Lecture – 7

Semiconductors

Introduction, PN Junction Diode, Bipolar Transistor,

Transistor Amplifier, Behavior

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 Introduction
❖ The main features of pure semiconductors are:
◦ (1) R more than metal conductors but less than
insulators;
◦ (2) negative temperature coefficient α, as R decreases
with heat;
◦ (3) electron valence of ±4.

Covalent Bonds: The union of atoms sharing the

valence electrons is called a covalent bond.

❖ The semiconductor elements generally used for

transistors and diodes are
silicon (Si) and germanium(Ge).

ELET 204, Chapter 8 : Semiconductors – Introduction, NJ Diode, Bipolar, Amplifier, Circuit Behavior 2
 Introduction
Intrinsic Semiconductors: A pure semiconductor without any doping is
called an intrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic Semiconductors: The semiconductor after doping is called an
extrinsic semiconductor, meaning that it is not in the natural form.
N-Type and P-Type Doping:
A semiconductor with excess electrons is a N type, while a P type has a
shortage of electrons.
N-Type Semiconductor - Free Electron Charges (In a covalent bond,
each impurity atom provides an extra electron)
P-Type Semiconductor - Free Hole Charges in (In a covalent bond
there are 7 electrons instead of 8 for each bond with an impurity element.
The 1 missing electron in such a covalent bond can be considered as a
free positive charge called a hole charge)

ELET 204, Chapter 8 : Semiconductors – Introduction, PN Diode, Bipolar, Amplifier, Circuit Behavior 3
 PN Junction Diode
❖P type and N type semiconductors made on a
single crystal is called PN junction diode.
❖Some electrons in the N side are attracted to the P
side, while at the same time an equal number of hole
charges move in the opposite direction.
❖These charges produce neutral electron-hole pairs
providing an internal barrier potential Vb across the two
sides of the junction. This region is called Depletion
Zone.
❖The zone maintains the free electrons in the N
semiconductor and the hole charges in the P
semiconductor, to prevent the opposite sides from
becoming neutralized.

ELET 204, Chapter 8 : Semiconductors – Introduction, PN Diode, Bipolar, Amplifier, Circuit Behavior 4
 PN Junction Diode
Forward and Reverse Bias
Forward Bias Voltage:
+V to the P electrode
-V to the N electrode

Forward current flows as the forward voltage neutralizes

Vb. The required polarity is

Reverse Bias Voltage:

-V to the P electrode
+V to the N electrode
The current is not allowed to flow, as the Vb is maintained

ELET 204, Chapter 8 : Semiconductors – Introduction, PN Diode, Bipolar, Amplifier, Circuit Behavior 5
 Bipolar Transistor
❖This name means NPN and PNP transistors, as they have two
opposite polarities of doped semiconductors.
❖The bipolar transistor consists of a PN junction and an NP
junction, by making either a P or N semiconductor between
opposite types.
❖The transistor have three terminals:
➢ emitter
➢ collector
➢ base
❖Emitter: The electrode that supplies charges is the emitter;
❖Collector: The electrode at the opposite end to collect the
charges is the collector.
❖Base: The base in the middle forms two junctions between
emitter and collector, to control the collector current.

ELET 204, Chapter 8 : Semiconductors – Introduction, PN Diode, Bipolar, Amplifier, Circuit Behavior 6
 Transistor Amplifier
One of the main application of Transistor is
Amplifier.

The output signal (3 V p-p) is 150 times greater

than the input signal of 0.02 V p-p. This amplifier
stage is said to have a voltage gain of 150.
Av = Vout/Vin = (3 * V p-p) / (0.02 * V p-p) = 150

Transistor can be used a switch in electronic

circuits.

ELET 204, Chapter 8 : Semiconductors – Introduction, PN Diode, Bipolar, Amplifier, Circuit Behavior 7
 Rectifier Circuits
The circuit used to convert AC into DC is called "rectifier."(unidirectional).
We have studied the important characteristic of diode: it conducts in forward direction but does
not conduct in reverse direction. We can make best use of this property in converting AC into
DC
There are two types of rectifiers
1. Half-wave rectifier
2. Full-wave rectifier

ELET 204, Chapter 8 : Semiconductors – Introduction, PN Diode, Bipolar, Amplifier, Circuit Behavior 8
 Full-wave Rectifier - Working
This type of diode circuit is invariably used in electronic power
supply circuits.
There are two types of full-wave rectifier circuits.
1. Full-wave rectifier with center tapped transformer
2. Full-wave bridge rectifier

During positive half cycle, A is positive with respect to

B, it is also positive with respect to "C." But B is
negative with regards to "C". Thus, anode of D1 is
forward biased. It conducts and supplies power to the
load resistor RL during the positive half cycle.

During negative half cycle, B is positive with respect to

A, it is also positive with respect to "C." But A is
negative with regards to "C". Thus, anode of D2 is
forward biased. It conducts and supplies power to the
load resistor RL during the positive half cycle.

