Industrial Electronics

Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

A Introduction

1 When light strikes certain light-sensitive materials, it may cause them to

give off electrons, it may change their ability to conduct electricity, or it may
cause them to develop an electrical potential, or voltage, across two
surfaces. Devices that rely on these effects for their operation are called
photoelectric devices.

In this topic, we will discuss the principle operation of photoelectric devices

and its application.

B LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

1 1) A Light Emitting Diode, or in short, LED is a pn junction semi-

conductor device designed to emit light when forward biased.

2) The light can be red, amber, yellow or green, or it may be infrared

and thus invisible.

3) The symbol for an LED is shown in Fig 19.1.

Fig. 19.1 LED symbol

4) LEDs are frequently used as visual indicators, moving-light

displays, and also as transmitting elements in remote-control
circuits (e.g. TV remote control).

5) The LED brightness is proportional to the LED current; most

LEDs will operate safely up to absolute maximum currents of 30
to 40 mA.

6) However, it can handle a considerable amount of pulsed current,

as large as 10A.

7) The forward voltage drop VF across the diode may vary from 0.6
V to around 2.2 V depending on the type of semiconductors
used.

8) To protect a diode from excessive current, a resistor is place in

series with the LED.

9) Fig 19.2 shows how to work out the resistance value R needed to
give a particular current IF from a particular supply voltage Vs.

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

Fig. 19.2 Method of finding the R value for a given Vs and If

10) The reverse breakdown voltage for LEDs is relatively small,
typically around 5 V.

11) To provide reverse polarity protection to a LED, a diode can be

placed in parallel and in the reverse direction with respect to the
LED, as shown in Fig 19.3.

Rs
+

Fig. 19.3 Reverse-voltage protection

12) The LED is extremely fast in its light output response, about 0.1
S, after the application of current.

13) The LEDs, because of their low drive requirements of current and
voltage, consume very little power. Consequently, LEDs generate
little heat.

14) They can be thus easily driven by low power transistor stages.

15) Fig 19.4 shows a LED brightness control circuit. A 1 k variable

resistor is used to control the amount of current that passes
through the LED and in turn acts to control the brightness.

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

Fig. 19.4 LED brightness control

16) Fig. 19.5 shows a voltage level indicator circuit. Whenever the
voltage V+ exceeds the breakdown voltage of the zener diode,
the zener diode conducts and allows current to pass through the
LED.

Fig. 19.5 Voltage-level indicator

17) Fig 19.6 shows a ‘what not to do’ circuit. This design will not work
correctly because inevitable differences in the forward voltage
characteristics of the LEDs will usually cause one LED to ‘hog’
most of the available current, leaving little or none for the
remaining LEDs.

Fig. 19.6 This LED-driving circuit will not work

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

2 7-Segment Display

The 7 segment display is found in many displays such as microwaves or

fancy toaster ovens and occasionally in non cooking devices. It is just 7
LEDs that have been combined into one case to make a convenient device
for displaying numbers and some letters.

Fig 19.6a LED segment and Typical device

Types of 7-segment display

(1) Common-anode

The common anode will be connected to +5 V. Therefore, when an

input to a cathode is low, the corresponding segment will light. Refer
to Fig 19.b.

(2) Common-cathode

The common cathode will be connected to 0 V. Therefore, when an

input to a anode is high, the corresponding segment will light. Refer
to Fig 19.c

E E
G G
D D
F F
Anodes Cathodes
Anodes Cathodes
C C
A A
Decimal
Decimal B B

Fig 19.6b Common-anode display Fig 19.6c Common-cathode display

To operate the 7-segment display, a resistor of 330 ohm is usually

connected in series with each segment. This is to prevent the segments
from being burned out.

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

C PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS

1) Photoconductive cell is also known as photo-resistor or light

dependent resistor (LDR). The symbol and physical appearance
is as shown in Fig 19.7.

Fig. 19.7 Symbol and basic construction of photoconductive cell

2) Photoconductive cells are light-controlled variable resistors.

3) The resistance is very high (in the mega-ohms) under dark
conditions and low (a few hundred ohms) under bright conditions.

4) Useful practical applications include light- and dark-activated

switching circuits and light-beam alarms.

5) Photocells are sensitive, inexpensive, and readily available

devices. They have good power and voltage handling
capabilities, similar to those of a resistor.

6) Their only significant defect is that they require a few milliseconds

or more to fully respond to changes in light intensity and may
require a few seconds to return to their normal dark resistance
once light is removed.

7) Cadmium sulfide photocells respond best to light, whereas lead

sulfide photocells respond best to infrared.

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

2 Circuit with LDR

Fig. 19.8 Control circuit using photoconductive cell

(a) LDR is a light dependent resistor whose resistance decreases when

light falls on it.

