeability value of knitted pile fabrics. The
MVTR is the highest for F0 followed by F1and
F2. The MVTR decreases with a decrease in the
filament denier. The water uptake is the highest
for F2 followed by F1 and F0. The water uptake
increases with a decrease in the filament fineness.
Acknowledgement
We are thankful to the Director, DMSRDE,
Kanpur, for his constant support in carrying out
this research work. The authors acknowledge the
help of the Department of Textile Technology,
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India for
providing the Alambata testing facilities. The
authors are also grateful to Shri Deepak Kumar
Yadav and Shri Lal Chand of DMSRDE, Kanpur,
India, for assisting the carrying out of several
experiments. The authors also express gratitude to
the Ludhiana based industry partners; M/s Model
Hosiery Works and M/s Jainson Hosiery Industries
for production of the knitted fabrics.
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