ELET 204, Chapter 8 : Semiconductors – Introduction, PN Diode, Bipolar, Amplifier, Circuit Behavior 9
Assignment
● List two semiconductor elements generally used for making transistors and diodes.
● What is meant by Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor?
● What is meant by N-Type and P-Type Semiconductor?
● What is PN junction diode?
● What is Forward bias voltage / Reverse bias voltage? Draw diagram.
● Draw Symbol of a diode.
● What is transistor?
● Draw Symbol of NPN / PNP transistor.
● What is a rectifier?
● List the types of rectifiers.
● Explain working of Full wave rectifier with diagram. (also draw input and output waveforms).

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 Lecture - 8

Digital Electronics

Binary Numbers, Basic Logic Gates, Integrated Circuits ICs

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Introduction
❖ The binary number system uses only the digits 0 and 1, which represent the two levels in a digital
signal.
❖ Any number of places is possible, each with a 0 or 1
➢ Examples of binary numbers are 1, 10, 11, 1001, and 10010.
❖

❖ Some of the common number systems are Decimal, Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal systems

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 Binary System
● The first place to the left of the point can be only 0 or 1.
● As usual, higher counts are carried over to the next place.
● The second place is for counts of two.
2 3
● Successive places to the left are for counts 2 , or fours; 2 , or eights; etc.

For the binary example in figure 3, the (111)2 is 4 + 2 + 1 = (7)10.

ELET 204, Chapter 9 : Digital Electronics – Binary Numbers, Logic Gates, Integrated Circuits 13
 Converting Binary to Decimal
Just make the count for each place and add the values.
As an example, to convert
As an example, the seven places in (1010101)2 show the count (13)10 to binary form
64 + 0 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1 = (85)10
Converting Decimal to Binary
A common system is as follows:
1. Divide the decimal number successively by 2 until the
quotient is zero.
2. Note whether each remainder is 0 or 1.
3. The remainders of 0 and 1 are the digits in the binary
number.

ELET 204, Chapter 9 : Digital Electronics – Binary Numbers, Logic Gates, Integrated Circuits 14
 Basic Logic Gates
The “AND” Gate
Consider the series circuit shown in Figure 1. The bulb will be lit
only if both switches S1 AND S2 are closed. This circuit action is
called the logical AND function.

The logical symbol for an AND gate is shown in Figure

A common form of the AND truth table is shown in Figure.

Instead of describing the input voltage levels as HIGH and LOW,
they are just referred to as 1 or 0.
A logical 1 means HIGH, and a logical 0 means LOW.

Some manufacturers use truth tables with 0 and 1, while others describe
the inputs and outputs as HIGH or LOW.

ELET 204, Chapter 9 : Digital Electronics – Binary Numbers, Logic Gates, Integrated Circuits 15
 The “OR” Gate
Consider the circuit shown in Figure. The bulb will be lit when
either or both of the parallel switches are closed. This circuit
action is called the logical OR function.

Also, the exact circuit action for a 2- input OR gate is described

in detail in the OR truth table.

Note that the unique output from the OR gate is a 0 (LOW)

when both inputs are 0 or LOW.

The logical symbol for an

OR gate

ELET 204, Chapter 9 : Digital Electronics – Binary Numbers, Logic Gates, Integrated Circuits 16
 The “NOT” Gate
● The logical symbol for a NOT gate is shown in Figure.
● This gate has only one input and one output.
● Its job is to invert the input so that the output is always opposite.
● If the input is 1, the output will be 0;
● if the input is 0, the output will be 1.
● The NOT gate is commonly called an inverter.

ELET 204, Chapter 9 : Digital Electronics – Binary Numbers, Logic Gates, Integrated Circuits 17
Integrated Circuits
● The integrated circuit (IC) is a very small electronic device that includes miniaturized
electronic components.
● The IC is used instead of a printed circuit board with many discrete components.
● The IC is made up to include thousands of diodes, transistors, capacitors, resistors,
etc.

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Microprocessors
● A microprocessor is a logic device that is used in many digital electronic systems.
● The microprocessor is a complex logic element that performs arithmetic, logic, and control
functions.
● It contains all the components contained in the central processing unit of a larger computer.
● It has made the small, portable computer possible at a low cost.
● A microcomputer contains a microprocessor, but it also contains other circuits such as
memory devices to store information, interface adapters to connect it with the outside
world, and a clock to act as a master timer for the system.

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Assignment
1. Whats is meant by ‘binary system’ of numbers?
2. Convert binary to decimal
a. 10101 b. 11100 c. 100
3. Convert decimal to binary
a. 18 b. 25 c. 10
4. Draw Symbols of AND, OR, and NOT gates.
5. Prepare the Truth table for the AND and OR gates.
6. What is an Integrated Circuit (IC)?
7. What is a microprocessor?

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