CHAPTER 3

COMPONENTS

3.1. Component Requirements

The following components will form an integral part of the design and hence,
their importance and working principles are discussed. A list of necessary components
required to carry out the design on this project are as follows:
1. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
2. Diode
3. LM317 and LM7812 (Voltage Regulator)
4. LM358 Op-amp
5. BC547 and MJ2955 (Transistor)
6. Capacitor
7. Resistor
8. Relay

3.2. Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a
p–n junction diode that emits light when activated. When a suitable current is applied
to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device,
releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and
the colour of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by
the energy band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are typically small (less than 1 mm2)
and integrated optical components may be used to shape the radiation pattern.
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs
emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as
transmitting elements in remote-control circuits, such as those in remote controls for a
wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of low
intensity and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet,
and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
 20

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices,
replacing small incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts
in the form of seven-segment displays and were commonly seen in digital clocks.
Recent developments have produced LEDs for environmental and task lighting. LEDs
have led to new displays and sensors, while their high switching rates are useful in
advanced communications technology. A typical LED is shown in Figure 3.1.
LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and
faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation
lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera
flashes, lighted wallpaper and medical devices. They are also significantly more
energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer environmental concerns linked to their
disposal.
Unlike a laser, the colour of light emitted from an LED is neither coherent nor
monochromatic, but the spectrum is narrow with respect to human vision, and for
most purposes the light from a simple diode element can be regarded as functionally
monochromatic.

Figure 3.1. Diagram of typical LED

3.3. Diode
A diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts as a one-way switch for
current. It allows current to flow easily in one direction, but severely restricts current
 21

from flowing in the opposite direction. Diodes are also known as rectifiers because
they change alternating current (ac) into pulsating direct current (dc). Diodes are rated
according to their type, voltage, and current capacity. Diodes have polarity,
determined by an anode (positive lead) and cathode (negative lead). Most diodes
allow current to flow only when positive voltage is applied to the anode. When a
diode allows current flow, it is forward-biased. When a diode is reverse-biased, it acts
as an insulator and does not permit current to flow. The diode symbol's arrow points
against the direction of electron flow. Reason: Engineers conceived the symbol, and
their schematics show current flowing from the positive (+) side of the voltage source
to the negative (-). It's the same convention used for semiconductor symbols include
arrows which points in the permitted direction of "conventional" flow, and against the
permitted direction of electron flow. Structure of a diode is shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2. Structure of a diode

3.4. LM317, an Adjustable Output, Positive Voltage Regulator

The LM317 is an adjustable 3−terminal positive voltage regulator capable of
supplying in excess of 1.5A over an output voltage range of 1.2V to 37V. This voltage
regulator is exceptionally easy to use and requires only two external resistors to set
the output voltage. Further, it employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and
safe area compensation, making it essentially blow−out proof.
The LM317 serves a wide variety of applications including local, on card
regulation. This device can also be used to make a programmable output regulator, or
by connecting a fixed resistor between the adjustment and output, the LM317 can be
used as a precision current regulator.
 22

Features:
1. Output Current in Excess of 1.5A
2. Output Adjustable between 1.2V and 37V
3. Internal Thermal Overload Protection
4. Internal Short Circuit Current Limiting Constant with Temperature
5. Output Transistor Safe−Area Compensation
6. Floating Operation for High Voltage Applications
7. Eliminates Stocking many Fixed Voltages
8. Available in Surface Mount D2PAK−3, and Standard 3−Lead Transistor
Package
9. NCV Prefix for Automotive and Other Applications Requiring Unique Site
and Control Change Requirements; AEC−Q10 Qualified and PPAP
Capable
10. These are Pb-Free Devices

3.4.1. Basic Operation of LM317

The LM317 is a 3−terminal floating regulator. In operation, the LM317
develops and maintains a nominal 1.25V reference (Vref) between its output and
adjustment terminals. This reference voltage is converted to a programming current
(IPROG) by R1 and this constant current flows through R2 to ground.
Since the current from the adjustment terminal (IAdj) represents an error term
in the equation, the LM317 was designed to control IAdj to less than 100A and keep it
constant. To do this, all quiescent operating current is returned to the output terminal.
A typical diagram of LM317 is shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3. Diagram of LM317

 23

This imposes the requirement for a minimum load current. If the load current
is less than this minimum, the output voltage will rise. Since the LM317 is a floating
regulator, it is only the voltage differential across the circuit which is important to
performance, and operation at high voltages with respect to ground is possible.

