CHAPTER 8

DIODE THEORY

1. UNBIASED DIODE

1.1 When an electron enters the p-region, a dipole is formed. When a free electron in the
n-type material leaves its parent atom, that atom becomes a positive ion. When the
electron joins another atom on the p-type side, that atom becomes a negative ion.

+++++
+++++
+++++

++++
++++
++++

Dipole is formed

1.2 As the number of dipoles builds up, the depletion layer is formed at the junction. The
barrier potential forms along with the depletion region and prevents all the electrons
from crossing over and filling all the holes in the p-type material.

Depletion layer

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++++ +
++++ +

1.3 When a PN junction is formed, the two regions with free carriers can semi-conduct
while the depletion region acts as an insulator.

Contains no carriers

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++++
++++

ANODE CATHODE

1.4 PN junction is the boundary between the n-type and the p-type semiconductor
materials.

2. BARRIER POTENTIAL is the voltage that is required to collapse the depletion layer in
order for a diode to conduct current.

2.1 Barrier potential at room temperature

2.1.1 For silicon diode : 0.7 V

2.1.2 For germanium diode: 0.3 V
 2.2 The barrier potential decreases 2.5 mV per Celsius degree rise in temperature.

V2 - V1 = -0.0025(T2 - T1)

where: V2 - V1 = change in barrier potential

T2 - T1 = change in temperature
T1 = 25°C = room temperature
V1 = barrier potential at room temperature

2.3 Sample Problem: Calculate the barrier potential at 75°C and 20°C for a silicon diode.

Given: V1 = 0.7 V Required: (a) V2 when T2 = 75°C

T1 = 25°C (b) V2 when T2 = 20°C

Solutions: (a) V2 - V1 = -0.0025(T2 - T1) (b) V2 - V1 = -0.0025(T2 - T1)

V2 = -0.0025(T2 - T1) + V1 V2 = -0.0025(T2 - T1) + V1
V2 = -0.0025(75 - 25) + 0.7 V2 = -0.0025(20 - 25) + 0.7
V2 = -0.0025(50) + 0.7 V2 = -0.0025(-5) + 0.7
V2 = -0.125 + 0.7 V2 = 0.0125 + 0.7
V2 = 0.575 V V2 = 0.7125 V

3. BIASED DIODE is a diode connected to a voltage source.

3.1 Forward Bias

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+++++
+++++

E R1
Conventional flow

R1 E
E - VD
ID = I1 = -------
R1

3.1.1 The anode must be positive with respect to the cathode to make a diode conduct current.
The forward current moves from the cathode to the anode.

3.1.2 The positive terminal of the voltage source is connected to the anode (p-type material),
and the negative terminal to the cathode (n-type material). The positive terminal of the
source will repel the holes on the p-type material and push them toward the junction.
The negative terminal of the source will repel the electrons on the n-type material and
push them toward the junction. The depletion region collapses and the diode conducts
current.

3.1.3 The current limiting resistor R1 is needed to keep the current flow at a safe level because
excessive current can destroy the diodes.

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 3.2 Reverse Bias

++++
++++
++++

E R1
No current flow

R1 E ID = 0

3.2.1 the negative terminal of the voltage source is connected to the anode (p-type material),
and the positive terminal to the cathode (n-type material). The positive terminal of the
source attracts the free electrons in the n-type material away from the junction. The
negative terminal of the source attracts the holes in the p-type material away from the
junction. The depletion region widens and it becomes an insulator. The diode does not
conduct current. The greater the reverse voltage, the wider the depletion layer
becomes.

3.2.2 reverse bias forces the minority carriers to the junction that causes a small leakage
current to flow, which can usually be ignored.

4. DIODE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE is a non-linear graph used to describe the diode

behavior.

IF

VR VF
0.7V
BREAKDOWN
REGION

IR

4.1 VR indicates the reverse voltage and VF indicates the forward voltage. IF indicates the
forward current and IR indicates the reverse current.

4.2 IF is marked in milliamperes and VF is marked in tenths of a volt. IR scale is marked

in microamperes and VR scale is marked in tens of volts.

4.3 Increasing the reverse voltage shows some reverse current (leakage current) due to
minority carriers. Leakage current often does not become significant until there is a
large reverse voltage across the diode.

4.4 Reverse breakdown occurs when minority carriers gain enough energy (at 50 to 1000
volts) to collide valence electrons and knock them loose thus increasing the (leakage)
current flow tremendously.

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5. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SILICON AND GERMANIUM DIODES

5.1 It takes about 0.3 volt of forward bias to turn on a germanium diode and about 0.7
volt of forward bias to turn on a silicon diode.

5.2 Germanium diode is a better conductor than silicon diode because a germanium diode
has a lesser resistance for forward current.

