LETTERBOX WITH LETTER-COUNTING FACILITY

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Project Overview:
When a letter is inserted into the letterbox, it passes between transmitter and receiver.
This change in resistance provides a triggering pulse to pin 2 of IC1, generating a short-duration
square-wave pulse at its output pin 3. This pulse acts as clock input for the counter and display
driver CD4033 (IC2). Output pins of IC2 are connected to various segments a, b, c, d, e, f and g
pins of seven-segment display (DIS1) as shown in the circuit. Its common pin 3 is connected to
ground through current-limiting resistor R6. Alternatively, you can also provide a resistor each
for each segment after removing resistor R6. Seven-segment display DIS1 displays the number
of letters present in the box up to nine.

1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM WITH EXPLANATION:

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 TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction produces an electromotive
force across a conductor which is exposed to time varying magnetic fields. Commonly,
transformers are used to increase or decrease the voltages of alternating current in electric power
applications.

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in
the transformer core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the transformer's secondary
winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a varying electromotive
force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction. Making use
of Faraday's Law (discovered in 1831) in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core
properties, transformers can thus be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage
level to another within power networks. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less
than a cubic centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of
tons.

 RECTIFIER:
A rectifier is an electrical device that convertsalternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification.

The simple half wave rectifier can be built in two electrical configurations with the diode
pointing in opposite directions, one version connects the negative terminal of the output direct to
the AC supply and the other connects the positive terminal of the output direct to the AC supply.
By combining both of these with separate output smoothing it is possible to get an output voltage
of nearly double the peak AC input voltage. This also provides a tap in the middle, which allows
use of such a circuit as a split rail power supply.

 LM7805:
7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit.The 78xx (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx,
MC78xx...) is a family of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulatorintegrated circuits. The 78xx
family is commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply due to their
ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating
the output voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5-volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts).
The 78xx line are positive voltage regulators: they produce a voltage that is positive relative to a
common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which are complementary negative

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voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to provide positive and
negative supply voltages in the same circuit.

 IR PAIRS:
An IR LED, also known as IR transmitter, is a special purpose LED that transmits infrared
rays in the range of 760 nm wavelength. Such LEDs are usually made of gallium arsenide or
aluminum gallium arsenide. They, along with IR receivers, are commonly used as sensors.

The appearance is same as a common LED. Since the human eye cannot see the infrared
radiations, it is not possible for a person to identify whether the IR LED is working or not, unlike
a common LED. To overcome this problem, the camera on a cell phone can be used. The camera
can show us the IR rays being emanated from the IR LED in a circuit.

Specifications:

 IR TX RX size: 5mm diameter package

 IR LED current rating: 30mA nominal, 600mA pulse loading at 1% duty cycle

 IR LED wavelength: 940nM

 Photodiode peak response wavelength: 940nM.

 Switch: -

Switch is used in both electrical circuit and electronic. These are simple circuit breaker.
There is no any polarity selection so they can directly fix in series. During ON condition circuit
completed so current can flow through the circuit and during OFF condition it break the circuit
so it stop the current.

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1.3 COMPONENTS LIST:

 Semiconductors:
IC1 - NE555 timer
IC2 - CD4033 counter-cum-driver
LED1 - 5mm white LED
LED2 - 5mm LED
DIS1 - LTS543 seven segment
 Resistors all ¼-watt, +_5% carbon:
R1, R6 - 470-ohms
R2 - 220-ohms
R3 - 470-kilo-ohms
R4 - 680-ohms
R5 - 10-kilo-ohms
 Capacitors:
C1 - 100uf, 25V electrolytic
C2 - 1uf, 25V electrolytic
C3 - 0.01uf ceramic disk
 Miscellaneous:
CON1 - 2-pin connector terminal
S1 - Tackle Switch
LDR1 - LDR Light Dependent Resistor

- 12V Regulated power supply.

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CHAPTER 2
IC CD4033:
2.1.1 Introduction:
CD4033 is a Johnson counter IC commonly used in digital display. It has a 5 stage Johnson
decade counter with decoder which convert the Johnson code to a 7 segment decoded output.
Means it will convert the input into numeric display which can be seen on 7 segment display or
with the help of LED's.

Advantage of this IC is it can be operated at high voltage of 20V. But is highly sensitive, can
detect emf present in the atmosphere and is sensitive to static charge also. When you touch your
finger at its input terminal its counter get started therefore care should be taken while using it. It
can be used in various applications like in 7 segment decimal display circuit, in clocks, timer etc.
To understand its working first have a look on its pin diagram.