3.4.2. Load Regulation

The LM317 is capable of providing extremely good load regulation, but a few
precautions are needed to obtain maximum performance. For best performance, the
programming resistor (R1) should be connected as close to the regulator as possible to
minimize line drops which effectively appear in series with the reference, thereby
degrading regulation. The ground end of R2 can be returned near the load ground to
provide remote ground sensing and improve load regulation.

3.4.3. External Capacitors

A 0.1 µF disc or 1.0 µF tantalum input bypass capacitor (Cin) is recommended
to reduce the sensitivity to input line impedance. The adjustment terminal may be
bypassed to ground to improve ripple rejection. This capacitor (CAdj) prevents ripple
from being amplified as the output voltage is increased. A 10 µF capacitor should
improve ripple rejection about 15 dB at 120 Hz in a 10V application. Although the
LM317 is stable with no output capacitance, like any feedback circuit, certain values
of external capacitance can cause excessive ringing. An output capacitance (CO) in
the form of a 1.0 µF tantalum or 25 µF aluminium electrolytic capacitor on the output
swamps this effect and insures stability.

3.4.4. Protection Diodes

When external capacitors are used with any IC regulator it is sometimes
necessary to add protection diodes to prevent the capacitors from discharging through
low current points into the regulator. The LM317 with the recommended protection
diodes for output voltages in excess of 25V or high capacitance values (CO > 25 µF,
CAdj > 10 µF). Diode D1 prevents CO from discharging thru the IC during an input
short circuit. Diode D2 protects against capacitor CAdj discharging through the IC
during an output short circuit. The combination of diodes D1 and D2 prevents CAdj
from discharging through the IC during an input short circuit.
 24

3.5. LM7812, Fixed Voltage Regulators

The LM78XX series of three terminal regulators is available with several
fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. One of
these is local on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with
single point regulation. The voltages available allow these regulators to be used in
logic systems, instrumentation, HiFi, and other solid state electronic equipment.
Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators these devices can be used
with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.
The LM78XX series is available in an aluminium TO-3 package which will
allow over 1.0A load current if adequate heat sinking is provided. Current limiting is
included to limit the peak output current to a safe value. Safe area protection for the
output transistor is provided to limit internal power dissipation. If internal power
dissipation becomes too high for the heat sinking provided, the thermal shutdown
circuit takes put, although this does improve transient response. Input by passing is
needed only if the regulator is located far from the filter capacitor of the power
supply. For output voltage other than 5V, 12V and 15V the LM113 series provides an
output voltage range from 1.2V to 57V over preventing the IC from overheating.
Considerable effort was expanded to make the LM78XX series of regulators
easy to use and minimize the number of external components. It is not necessary to
bypass the out- put, although this does improve transient response. Input bypassing is
needed only if the regulator is located far from the filter capacitor of the power
supply. For output voltage other than 5V, 12V and 15V the LM117 series provides an
output voltage range from 1.2V to 5V. Diagram of LM 7812 is shown in Figure 3.4.
Features:
1. Output current in excess of 1A
2. Internal thermal overload protection
3. No external components required
4. Output transistor safe area protection
5. Internal short circuit current limit
6. Available in the aluminium TO-3 package
Voltage Range:
1. LM7805C 5V
2. LM7812C 12V
3. LM7815C 15V
 25

Figure 3.4. Diagram of LM 7812

3.6. BC547 NPN Transistor

BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer
of resistance, is commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its base
controls a larger current at collector & emitter terminals. BC547 is mainly used for
amplification and switching purposes. It has a maximum current gain of 800. Its
equivalent transistors are BC548 and BC549.
The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired
region of its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification
applications, the transistor is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions.
The input signal at base is amplified and taken at the emitter. BC547 is used in
common emitter configuration for amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly
used biasing mode. Diagram and symbol of BC547 transistor is shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5. Diagram and symbol of BC 547 transistor

For switching applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if

there is a signal at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets completely off.
 26

BC547 Transistor Features:

1. Bi-Polar NPN Transistor
2. DC Current Gain (hFE) is 800 maximum
3. Continuous Collector current (IC) is 100mA
4. Emitter Base Voltage (VBE) is 6V
5. Base Current(IB) is 5 mA maximum
6. Available in To-92 Package

3.6.1. Brief Description on BC547

BC547 is a NPN transistor hence the collector and emitter will be left open
(Reverse biased) when the base pin is held at ground and will be closed (Forward
biased) when a signal is provided to base pin. BC547 has a gain value of 110 to 800,
this value determines the amplification capacity of the transistor. The maximum
amount of current that could flow through the Collector pin is 100mA, hence we
cannot connect loads that consume more than 100 mA using this transistor. To bias a
transistor we have to supply current to base pin, this current (I B) should be limited to
5mA.
When this transistor is fully biased then it can allow a maximum of 100 mA to
flow across the collector and emitter. This stage is called Saturation Region and the
typical voltage allowed across the Collector-Emitter (V CE) or Base-Emitter (VBE)
could be 200 and 900 mV respectively. When base current is removed the transistor
becomes fully off, this stage is called as the Cut-off Region and the Base Emitter
voltage could be around 660 mV.

3.6.2. BC547 as Switch

When a transistor is used as a switch it is operated in the Saturation and Cut-
Off Region as explained above. As discussed a transistor will act as an Open switch
during Forward Bias and as a closed switch during Reverse Bias, this biasing can be
achieved by supplying the required amount of current to the base pin. As mentioned
the biasing current should maximum of 5 mA. Anything more than 5mA will kill the
Transistor; hence a resistor is always added in series with base pin. The value of this
resistor (RB) can be calculated using below formulae.
RB = VBE / IB
Where, the value of VBE should be 5V for BC547 and the Base current (I B
depends on the Collector current (IC). The value of IB should not exceed mA.
 27

3.7. MJ2955 transistor

Characteristics of the MJ2955 bipolar transistor
1. Type - p-n-p
2. Collector-Emitter Voltage: -60V
3. Collector-Base Voltage: -100V
4. Emitter-Base Voltage: -7V
5. Collector Current: -15A
6. Collector Dissipation - 115W
7. DC Current Gain (hfe) - 20 to 70
8. Transition Frequency - 3 MHz
9. Operating and Storage Junction Temperature Range -65 to +200 °C

3.8. LM 358 Operational Amplifier

The LM358 is operational amplifier which can operate with only a single
power supply voltage, have true-differential inputs, and remain in the linear mode
with an input common-mode voltage of 0V DC. These amplifiers operate over a wide
range of power supply voltage with little change in performance characteristics. At
25°C amplifier operation is possible down to a minimum supply voltage of 2.3V DC.
Large differential input voltages can be easily accommodated and, as input
differential voltage protection diodes are not needed, no large input currents result
from large differential input voltages. The differential input voltage may be larger
than V + without damaging the device. Protection should be provided to prevent the
input voltages from going negative more than - 0.3V DC (at 25°C). An input clamp
diode with a resistor to the IC input terminal can be used.

3.8.1. Feature Description of LM358

The amplifiers differential inputs consist of a non-inverting input (+IN) and an
inverting input (–IN). The amplifier amplifies only the difference in voltage between
the two inputs, which is called the differential input voltage. The output voltage of the
op-amp Vout is given by Equation:
VOUT = AOL (IN±IN)
Where, AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier, typically around 100dB
(100,000 x, or 0uV per Volt). To reduce the power supply current drain, the amplifiers
 28

have a class. An output Stage for small signal levels which converts to class B in a
large signal mode.
This allows the amplifiers to both source and sinks large output currents.
Therefore both NPN and PNP external current boost transistors can be used to extend
the power capability of the basic amplifier. The output voltage needs to raise
approximately 1 diode drop above ground to bias the on-chip vertical PNP transistor
for output current sinking applications.
For ac applications, where the load is capacitive coupled to the output of the
amplifier, a resistor should be used, from the output of the amplifier to ground to
increase the class A bias current and prevent crossover distortion. Where the load is
directly coupled, as in dc applications, there is no crossover distortion.
Capacitive loads which are applied directly to the output of the amplifier
reduce the loop stability margin. Values of 50 pF can be accommodated using the
worst-case non-inverting unity gain connection. Large closed Loop gains or resistive
isolation should be used if larger load capacitance must be driven by the amplifier.
The bias network of the LM158 establishes a drain current which is
independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage over the range of 3V DC to
30V DC.
Output short circuits either to ground or to the positive power supply should
be of short time duration. Units can be destroyed, not as a result of the short circuit
current causing metal fusing, but rather due to the large increase in IC chip power
dissipation which will cause eventual failure due to excessive junction temperatures.
Putting direct short-circuits on more than one amplifier at a time will increase the total
IC power dissipation to destructive levels, if not properly protected with external
dissipation limiting resistors in series with the output leads of the amplifiers. The
larger value of output source current which is available at 25°C provides a larger
output current capability at elevated temperatures than a standard IC op amp.