5.3 Silicon diode has a lower leakage current at high temperature than germanium diode.
Silicon diodes cost less, and are more desirable for most applications.

6. DIODE LEAD IDENTIFICATION

6.1 Anode is the terminal that attracts electrons. It is the p-type material of the diode.

6.2 Cathode is the terminal that gives off or emits electrons. It is the n-type material of
the diode.

6.3 Manufacturers mark the cathode lead with a band, bevel, flange or plus (+) sign.

Anode cathode

7. DIODE APPROXIMATIONS

7.1 First Approximation is known as the ideal diode. The diode is like a switch.

Forward Biased Reverse Biased

VD = 0 VD = E

7.2 Second Approximation is known as the practical diode. The diode is like a close
switch in series with a 0.7-V battery.

Forward Biased Reverse Biased

0.7V 0.7V

VD = 0.7 VD = E

7.3 Third Approximation The diode is like a close switch in series with a 0.7-V battery

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 and resistor RB.

Forward Biased Reverse Biased

0.7V RB 0.7V RB

VD = 0.7 V + IDRB VD = E

7.3.1 the bulk resistance RB is the sum of the resistance on the P and N regions.

RB = R P + R N

7.3.2 after the silicon diode turns on; the current produces a voltage across R B. The
greater the current, the larger the voltage across RB.

NOTE
The diode can be used as a switch or as a means of
changing alternating current to direct current. It is very
useful because it can steer current in a given direction.

8. SELECTING THE DIODE APPROXIMATION

8.1 Ignoring 0.7 V 8.2 Ignoring bulk resistance

E % Error RL/RB % Error

3.5 V 20% x5 20%
7V 10% x10 10%
14 V 5% x20 5%
28 V 2.5% x40 2.5%
70 V 1% x100 1%

9. DIODE TEST USING A SANWA TESTER

9.1 Set the ohmmeter range selector switch at a selected range position.

0 – 150 mA x1
0 – 15 mA x10
0 – 150 A x1k

9.2 Connect the diode to the tester. For forward bias, connect the negative test probe to
the anode and the positive test probe to the cathode. For reverse bias, connect the
negative test probe to the cathode and the positive test probe to the anode.

9.2.1 Read the diode resistance on the ohmmeter scale.

9.2.1 Read the IF and VF of the diode on the LI scale.

9.3 Diode Test Result

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 9.3.1 Good Diode - low resistance in forward bias and high resistance in reverse bias

9.3.2 Diode Shorted – zero resistance in both forward and reverse bias

9.3.3 Diode Open - high resistance in both forward and reverse bias

9.3.4 Leaky Diode - low resistance in both forward and reverse bias

10. WAYS TO DESTROY A DIODE

10.1 Exceed its reverse breakdown voltage.

10.2 Exceed its maximum forward current rating.

NOTE
A current limiting resistor is connected in series with a
diode. The larger this current-limiting resistor, the smaller
the diode current.

11. DIODE CIRCUITS

11.1 Basic DC Circuit

E R1 E R1

VD = 0.7 V V1 ID = 0 V1 = 0
ID = I1 = ----
V1 = E - V D R1 VD = E

11.2 Basic AC Circuit

V1 VD
R1 0.7V
E-VD
E R1 E 0
0
-E

E, V VD, V V1 , V E, V VD, V V 1, V

0 0 0 0 0 0
0.5 0.5 0 -0.5 -0.5 0
0.7 0.7 0 -0.7 -0.7 0
1 0.7 0.3 -1 -1 0
5 0.7 4.3 -5 -5 0
10 0.7 9.3 -10 -10 0
5 0.7 4.3 -5 -5 0
0 0 0 0 0 0

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12. DIODE CIRCUIT USING THEVENIN’S THEOREM

R1 R1

E R2 R3 E R2 VTH R1 R2 RTH

VTH x R3 E x R2
V3 = ---------- VTH = ---------- - 0.7 RTH = R1 // R2
RTH + R3 R1 + R2

V2 = V3 + 0.7

V1 = E – V 2

13. DIODE CIRCUIT TROUBLESHOOTING

R1

E R2 R3

TROUBLES V1 V2 V3 Remarks

R1 Open E 0 0

(E – 0.7) R1
R2 Open -------------- E – V1 V2 – 0.7
R1 + R3

E x R1
R3 Open ---------- E – V1 V2 – 0.7
R1 + R2

E x R1
Diode Open ---------- E – V1 0
R1 + R2

R1 Shorted 0 E E – 0.7 R2 & R3 may be

damaged.

R2 Shorted E 0 0 R1 may be

R3 Shorted E – V2 0.7 V 0 damaged.

E x R1
Diode Shorted ---------------- E – V1 V2
R1 + (R2 // R3)

NOTE: R1, R2, and R3 may be damaged when the powers dissipated by these components are
more than their power rating.

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