Pin Configuration:

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1. Pin 1 known as Clock in - It receives clock signals, and at every positive clock counter
advances one by one. You can provide clock with the switch, 555 timer or with the help of logic
gates.

2. Pin 2 known as Clock inhibit - CD4033 counter advances one by one by receiving
positive pulse at this time clock inhibit pin should be grounded. If it is connected to supply than
counter advancement will be inhibited means there will be no meaning of clock pulse.

3. Pin 3 and pin 4 known as Ripple blanking in and Ripple blanking - It is used to display
only one zero blanking the other zero. For this IC have ripple blanking in and ripple blanking
out. For example you want to display 345 and you are using five 7 segment display then it will
display 00345 if blanking input and out is off. But if it is on than you will receive 345. It
improves the readability of the circuit.

4. Pin 5 known as carry out - It is used to complete one cycle for every 10 clock input cycle
and it also used to cascade more IC's.

5. Pin 6, pin7 and Pin9 to pin 13 - These are 7 decoded output from a to g used to illuminates
the corresponding segment of 7 segment display to display the digit from 0 to 9.

6. Pin 14 known as Lamp test - It is used to check that all segments of 7 segment is working
properly or not. For testing momentarily make the pin low.

7. Pin 15 known as Reset - It is used to reset the counter. When it receives high it clears the
counter and counting again starts from zero. One important thing reset pin should again made
low to start the counter once again.

8. Pin 8 known as ground pin and Pin 16 known as Vdd it should be connected to power
supply.

1. Interfacing CD4033 with LED's

Below circuit can be used to detect the electromagnetic radiation or emf present around it.
The radiation may from TV, computer etc.

Working of circuit is simple whenever it detects radiation it receive clock at pin put 1 and its
counter starts and LED's connected at output stars glowing. And the cycle repeats till the reset
pin receives high at its input.

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2. Interfacing CD4033 with 7 segment display

The circuit describes below count numbers from 0 to 9 and display the same on 7 segment
display.

Whenever you press the switch, clock input receives the signals and its counter advances one
by one. And it will count up to 9 and again start counting from 0 on each successive pressing of
switch. Pin configuration of 7 segment display can be obtained from the fig. shown below.

3. Interfacing CD4033 with the timer IC

In the following circuit we have used a 555 timer in astable oscillator mode to provide clock
signal to input of IC CD4033 to start its counting which can be display on 7 segment display.
Here reset switch is used to reset the counting any time needed by the user.

You can also interface two CD4033 IC if you want to increase the counting beyond 9. This
can be done by cascading 2 CD4033 IC, connect the carry out of first IC to the clock input of
second IC. Now when first IC completes its counting than second IC will start the counting.
Connect reset pin of both the IC together and ground it with the help of resistor. And make rest
connection like done in following circuit. Similarly you can cascade more IC's.

2.2 IC 555 Timer:

2.1.1 Introduction:

NE555 from Signetics in dual-in-line package

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Type Active, Integrated circuit

Invented Hans Camenzind

First 1971
production

Pin GND, TRIG, OUT, RESET, CTRL, THR, DIS, VCC

configuration

Electronic symbol

Internal block diagram

2.2.2 Pin Diagram:

The connection of the pins for a DIP package is as follows:

1. Ground: This pin is used to provide a zero voltage rail to the Integrated circuit to divide
the supply potential between the three resistors shown in the diagram.

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2. Trigger: As we can see that the voltage at the non-inverting end of the comparator is
Vin/3, so if the trigger input is used to set the output of the F/F to ‘high’ state by applying a
voltage equal to or less than Vin/3 or any negative pulse, as the voltage at the non-inverting end
of the comparator is Vin/3.

3. Output: It is the output pin of the IC, connected to the Q’ (Q-bar) of the F/F with an
inverter in between as show in the figure.

4. Reset: This pin is used to reset the output of the F/F regardless of the initial condition
of the F/F and also it is an active low Pin so it connected to ‘high’ state to avoid any noise
interference, unless a reset operation is required. So most of the time it is connected to the
Supply voltage as shown in the figure.

5. Control Voltage: As we can see that the pin 5 is connected to the inverting input having
a voltage level of (2/3) Vin. It is used to override the inverting voltage to change the width of the
output signal irrespective of the RC timing network.

6. Threshold: The pin is connected to the non-inverting input of the first comparator. The
output of the comparator will be high when the threshold voltage will be more than (2/3) Vin
thus resetting the output (Q) of the F/F from ‘high’ to ‘low’.