(b) The transistor will not switch on until the voltage at its base rises to
about 0.6 V.

(c) If the light level on the LDR falls, its resistance will increase and the
voltage at the transistor base will rise. As it reaches 0.6 V, the
transistor will turn on.

(d) Current will flow through the relay coil and energise the coil.

(e) The relay contact will be closed to activate the external circuit.

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

D PHOTODIODES

Fig. 19.9 Symbol and physical appearance of a photodiode

1) Fig 19.9 shows the physical appearance and symbol of a

photodiode. The two arrows indicate the direction of light coming
towards the photodiode.

2) The photodiode has a small transparent window that allows light

to strike the pn junction.

3) Photodiode is usually operated in reverse bias condition and the

output is taken from across a series-connected load resistor.

4) This resistor may be connected between the diode and ground,

or between the diode and the positive supply line, as in Fig 19.10

V+ V+
ID
R1
1K
D1

ID
R1 Vout Vout
1K

Fig. 19.10 Reverse-biased diode circuit

5) When there is no incident light, the reverse current is almost

negligible and is called the dark current.

6) An increase in the amount of light intensity produces an increase

in the reverse current.

7) The current and thus the output voltage is directly proportional to

light intensity.

8) Photodiodes give a far quicker response to changes in light level

than photoconductive cells.

9) It is ideal for use in infrared remote control circuits.

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

E SOLAR CELLS

Fig. 19.11 Symbol of solar cell

1) A solar, or photovoltaic cell is a device that directly converts

sunlight into electricity when light energy strikes the cell's surface.
The symbol is as shown in Fig 19.11.

2) Solar cells take advantage of the fact that light dislodges

electrons from atoms when it strikes the cell surface.

3) These are used to generate a potential difference between two

semi-conductor materials.

4) Closing the circuit establishes an electric current as shown in Fig

19.12.

Fig. 19.12 Photovoltaic effect

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

5) Single crystal silicon solar cells cannot currently convert more

than 25% of the solar energy into electricity.

6) An average sized solar cell with sufficient light produces around

0.3V.

7) Solar cells are generally stacked up together in series or parallel,

and sold as solar panels. A solar panel may consist of 300 or
more solar cells.

8) If these cells are arranged in series combination as in Fig 19.13,

they yield a larger voltage (sum of cell voltages).

9) If they are arranged in parallel combination as in Fig 19.14, they

yield a larger current (sum of cell currents).

Fig. 19.13 Increased voltage

Fig. 19.14 Increased current

10) Several panels constitute a solar cell array, which can be thought
of as a solar-powered electrical generator. It makes no noise,
releases no emissions and requires no fuel, lubricant or tune-ups.

11) An array can power lights whenever the sun is shining - not a
particularly useful service. Instead, solar electricity is stored in 12
volt deep-discharge batteries similar to those used in golf carts
and forklifts.

12) Unlike a car battery, a solar cell battery is designed to be drained

and recharged many hundreds of times. A charge controller
prevents the batteries from being overcharged.

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

13) Fig 19.15 shows how nine solar cells placed in series can be
used to recharge two 1.5 V NiCd cells. The diode is added to the
circuit to prevent the NiCd cells from discharging through the
solar cell during times of darkness.

Fig. 19.15 Battery recharger

14) The current generated is direct current (DC), and therefore

cannot be used directly in the same way as mains power, except
to charge batteries and to run light bulbs.

15) In order to be used by the mains system, it needs to be converted

to alternating current (AC).

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

F PHOTOTRANSISTOR

1) The phototransistor has a light-sensitive, collector-base pn

junction.

2) It is exposed to incident light through a lens opening in the

transistor package. Fig 19.16 shows the physical appearance
and symbol of a phototransistor.

Fig. 19.16 Physical appearance and symbol of a phototransistor

3) When there is no incident light, there is a small thermally

generated collector-to-emitter leakage current called the dark
current and is typically in the nA range.

4) When light strikes the collector-base pn junction, a base current

is produced that is directly proportional to the light intensity.

5) Fig 19.17 shows a phototransistor with a biasing circuit and

typical collector characteristic curves.

Fig. 19.17 Phototransistor bias circuit and collector characteristic curves

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

6) Each individual curve on the graph corresponds to a certain value

of light intensity. The collector current increases with light
intensity.

7) A phototransistor can be either a two-lead or a three-lead device.

8) In a three-lead configuration, the base lead is brought out so that

the device can be used as a conventional bipolar transistor with
or without the additional light-sensitivity feature.

9) In the two-lead configuration, the base is not electrically

available, and the device can be used only with light as the input.

