Chapter 1

The pn Junction Diode

Reference:
Chapter 1:
Bell, A. D., 2008. Electronic Devices and Circuits. Oxford University Press.
 Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are characterized by atoms with four valence
electrons.

• Semiconductors

• intrinsic semiconductors extrinsic semiconductors

• Pure semiconductors impure semiconductors

• N type P type
• The conductivity of semiconductor can beincreased
by doping (addition of impurities topure
semiconductor).
N-TypeSemiconductor
Pentavalent (valency-5) impurity atoms are
added
Negative charges (free electrons) are
generated
Impurity atom is known as donor
atom.
The electrons are called majority
carriers.
Si-Silicon atom
Sb-Antimony atom

P-type semiconductor
Trivalent (atom with 3 valence electrons)
impurity atoms are added

Positive charges (holes) are generated

Impurity atom is known as acceptor atom.

Holes are the majority carriers and electrons
are the minority carriers
“Together Towards A GreenEnvironment”
Diodes
• If we join a piece of p-type to a piece of n-type material a pn junction
is formed.
• It is called a semiconductor diode.

Anode Cathode n
p region region
• At the pn junction, the electrons and holes with different charges forman
electric field
• This potential difference is called barrier voltage

• Two layers of positive and negative charges form depletion region

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OyC02DWq3mI
Voltage – Current Characteristics diode

• The V-I characteristics for a diode is a non-linear

graph.
• In practice, when the diode is forward biased,
no current flows until the voltage across the
diode is approximately 0.7 V for silicon (0.3 V for
germanium).
• Once this knee voltage is overcome, the current
Knee voltage flows freely.
• When the diode is reverse biased, very little
current flows (leakage current).
• However, if the reverse breakdown voltage is
exceeded, the diode carrier will breakdown and
a large reverse current could potentially flow.
• Cut-in voltage (Vγ )

The voltage at which the current start to increase heavily is called

the cut-in voltage (knee voltage).

• Reverse break down Voltage (VBR)

The reverse voltage at which the junction breaks down and conducts
heavily.

• Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be safely applied across

the diode.
Biasing aDiode
Forward bias Connected to the
Connected to the negative side of the
positive side of the battery
battery

N P
• Forward bias is connecting the dc source’s +ve terminal to the p-
type material and –ve terminal to the n-type material.

• The bias voltage provides sufficient energy to overcome the barrier

potential of the depletion region and move on to the p region.

• The +ve side of the bias voltage source attracts the electrons.

• Hence there is a continuous flow of current in the external circuit.

Light Emitting Diode (LED) – Operation
When the device is forward-biased, the recombining
electrons release energy
in the form ofphotons.

This process, calledelectroluminescence

The wavelength of the light is determined by the impurities

added to the material.
The wavelength determines the color of the light and if it is
visible or invisible (infrared).
The intensity of the light emitted is directly related to the
forward current.
LED – Applications
Standard LEDs are usedfor
indicator lamps
readout displays
Traffic Lights
The seven segment display is an example of LEDs use for display of decimal
digits.
One common application of an infrared LED is in remote control units for TV, DVD, gate
openers, etc.
• Reverse Bias

• Reverse bias is connecting the dc source +ve to the n-type material and –ve
terminal to the p-type material

• Depletion layer is increased and hence there is no current flow

• However a little current flows through minority carriers. This current is also
referred to as Leakage current

• Very small reverse break down current exists

(Leakage current)
Photodiode
photodiodes detects light.

It operates in reverse-biased.

Photodiode -Operation
The photodiode is a device that operates in reverse
bias

when its pn junction is exposed to

light, the reverse current increases with
the light intensity.
When there is no incident light, the
reverse current, is almost
negligible and is called the dark current.
• Diode Application : Rectification

• Electrical energy conversion from ac to dc is

called rectification

Rectifiers

Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier

Half Wave Rectifier
 Half Wave Rectifier
When the positive voltage is applied at the input the diode will become forward
biased and the voltage is developed across load resistance RL due to the flow of
current.

When the negative voltage is applied at the input the diode is reverse biased and no
voltage appears across RL due to the restriction of passage of current.

Here the peak inverse voltage across the diode is equal to the peak value of the
negative voltage applied at the input.

Vout
Average dc voltage Vavg =
π
Output voltage Vout = V sec − V D
where V D = 0 . 7V for Si
Peak Inverse Voltage PIV = V sec
 Full Wave Rectifier
A full-wave rectifier allows current to flow during both the positive
and negative half cycles orthe full 360º.
The output frequency is twice the inputfrequency.

The average VDC or VAVG = 2V (out)/π

Full Wave Rectifier
 Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
Here four diodes are used in pairs making up a bridge. The top of the secondary winding has the same
polarity as the input voltage polarity and the bottom of the secondary winding has the opposite polarity
to the input voltage polarity.

When the positive voltage is applied at the input, the diodes D1 and D2 will become forward biased
and the voltage is developed across load resistance RL. However the diodes D3 and D4 will become
reverse biased.

When the negative voltage is applied at the input the diode D1 and D2 will become reverse biased
and the diode D3 and D4 will become forward biased. Due to diodes D3 and D4 forward biased the
voltage is developed across load resistance RL.

Here the peak inverse voltage across the diode is equal to the peak value of the
negative voltage applied at the input.

2Vout
Average dc voltage Vavg =
π
Output voltage Vout = V sec − 2V D
where V D = 0 . 7 V for Si
Peak Inverse Voltage PIV = V sec − V D
 Special Purpose Diodes
• Zener Diodes
• Zener diode is designed for
operation in the reverse
breakdown region
• the breakdown current can be
produced due to either
avalanche breakdown or zener
breakdown.
• Zener diodes are heavily doped
and the depletion region is
small. Operating range

Zener diode symbol

 Breakdown characteristics

As the reverse voltage (VR) is increased, the reverse current (IR) remains
extremely small up to the “knee” of the curve.
At this point the breakdown effect begins
the zener diode maintains a constant voltage for values of reverse current
ranging from IZK to IZM.
Zener diode as a Voltage regulator

Is = Iz + I L

Vi − Vz
Is =
R s
Vz = Vo
Vo = I L R L
Vin IZ

Vin IZ
 Line Regulation Load Regulation

• If the load current IL increase (because

Because of the self adjusting voltage of the reduction in load resistance), the
drop across Rs, the output voltage current IZ through the zener diode
V0 fluctuates to a much lesser extend decreases by the same percentage in
than does the input voltage VIN . order to maintain constant current IS.

• This keeps the voltage drop across RS

constant. Hence, the output voltage
remains constant.