7. Discharge: This pin is used to discharge the timing capacitors (capacitors involved in
the external circuit to make the IC behave as a square wave generator) to ground when the output
of Pin 3 is switched to ‘low’.

8. Supply: This pin is used to provide the IC with the supply voltage for the functioning
and carrying of the different operations to be fulfilled with the 555 timer.

Pin 5 is also sometimes called the CONTROL VOLTAGE pin. By applying a voltage to the
CONTROL VOLTAGE input one can alter the timing characteristics of the device. In most
applications, the CONTROL VOLTAGE input is not used. It is usual to connect a 10nF
capacitor between pin 5 and 0 V to prevent interference. The CONTROL VOLTAGE input can
be used to build an astablemultivibrator with a frequency-modulated output.

Uses:-

The IC 55 timer is used in many circuits, for example One-shot pulse generator in
Monostable mode as an Oscillator in Astable Mode or in Bistable mode to produce a flip/flop
type action. It is also used in many types of other circuit for achievement of various purposes for
instance Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) etc

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Modes:

The IC 555 has three operating modes:

Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger – the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not
connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.

Monostable mode – in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator.
Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, touch switches,
frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) and so on.

Astable (free-running) mode – the 555 can operate as an electronic oscillator. Uses include LED
and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position
modulation and so on. The 555 can be used as a simple ADC, converting an analog value to a
pulse length (e.g., selecting a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a
temperature sensor and the period of the output pulse is determined by the temperature). The use
of a microprocessor-based circuit can then convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it
and even provide calibration means.

Specifications:

These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555 timers can have different specifications
depending on the grade (military, medical, etc.).

Supply voltage (VCC) 4.5 to 15 V

Supply current (VCC = +5 V) 3 to 6mA

Supply current (VCC = +15 V) 10 to 15mA

Output current (maximum) 200mA

Maximum Power dissipation 600mW

Power consumption (minimum operating) 30 mW@5V, 225 mW@15V

Operating temperature 0 to 70 °C

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CHAPTER-3

3.1 7- SEGMENT LED:

A seven-segment display (SSD), or seven-segment indicator, is a form of electronic display

device for displaying decimal numerals that is an alternative to the more complex dot matrix
displays.

Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital clocks, electronic meters, basic
calculators, and other electronic devices that display numerical information.

Pin Diagram:

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A seven segment display is the most basic electronic display device that can display digits
from 0-9. They find wide application in devices that display numeric information like digital
clocks, radio, microwave ovens, electronic meters etc. The most common configuration has an
array of eight LEDs arranged in a special pattern to display these digits. They are laid out as a
squared-off figure ‘8’. Every LED is assigned a name from 'a' to 'h' and is identified by its name.
Seven LEDs 'a' to 'g' are used to display the numerals while eighth LED 'h' is used to display the
dot/decimal.

A seven segment is generally available in ten pin package. While eight pins correspond to
the eight LEDs, the remaining two pins (at middle) are common and internally shorted. These
segments come in two configurations, namely, Common cathode (CC) and Common anode
(CA). In CC configuration, the negative terminals of all LEDs are connected to the common
pins. The common is connected to ground and a particular LED glows when its corresponding
pin is given high. In CA arrangement, the common pin is given a high logic and the LED pins
are given low to display a number.

3.2 LED:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It resembles a basic
pn-junction diode, which emits light when activated. When a fitting voltage is applied to the
leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the colour of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.

LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching.
Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 30–60 mill watts of electrical
power.

Blue, pure green, and red LEDs in 5 mm diffused cases

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Type Passive, optoelectronic

Working principle Electroluminescence

Oleg Losev (1927

Invented James R. Biard (1961)

Nick Holonyak (1962)

First production 22920

Pin configuration Anode and cathode

Symbol

Parts of an LED although unlabeled, the flat bottom surfaces of the anvil and post embedded
inside the epoxy act as anchors, to prevent the conductors from being forcefully pulled out from
mechanical strain or vibration

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be
used to shape its radiation pattern.

LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.

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LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The color of the plastic lens is often the
same as the actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used
for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have colorless housings. Modern high-power LEDs
such as those used for lighting and backlighting are generally found in surface-mount technology
(SMT) packages (not shown).

3.3 LDR:
Not to be confused with Photo resist.

Photoresistor

Type Passive

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Working principle Photoconductivity

Electronic symbol

The symbol for a photo resistor

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or a photo resistor is a device whose resistivity is a

function of the incident electromagnetic radiation. Hence, they are light sensitive devices. They
are also called as photo conductors, photo conductive cells or simply photocells. They are made
up of semiconductor materials having high resistance. There are many different symbols used to
indicate a LDR, one of the most commonly used symbol is shown in the figure below. The arrow
indicates light falling on it.