10) The device is normally used with its base open circuit, in either of
the configurations shown in Fig 19.18.

V+ V+

R1
Q1 1K

R1 Vout Q1 Vout
1K

Fig. 19.18 Phototransistor configurations

11) Phototransistors are not sensitive to all light but only to light
within a certain range of wavelengths.

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

G OPTO-ISOLATORS

1 1) The opto-isolator, also known as opto-coupler, is a device that

uses light to couple a signal from its input (a photo-emitter) to its
output (a photo-detector).

2) The photo-emitter and photo-detector are mounted close together

in a single light-excluding package.
3) The photon-emitting device is usually an infrared LED.

4) The photo-detector may be a photodiode, a phototransistor etc.

a) LED-Photodiode Opto-isolator

i) Fig 19.19 shows the symbol of a photodiode

output opto-isolator.

Fig. 19.19 Symbol of photodiode opto-coupler

ii) Fig 14.19 shows an opto-isolator IC that

consists of a LED that illuminates two
photodiodes in an 8-pin DIP package.

1 NC 8
LED

2 NC 7

3 6

4 5
PD1 PD2

Fig. 19.20 Photodiode opto-isolator IC

iii) As long as the infrared LED is on, the

photodiodes will conduct.

iv) Photodiodes can react very fast to change in

light intensity.

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

b) LED-Phototransistor Opto-isolator
i) Fig 19.21 shows the symbol of a
phototransistor output opto-isolator.

ii) Fig 19.22 shows a 6-pin DIP transistor

output opto-isolator.

Fig. 19.21 Symbol of phototransistor opto-coupler

Anode 1 6 Gate

Cathode 2 5 Anode

NC 3 4 Cathode

Fig. 19.22 Phototransistor opto-coupler IC

iii) They are more convenient than photodiodes

because they have built in gain.

iv) The absorbed light creates a current in the

base region of the phototransistor, resulting
in current gains from 100 to several
thousands.

v) It is unsuitable for high-speed application.

5) Isolation Voltage

a) This is the maximum permissible dc potential that can

be allowed to exist between the input and output
circuits.

6) Opto-isolators are used frequently to provide electrical isolation

between two separate circuits.

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

2 SLOTTED/REFLECTIVE OPTO-COUPLER

2.1 IRED-Phototransistor Slotted Opto-coupler

a) The slotted opto-coupler is an IC that is designed to

allow an outside object to block the light path between
the photo-emitter and the photo-detector.

b) Fig 19.23 shows the schematic diagram and physical

appearance of a slotted opto-coupler.

c) It has a slot moulded into the package between the

LED light source and the phototransistor light sensor.

d) It generates a pulse whenever an opaque object,

passing across the gap of the sensor, interrupts the
light beam.

e) The slotted opto-coupler can be used for engine-shaft

revolution counting or speed measurements, as shown
in Fig 19.24

Fig. 19.23 Schematic diagram and physical appearance of slotted opto-coupler

Slotted opto-coupler

Fig. 19.24 Using a slotted opto-coupler to measure motor speed

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

2.2 IRED-Phototransistor Reflective Opto-coupler

(a) A reflective opto-coupler uses a light source to emit light

and a sensor to detect that light once it has reflected off an
object.

(b) Fig 19.25 shows the schematic diagram and physical

appearance of a reflective opto-coupler.

(c) It generates a pulse whenever the sensor receives

reflected light.

(d) The reflective opto-coupler can be used for end-of-tape

detection.

Fig. 19.25 Schematic diagram and physical appearance of slotted opto-coupler

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

H PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS

1 Through Beam Type

(a) Emitter and receiver are contained in separate housings.

(b) When properly aligned, the light beam travels from the emitter to
the receiver.

(c) An object breaking the light beam causes the receiver to change
the state of the output contacts.

(d) This type of photoelectric sensor has the advantage of a longer

sensing distance when compared to other types of sensors.

Fig. 19.26 Through beam photoelectric sensor

2 Retro-Reflective Type

(a) Emitter and receiver are contained in the same housing.

(b) This type of sensor uses a reflector to reflect the light beam
back to the sensor.

(c) When an object passes through the light beam, the receiver
changes the state of the output contacts.

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Topic 19 – Photoelectric Devices

Fig. 19.27 Retro-reflective photoelectric sensor

3 Diffuse Type

(a) Emitter and receiver are contained in the same housing.

(b) This type of sensor emits a beam of light, which is not returned to
the sensor.

(c) When the target is placed in the light beam the beam is "diffused" in
many different directions. One of the directions is back to the
sensor.

(d) If the intensity of the return beam is sufficient, the receiver "senses"
the light and changes the state of the output contacts.

Fig. 19.28 Diffuse photoelectric sensor

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