Features:
1. Wide Supply Range of 3V to 36V (B Version)
2. Supply-Current of 300 μ A (B Version, Typical)
3. Unity-Gain Bandwidth of 1.2 MHz (B Version)
4. Common-Mode Input Voltage Range Includes Ground, Enabling Direct
Sensing Near Ground
 29

5. Low Input Offset Voltage of 3 mV at 25°C (A and B Versions, Maximum)

6. Internal RF and EMI Filter (B Version)
7. On products compliant to mil-prf-38535, all parameter are tested unless
otherwise noted. On all other products, production processing does not
necessarily include testing of all parameters.
Applications:
1. Merchant Network and Server Power Supply Units
2. Multi-Function Printers
3. Power Supplies and Mobile Chargers
4. Motor Control: AC Induction, Brushed DC, Brushless DC, High-Voltage,
Low-Voltage, Permanent Magnet, and Stepper Motor
5. Desktop PC and Motherboard
6. Indoor and Outdoor Air Conditioners
7. Washers, Dryers, and Refrigerators
8. AC Inverters, String Inverters, Central Inverters, and Voltage Frequency
Drives
9. Uninterruptible Power Supplies
10. Programmable Logic Controllers
11. Electronic Point-of-Sale Systems
Description:
The LM358B and LM2904B devices are the next- generation versions of the
industry-standard LM358 and LM2904 devices, which include two high-voltage (36-
V) operational amplifiers (op amps). These devices provide outstanding value for
cost-sensitive applications, with features including low offset (300 μV, typical),
common-mode input range to ground, and high differential input voltage capability.
The LM358B and LM2904B devices simplify circuit design with enhanced
features such as unity-gain stability, lower offset voltage of 3 mV (maximum at
room temperature), and lower quiescent current of 300 μA (typical). High ESD (2
kV, HBM) and integrated EMI and RF filters enable the LM358B and LM2904B
devices to be used in the most rugged, environmentally challenging applications.
The LM358B and LM2904B devices are available in micro-size packages,
such as TSOT-8 and WSON, as well as industry standard packages, including SOIC,
TSSOP, and VSSOP. Block diagram of LM 358 is shown in Figure 3.6.
 30

Figure 3.6. Block diagram of LM 358

3.9. Capacitor
Capacitor are electronic components that store, filter regulate electrical energy
and current flow and are one of the essential passive components used in circuit
boards. Capacitors are primarily used for strong electrical changes, conducting
alternating current (AC), and blocking or separating different voltage levels of direct
current (DC) source.
While capacitors are one type of component, there are many types of
capacitors that are differentiated by the materials used in construction, each
providing unique features and benefits. Understanding basic capacitor construction
and how different materials can affect their characteristics will aid in choosing the
proper capacitor for a given application.
The unit of capacitance is the farad. For 1 farad of capacitance, 1coulomb of
charge is stored on the plates when 1volt is applied:
1farad = 1 coulomb /1volt
1coulomb represents~6x1019 electrons

3.9.1. Capacitor Construction

All capacitors are formed with the same basic structure. Two parallel metal
electrode plates separated by a non-conductive material are called the dielectric.
When a voltage exists between these conductive parallel plates, an electric field is
present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the plates. Figure 3.7 shows the structure and symbol of a capacitor.
 31

Conductive
Parallel plates Electrical
charge
Q+ Q-

Dielectric
Symbol

Voltage Vc

Figure 3.7. Basic structure and symbol of a capacitor

3.9.2 Capacitor Parameters

The amount of capacitance C for a parallel plate capacitor is determined by the
equation:
C = ɛ x A/d
Where A = plate area,
d = distance between plates, and
ɛ = dielectric material constant.
Also note that:
ɛ = relative dielectric constant x dielectric constant of vacuum = ɛr x ɛ0
Where,
ɛr is a plain number,
ɛ0= 8.85x10 -12 F/m
This general formula shows that:

1. the larger the plate area, the larger the capacitance value
2. the smaller distance between the plates, the larger capacitance value
3. the larger the dielectric constant of the insulating (dielectric) material,
the larger the capacitance
 32

Figure 3.8. Capacitance parameters

3.9.3. Capacitor Properties

An ideal capacitor has exactly the desired capacitance value and it is a perfect
insulator. However, practical considerations must be taken into account for both the
capacitance value and amount of insulation provided by a given capacitor.
1. The capacitor can store electric energy (as discussed earlier, the capacitance
value determines the amount of charge, or energy, at given voltage)
2. The capacitor can separate different DC voltage levels from each other, but
also conducts AC current
3. In general, the higher the frequency of AC voltage, the better the capacitor
conducts the AC current

3.10 . Resistor
Resistor is electrical or electronic components which resist the flow of current
across the resistor device. The resistance to current flow results in a voltage drop
across the resistor device. Resistors are used extensively throughout electrical and
electronic circuits. Resistor devices may provide a fixed, variable, or adjustable value
of resistance. Adjustable resistors are refers to as rheostats, or potentiometers.
Resistor values are expressed in Ohms, the electric resistance unit. Resistors are
incorporated within an electrical or electronic circuits create a known voltage drop or
current to voltage relationship. If the electrical current in a circuit is known (current is
measured in amperes), then a resistor can be used to create a known potential
 33

difference (voltage difference) proportional to that current. Conversely, if the voltage

drop (potential difference) across two points in a circuit is known, a resistor can be
used to create a known current proportional to that difference. An attenuator is a
network of two or more resistors (a voltage divider). A line terminator is a resistor at
the end of a transmission line or daisy chain bus, designed to match impedance and
minimize reflections of the electronic signal. The symbol of resister is shown in
Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9. Resistor Symbols

3.10.1. Power Resistors

Power Resistors are resistors which are capable of handling a lot of power, as
their name implies. They are designed and manufactured to handle more power with
respect to their size than other resistors types. Power resistors are manufactured in a
variety of configurations. Some of power resistors are free wound similar to a
electrical heater element. Free wound power resistors typically require external
sources of cooling in order to handle any significant amount of power. Power resistors
may be cooled by fans, or immersed in a non-conductive liquid. Power resistors are
designed to operate at maximum power rating in the smallest package size, the core
on which the windings are made is a material which exhibits high heat conductivity.
Typical power resistor cores for would type power resistors are: Steatite, Alumina,
Beryllium Oxide, or hard anodized Aluminium. Power resistors are available in
various shapes, such as; oval, flat, or cylindrical. Often, power resistors are packaged
or integrated with a convection type heat sink.

3.10.2. Variable Resistors

Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends
and a wiper which moves along the track as you turn the spindle. The track is usually
 34

rotary but straight track versions, usually called sliders, are also available. The track
may be made from carbon, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for
low resistances). Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in books and
catalogues. They are specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic
track, and their physical size. Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two
connections (the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer with all
three connections in use. Miniature versions called presets are made for setting up
circuits which will not require further adjustment.

3.11. Relay
Relays control one electrical circuit by opening and closing contacts in another
circuit. As relay diagrams show, when a relay contact is normally open (NO), there is
an open contact when the relay is not energized. When a relay contact is Normally
Closed (NC), there is a closed contact when the relay is not energized.
In either case, applying electrical current to the contacts will change their
state. Relays are generally used to switch smaller currents in a control circuit and do
not usually control power consuming devices except for small motors and Solenoids
that draw low amps. Nonetheless, relays can "control" larger voltages and amperes by
having an amplifying effect because a small voltage applied to a relays coil can result
in a large voltage being switched by the contacts. Relay would eventually be used to
control the load from the wind turbine. It is a cost-effective, high-power 12V relay,
allowing up to 30A. Having a constant load on a wind turbine is necessary to avoid
damage. When the battery is at capacity, the relay will switch from the battery as a
load to dump load resistors. Figure 3.10 shows the structure of a relay.

Figure 3.10. Structure of a relay