A photoresistor or light-dependent resistor (LDR) or photocell is a light-controlled variable

resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in
other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive
detector circuits, and light- and dark-activated switching circuits.

 Working Principle of LDR:

A light dependent resistor works on the principle of photo conductivity. Photo conductivity is
an optical phenomenon in which the materials conductivity (Hence resistivity) reduces when
light is absorbed by the material.

When light falls i.e. when the photons fall on the device, the electrons in the valence band of
the semiconductor material are excited to the conduction band. These photons in the incident
light should have energy greater than the band gap of the semiconductor material to make the
electrons jump from the valence band to the conduction band. Hence when light having enough
energy is incident on the device more & more electrons are excited to the conduction band which
results in large number of charge carriers. The result of this process is more and more current

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starts flowing and hence it is said that the resistance of the device has decreased. This is the most
common working principle of LDR.

Applications:
LDR has various applications in electronics. It works as the sensing element in many
electronic equipment. Some of the applications are listed below.

1) Light measurement.

2) Street light control.

3) Smoke detection.

4) Camera exposure control.

3.4 RESISTORS:
Resistor is attached in any of the circuit to restrict the flow of current. There are two varieties
of resistors which are mentioned below.

1. Fixed Resistor – Its value of resistance is fixed.

2. Variable Resistor – Its value of resistance can vary. Suppose we have resistor of 5K then
its value varies from 0-5K ohm.

A resistor is a passivetwo-terminalelectrical component that implements electrical resistance

as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower
voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to
adjust signal levels, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines among other uses.
High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as
part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed
resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage.
Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp
dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

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Resistor

A typical axial-lead resistor

Type Passive

Working principle Electric resistance

Electronic symbol

Two common schematic symbols

470-ohms220-ohms 10-kilo-ohms

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COLOR CODING:

3.5PCB (printed circuit board): -

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic
components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from copper
sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. Printed circuit boards are used in all but the
simplest electronic products. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than with
other wiring methods as components are mounted and wired with one single part. Furthermore,
operator wiring errors are eliminated.

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3.6 Battery (9V): -

The most common form of 9 V batteries is commonly called the transistor battery which was
introduced for the early transistor radios. It has a rectangular prism shape with rounded edges
and a polarized snap connector at the top. This type is commonly used in pocket radios and other
small electronic devices. They are also used as backup power to keep the time in certain
electronic clocks.

Fig: Batteries

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CHAPTER 4

4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

4.2 WORKING:

Fig. shows the circuit diagram of the electronic letterbox with letter-counting facility. It is
built around a white LED (LED1) and an LDR (LDR1), popular timer NE555 (IC1) in
monostable mode, a counter, seven-segment driver CD4033 (IC2) and a few other components.
LED1 and LDR1 together work as a sensor.

The resistance of LDR1 changes in accordance with the intensity of light incident on it. When
light from LED1 falls on LDR1, its resistance is low.

Voltage at pin 2 of IC1 depends on the light falling on LDR1. In the dark, voltage at pin 2 is low
and vice-versa.

When a letter is inserted into the letterbox, it passes between LED1 and LDR1. This interrupts
the light falling from LED1 to LDR1. As a result, resistance of LDR1 increases. This change in
resistance provides a triggering pulse to pin 2 of IC1, generating a short-duration square-wave
pulse at its output pin 3. This pulse acts as clock input for the counter and display driver CD4033
(IC2). Output pins of IC2 are connected to various segments a, b, c, d, e, f and g pins of seven-
segment display (DIS1) as shown in the circuit. Its common pin 3 is connected to ground through
current-limiting resistor R6. Alternatively, you can also provide a resistor each for each segment

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after removing resistor R6. Seven-segment display DIS1 displays the number of letters present in
the box up to nine.

When a letter is delivered to the letterbox, LED2 momentarily glows, which indicates
that a letter is received and DIS1 increments the display by one count. That is, for each pulse
received at input pin 1 of IC2, its output advances by one count, which is reflected in the seven-
segment display. When the counter reaches nine, it automatically resets to zero and the cycle
repeats. Switch S1 is used to reset the counting.

Construction and testing:

An actual-size, single-side PCB for the letterbox circuit is shown in Fig. 3 and its
component layout in Fig. 4. Enclose the PCB in a suitable box in such a way that light from
LED1 falls on LDR1. Ensure proper wiring to avoid any mistake. For troubleshooting, check the
voltages at various test points as listed in the table.

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CHAPTER-5
5.1 RESULT:

According to our objective and selected problem, we collected related data to solve it,
analyzed these data and got the one result that how to solve the problem. We selected one circuit
and made the device according to the circuit and precautions needs. The constructed devise
circuit variable resistor has adjusted according to the required resistance.

The device has been checked with applying letter in the letter box, the device worked
according to the circuit design and our requirement. When we ON the power supply of the
device, there was no letter in the letter box so we found out that the 7-seg led was indicating 0.
Then we put one letter in the letter box so that on the output portion the led indicated 1.
According to our design it is correct output.

5.1.1 WITHOUT POWER SUPPLY:

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5.1.2 WITH POWER SUPPLY:

5.2 APPLICATIONS:

 Used in homes.
 At in front of Main door or Main gate.
 Used in office.

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5.3 ADVANTAGES:

 We can find out the presence and absence of a letter.

 Durable and cost effective.
 Useful gadget for home and office.
 Reduces Human Efforts.
 Time saving.

5.4 DISADVANTAGES:

 Every time the device should be ON, if in OFF it shows wrong indication.
 We have to check the device periodically weather the Battery is in working
mode or not, if not we have to change the battery.

 Precautions during making and operation of the device: -

The following precautions should be take care during the operation and construction of
the device. All these precaution is necessary for proper operation of the device and also safety
for the user. Power supply of the device can also give through rectifier. It works on AC supply so
we should be careful during maintenance on that one

1. The IC555 should not solder on the PCB directly. Its base mounting should be solder on the
PCB then IC should be fixed on the mounting so that if there is any problem in the IC then
we can easily have replaced it without unsolder it.

2. The letter box is made in such way that if there is letter in the box then LDR would not get
light from the white light and operate without malfunction.

3. Battery should be connected through the snap terminal so that after discharging it we can
replace it easily.

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4. If we are not using battery and using rectifier of 230V AC to 9V DC convertor, then it very
necessary that there should not any short circuit condition and proper insulation should be
providing.

5. If we have to work on the rectifier, then it should be done with proper isolation.

6. There should always be a switch in series with power supply connection so that if system is
not in use, we can OFF it, for energy saving.

7. Connecting wire should be in different color so it is easy during maintenance or

troubleshooting.

8. To avoid short circuit of the device we should applied insulation on its live terminals.

9. Indicator LED should be in different color so that recognition will be easy.

All above maintains points should be kept in mind during construction of the device for
fulfillment of our requirements. These all precautions are for the safety if we are using any
rectifier for the power supply for the device because of if we are using rectifier of 230V AC to
9V DC then safety of the equipment’s and also safety of users are very necessary.

Soldering on the PCB is very fine and precise work. And if the soldered components are
IC’s then work should be done very carefully because of shorting of IC’s pins will create serious
malfunction during the operation of the device. The shorting may be through small soldering
wire piece that cannot be easily seen. The same problem I faced during making of this model that
the device was not working according to the circuit and it was very difficult to trace out the fault.

The adjustment of the variable resistor should be done through small screw driver so that
chances of damage can be avoided. One more thing that the whole device circuit is open
condition so it should be protecting from water because water can make short circuit.

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CHAPTER-6

6.2 SCOPE OF FUTURE STUDY: -

This is very cost effective so it can be produced on mass level and also its circuit is very
simple so it can be imbedded on single chip that it may installed in every home.

It switching circuit can also be used for automatic door open/close. For door open/close
we can use its LDR and LED sensing system in any gallery in front of door that if anybody
comes in front of LDR then it detected that person like automatic letter detecting box and give
the switching signal. Through this signal we cam motorized it and open/close the door.

This circuit also can take by more modification for light on/off of the rooms if person
enter in the room. The same LDR circuit can detect the entry and it circuit can on/off the light of
the room.

Furthermore, we can also use this circuit with modification in automatic water tap
making. It operation can be in such way that user take his hand for washing under the tap this
circuit sense it presence and start/stop the tap. This tap operation can be controlled through
solenoid valve.

There is a lot of scope in this circuit for further study. This may make very convenient of
daily life.

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APPENDIX

References

[1] www.circuiteasy.com/electronic-letter-box

[2] www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/photoresistor

[3] www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/555-timer-IC

[4] www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trimmer-(electronics)

[5] www.buildcircuit.com/how-to-use-variable-resistor/

[6] www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting-diode

[7] http://www.eleccircuit.com

[8] Linear Integrated Circuit- D .Roy Chowdhary, new age international td,

3rdedition..,2008.

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